2 Particle model of matter

..

. ... QUESTIONS:
.KEY
• What is the particle model of matter?
• How small are atoms and molecules?
• How does the particle model of matter describe solids, liquids and
gases?
• How does the particle model of matter help us understand the process
of diffusion?
• How can materials be made to change their state?
• How does the particle model of matter help us to understand changes
of state in materials, such as melting, evaporation, condensation and
freezing?
• How are density, mass and volume related to each other?
• How do the densities of solids, liquids and gases compare?
• Which aspects of the particles in a given material influence the density
of that material?
• Why does oil float on water? Is this related to density?
• How can the particle model of matter help us to understand expansion
and contraction?
• How does a gas exert pressure?
• Is the pressure a gas exerts related to the number of gas particles? If
so, how?
• What happens to pressure when we change its volume and
temperature?

Can you remember learning that matter can exist in three different states?
What are the three states called?

Can you remember the properties of the different states of matter? Discuss this
in your class. Look at the following diagram of the states of matter to help you.
Remember to take some notes as you discuss in class.

152
 .
NEW WORDS
• scientific theory
• phenomenon
• disordered
• uniform
• random
• reverse
• controlled
experiment

Each state of matter behaves differently and the particles in each state behave
differently. This diagram compares the particles in a gas, a liquid and a solid.

In this chapter we are going to review what we know about solids, liquids and
gases. We are going to learn about a scientific model that can be used to
describe how the particles in all three states behave. This model is called the
particle model of matter and it will help us understand much more about the
properties of solids, liquids and gases. Let's get started!

.
2.1 What is the particle model of matter?
In the previous chapter we learnt that scientists use models when they want to
describe things that are difficult to understand. We discussed a model of the
atom that helped us to imagine what atoms look like.

This model of the atom shows us where the different sub-atomic particles can be found.
The sub-atomic particles shown here are the proton, neutron and electron.

Theories are similar to models. They explain scientific phenomena (things and
events that can be described and explained in scientific terms) using pictures
and words.

. .

Chapter 2. Particle model of matter 153

 . What does the particle model of matter teach us?
TAKE NOTE
The particle model describes matter in a very specific way. It describes four
If you need to, turn back important aspects of matter:
to chapter 1 to revise
the terms atom, • All matter is made up of particles that are incredibly small - much too small
element, compound to see with the naked eye. The particles can be atoms or combinations of
and molecule and how atoms that are bonded.
they relate. • There are forces between the particles.
• The particles in matter are always moving. The more energy they have, the
faster they move.
• The spaces between the particles in matter are empty. You might assume
that the spaces between particles are filled with air, but this is not the case.
They contain nothing at all.

Why is the particle model of matter so useful?

The particle model of matter is one of the most useful scientific models because
it describes matter in all three states. Understanding how the particles of matter
behave is vital if we hope to understand science!

The model also helps us to understand what happens to the particles when
.
matter changes from one state to another.
DID YOU KNOW?
Under special The following diagram shows different changes of state, as well as which
circumstances, a solid processes are the reverse of each other. Melting and freezing are the reverse
can change directly into processes of each other and so are evaporation (boiling) and condensation.
a gas without melting
first. This process is
known as sublimation
and its reverse (when a
gas changes directly
into a solid without
condensing first) is
called deposition.

The change of states

...

154 Matter and Materials

.

ACTIVITY: Changes of state revision

.

INSTRUCTIONS:

1. Refer to the previous diagram.

2. Check that you remember some of the concepts you learnt about in
previous grades by going through these quick questions.

QUESTIONS:

1. What is the name of the process when a solid turns into a liquid?

2. What is the reverse process to melting?

3. What can we do to make ice melt quickly?

4. Explain the steps that a solid must go through to become a gas.

5. What is the reverse process of evaporation?

6. When we heat something, are we adding energy to it, or taking energy

away?

7. How do you think the particles in a substance behave when we give them
more energy?

We will use the model to look at each of these changes more closely. But first,
we will look at how the model describes each state of matter.

. .

Chapter 2. Particle model of matter 155

 . .
2.2 Solids, liquids and gases
NEW WORDS
• compress
• collide We can use the particle model to help us understand the behaviour of each of
• diffuse the states of matter. We are going to look at each state in turn.
• rate
• constant motion
• observation There is one very important thing to remember when we consider the different
• forces of states of matter. For any matter, the individual particles of that matter are
attraction
• regular exactly the same in all three states, solid, liquid and gas. It is the behaviour of
arrangement the particles that changes in each state.
• vibrate

The solid state

Solids keep their shape and cannot be compressed. Let us see if the particle
model can help us understand why solids behave in this way.

In a solid, the particles are packed close to each other in fixed positions. They
are locked into place, and this explains why solids have a fixed shape. Look at
the following images of sodium chloride (table salt). Do you remember the
formula for sodium chloride?

Macroscopic view of sodium chloride Submicroscopic view of sodium

chloride

.
VISIT
This video shows us the
different ways that
particles behave in the
solid, liquid and gaseous
states.
bit.ly/13mAd4o

Table salt crystals are hard and have a Can you see how the chloride atoms
fixed shape. (purple) alternate with the sodium
atoms (yellow) in a fixed arrangement?

Take a good look at the picture of the particles in a solid (table salt) above. You
will see that they are packed in a regular arrangement. There are very small
spaces between the particles in a solid.

Particles are held together by forces of attraction. In solids, these forces are
strong enough to hold the particles firmly in position.

Does that mean the particles in a solid do not move at all? No. The particles in a
solid move a little bit. They vibrate in their fixed positions. The more energy the
particles have, the faster and more strongly they vibrate.

Do you see how we have used the particle model of matter to explain the
properties of solids that we can observe? For example, the particles in solids
are closely packed and have strong forces between them explains why solids
have a fixed shape and you cannot compress them.
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156 Matter and Materials

The liquid state
An important characteristic of liquids is that they flow. They fill containers they
are poured into. Liquids are also not very compressible. How can these
properties be explained?
In the liquid state, particles do not
have fixed positions. They move
about freely, but they stay close
together because the forces of
attraction between them are quite
strong, but not as strong as in
solids.

Have you noticed how a liquid

always takes the shape of the
container it is in? Within the liquid,
the particles slip and slide past each
other. This is why liquid flows. Their
particles are free to move around,
filling the spaces left by other
particles. Look at the image of the
juice being poured. Let's zoom in
and have a look at what the Orange juice is a liquid, which can be
particles are doing as the juice is poured.
poured.

The particles in a liquid have small spaces between them, but not as small as in
solids. The particles in a liquid are loosely arranged which means they do not
have a fixed shape like solids, but they rather take the shape of the container
they are in.

The speed at which the particles move around inside the liquid depends on the
energy of the particles. When we heat a liquid, we are giving the particles more
energy and speeding them up.

In gases, the particles move at even greater speeds.

. .

Chapter 2. Particle model of matter 157

 The gaseous state
Gases spread out quickly to fill all the space available to them. Think of when
you blow up a balloon. The air that you blow into the balloon fills up the whole
balloon. A gas will fill the entire space that is available to it. This is because the
particles in a gas have no particular arrangement.

Gases do not have a fixed shape. Think about the balloon again: the gas fills the
entire space inside the balloon. You can squeeze the balloon, changing the
shape.

Gases fill the space available to them. Gases do not have a fixed shape.

Gas particles move very fast, much faster than in solids and liquids. The
particles in a gas possess a lot of energy.

Have you ever tried to compress the gas in a syringe or in a bicycle pump? Why
do you think you can compress the gas?

In gases, the forces between particles are very weak. This explains why the
particles in gases are not neatly arranged. They are not held together tightly
and there are large spaces between them. These spaces are much larger than in
the solid and liquid state.

Gases can be compressed, because their particles can be forced closer together.
Look at the photo of a scuba diver underwater. Do you see the tank on his back?
He uses this tank to breathe underwater. A scuba diver can stay underwater for
almost an hour. How do you think he can get enough air to breathe for a whole
hour from a small tank like that? Discuss this with your class.

...

158 Matter and Materials

 A scuba diver underwater with a tank of air.

ACTIVITY: Comparing solids, liquids and gases

.

Let's summarise what we have learnt about what the particle model of matter
tells us about solids, liquids and gases.

INSTRUCTIONS:

1. Use the images of the different states to help you, and go back over the
text in your workbook.

Solid Liquid Gas

Arrangement of
particles

Movement of
particles

Forces between
particles

Spaces between
particles

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Chapter 2. Particle model of matter 159

 QUESTIONS:

1. Use the particle model of matter to explain why solids have a fixed shape,
but gases fill the shape of the container they are in.

.
VISIT
A video explaining the
difference between the
solid, liquid and gaseous
states of matter.
bit.ly/15frMav
2. Use the particle model of matter to explain why you can compress a gas
easily, but you cannot compress a liquid very easily.

3. Think of a bag of cake flour. You can pour the cake flour out of the bag
and into a mixing bowl. Does this mean the flour is a liquid? Explain
whether you think the cake flour (and all powders) are solids or liquids.

Diffusion
Have you ever noticed how quickly smells travel? Perhaps you have walked
past a rubbish bin, and smelled the garbage.

You can often smell garbage bins when you Has anyone ever set off a stink bomb near
walk past them. you?!

Have you ever smelled a stink bomb? When you smell these things, how do the
'stink bomb' or 'garbage' particles reach your nose?

Most smells travel fast, because their particles mix with air and get into our

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160 Matter and Materials

 noses when we breathe. We say that the particles diffuse through the air.

In Gr. 7 we learnt about different kinds of mixtures. In the next investigation we

are going to explore whether particles mix faster when they are in the liquid
state or in the gas state. This is called the rate of diffusion. What would your
prediction be?

INVESTIGATION: Comparing the diffusion of

particles in a gas and in a liquid
.

INVESTIGATIVE QUESTIONS:

1. Do particles diffuse (mix) faster when they are in the liquid state or in the
gaseous state? Which particles will mix more quickly: gases or liquids?
2. Do particles diffuse faster with or without mixing?

HYPOTHESIS:

What are your predictions? Do you expect liquids to mix more quickly than
gases, or the other way around? Will stirring influence the speed at which gases
mix? Write down your hypothesis below.

IDENTIFY VARIABLES:

This is not a controlled experiment as we are not measuring the rates of mixing .
. TAKE NOTE
of the liquids and gases under exactly the same conditions. We will make a
simple comparison of the mixing rates, by seeing how long it takes each to mix When we talk about a
under two different sets of conditions. rate, we are measuring
how something
MATERIALS AND APPARATUS: changes in relation to
another factor, such as
• large glass beaker or other large clear glass container
time. Another example
• dropper
is speed measured in
• food colouring or ink
km/h - this is a rate of
• tap water
how distance in
• vanilla essence
kilometres changes over
• shallow dish or saucer
a period of time

METHOD: (hours).

Part 1: How fast do liquids mix?

1. Fill a large, clear container with tap water and place it where everyone can
see it.
2. Use a dropper to place one or two drops of the food colouring in the water.
3. Record the time at which the colouring is added to the water.
4. Look carefully at the two liquids mixing, and write your observations
below. Allow the liquids to mix without any stirring.
5. Record the time when the liquids are fully mixed, in other words, when the
colour is uniformly spread throughout the water.

. .

Chapter 2. Particle model of matter 161

 Part 2: How fast do gases mix?

This experiment should be performed with the windows closed.

1. Raise your hand as soon as you can smell vanilla essence.

2. Pour some vanilla essence into the saucer.
3. Record the time when the vanilla essence is poured out.
4. Record the time when the first learner puts up his/her hand to indicate that
they can smell the vanilla essence.
5. Record the time when roughly half of the learners in the class have their
hands up, to indicate that they can smell the vanilla essence.
6. Record the time when the learners at the back of the class first smell the
vanilla essence.
7. If there is enough time during your next Natural Sciences lesson, repeat
steps 1-5. You should do everything exactly the same, but this time, you
should move your arms and try to 'wave' the air towards the back of the
class.

RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS:

1. What did you observe in the container immediately after the liquids were
mixed?

2. How long did it take for the liquids to be fully mixed, until the colour was
uniformly spread throughout the water?
.

3. When you did NOT wave your arms during the experiment:
a) How long did it take until the first learners smelled the vanilla essence
molecules?

b) How long did it take until the last learners smelled the vanilla essence?

4. When you DID wave your arms during the experiment:

a) How long did it take until the first learners smelled the vanilla essence
molecules?

b) How long did it take until the last learners smelled the vanilla essence?

5. Draw a table with your results for the vanilla essence experiment. You can
choose your own column and row headings. Remember to give your table
a heading.
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162 Matter and Materials

 .

ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION:

.
1. Did anything go wrong during the experiment?

2. Can you think of anything that could have improved this experiment?

CONCLUSIONS:

What are your conclusions? (What are your answers to the investigative
questions?)

.
.

In this investigation we explored the rates at which particles diffuse. What do

you think happens at the particle level when two substances mix?

. .

Chapter 2. Particle model of matter 163

 . In the photos, we see a yellow liquid being added to a colourless one. Notice
VISIT
how the yellow liquid swirls and spreads out as the yellow particles mix with the
An interesting video that
explains what diffusion is colourless particles. Of course we cannot see the particles, but we can make a
and how it occurs. macroscopic observation (something we can see with the naked eye) of the
bit.ly/13mAMvi process.

What will the mixture look like when the coloured particles are uniformly spread
out amongst the water molecules?

What will the mixing process look like on particle level? The following diagram
represents one of the glasses pictured above, containing a colourless liquid
(represented by the blue circles) to which a yellow liquid (represented by the
yellow circles) is added. The glass on the left shows the particles in the mixture
directly after the yellow liquid was added to the colourless liquid. The glass on
the right is empty. You must draw the particles in the mixture after the yellow
liquid has spread uniformly throughout the colourless liquid.

...

164 Matter and Materials

When you were watching the coloured liquid mix with the water in the last
investigation, was it possible to predict the direction in which the colour would
swirl? What made the two liquids mix?

Random movement of particles

The particles in liquids and gases are constantly moving. Their movements are
unpredictable: we say the particles move randomly. It is the random movement
of the particles that allow liquid and gaseous substances to diffuse.

The following zigzag diagram explains what is meant by 'random' movement.

When a gas particle travels from point A to point B, it will collide with many
other gas particles along the way - up to eight billion collisions every second!
Only a few of those collisions are shown in the diagram. Each time the particle
collides, it will change direction. This means the actual distance travelled by the
particle is much further than the direct distance between points A and B.

The process responsible for the mixing and spread of particles in a gas and
liquid is called diffusion. We can define diffusion as the random movement of
liquid or gas particles from a high concentration to a low concentration to
spread evenly. The following diagram illustrates the idea in a very simple way: it
shows the particles in a gas spreading out over time to fill all the space that is
available to it.

In the diagram on the left some particles were placed into an empty container. At first
they were close together (at high concentration), but over time they spread out to fill the
entire container.

. .

Chapter 2. Particle model of matter 165

 Factors that affect the rate at which particles diffuse

The speed at which particles diffuse depends on several factors, namely:

• The mass of the particles: lighter particles will diffuse faster, because on
average they move faster.
• The state of the particles: the particles in a gas are always moving fast; we
say their average speed is high. The particles in a liquid travel more slowly.
• The temperature of the particles: temperature is a measure of the kinetic
energy of the particles. The higher the temperature, the more energy the
particles have and the faster they will move and diffuse.
• The size of the spaces between particles: If there are large spaces between
the particles of one substance, the particles of another substance can
move into those spaces easily.

Particles diffuse because they are in constant motion. We found that gas
particles diffused much more quickly than the liquid particles in the last
investigation. Can we explain that result using the factors listed above?

Think of it in this way: imagine you are trying to move through a crowd of
people. The closer they are together, the more often you are going to have to
change direction to make it through the crowd and the longer it will take to get
to your destination.

Imagine walking through this crowd of people. This is similar to diffusion through a liquid.

A particle in a liquid cannot travel very far before colliding with another particle,
because the particles are so close together. That means the liquid particles are
constantly colliding and are sent into a new direction with each collision. This
means the rate of diffusion is much slower in liquids than in gases, because the
particles of a gas are further apart and collide much less. Gas particles can
travel further without being sent in a different direction by a collision. This is
why gases diffuse more quickly.

The following table shows similar zigzag drawings as you saw before, but now
you can see the difference between the random movement of a particle through
a liquid and through a gas. It will take the particle much longer to travel from A
to B in the liquid than in the gas.

...

166 Matter and Materials

 Liquid Gas

.
NEW WORDS
• vapour
• vigorous
• energetic
• transformation
• condensation
• evaporation

Now that we have a better idea of the behaviour of particles in the different
states of matter, we are ready to look at how particles behave when matter
changes its state.

.
2.3 Changes of state
In science, a change of state refers to a change in physical state (e.g. when a
liquid changes to a solid). What is this process is called?

It is always a good idea to learn new things in terms of what we already know.
We are going to start this section with a crossword puzzle to revise what we
already know about changes of state.

ACTIVITY: Changes of state

.

INSTRUCTIONS:

1. The crossword puzzle below can be. completed by following the clues
given below.
2. The 'Down' clues are for the vertical words in the puzzle and the 'Across'
clues are for the horizontal words in the puzzle.
3. All the clues have to do with changes of state of materials, and the first
letter of every word has been filled in to help you.

. .

Chapter 2. Particle model of matter 167

 Here are the clues:

Down:

1. If we want to turn steam into water we. have to it. (4 letters)

2. The process of turning a liquid into a gas is called . (11 letters)

3. The particles of a have large spaces between them. (3 letters)

4. The particles of a are locked in position by strong forces. (5 letters)

5. A solid will change into the liquid state at its point. (7 letters)

7. The liquid state of ice is called . (5 letters)

9. The gaseous state of ice is called . (5 letters)

11. If we want to turn water into steam we have to it. (4 letters)

Across:

1. The process of turning a gas into a liquid is called . (12 letters)

6. The particles of a are close together but they can flow and slide
over each other. (6 letters)

8. The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which that liquid will start
to . (4 letters)

10. The solid state of water is called . (3 letters)

12. Freezing and melting are the of each other. (7 letters)

13. water turns it into ice. (8 letters)

...

168 Matter and Materials

How can we change matter from one state to another? .
VISIT
Misconceptions about
temperature (video).
bit.ly/19Q7VGZ

Changes of state involve energy

For matter to change from one state to another, its particles must gain or lose
energy. The following diagram shows us that to change the state of a
substance, it must either be heated or cooled.

.
NEW WORDS
• boiling
• melting
• evaporation
• melting point
• boiling point

Melting and evaporation are processes that require heating; condensation and freezing
are processes that require cooling.

First, let us look at what happens to particles when they are heated.

Melting and evaporation

When a solid is heated to reach its melting point, it will change into a liquid. This
is a process that we are all familiar with, because we have seen how ice melts.

For a solid to change into a liquid

state, the particles in the solid need to
be freed from their fixed positions in
the solid state. How could that occur?

Imagine you are holding hands with a

group of other learners. Everyone is
jumping in place, much like a solid
particle vibrating in a fixed position.
The more energetically and randomly
everyone jumps, the more difficult it
will be for everyone to keep holding
A melting ice cube. hands.

When a substance is heated, the particles are given more energy. By giving the
vibrating particles in a solid more energy, their vibrations will become more and
more vigorous, until the solid particles are able to shake themselves loose from
their fixed positions. The forces between the particles are no longer able to hold
them together tightly, and the solid melts.

. .

Chapter 2. Particle model of matter 169

 What will happen if we add even more energy to the particles? The particles
(which are now in the liquid state) will whizz around faster and faster as they
heat up. Soon some of the particles near the surface will have enough energy to
escape out of the liquid. Once they are free from the forces that hold them
together in the liquid state, they enter the gas (or gaseous) state. The gaseous
state is sometimes called the vapour phase, which forms when a liquid
evaporates. This is why the gaseous state of water is sometimes called water
vapour.
The higher the temperature of the
liquid, the faster it will evaporate. A
puddle of water will evaporate much
faster from the hot pavement than it
would from a cool kitchen floor! Why
do you think we hang washing outside
in the sunshine to dry?

Clothes hanging outside.

Is there a difference between evaporation and boiling?

Evaporation takes place at all temperatures, while boiling occurs at a specific

temperature, called the boiling point. When a liquid is heated to its boiling
point, bubbles form in the liquid and rise up to the surface. When this happens,
we say the liquid is boiling. Evaporation occurs only on the surface of the liquid,
while boiling occurs throughout the entire liquid. Can you remember learning
about boiling points in Gr. 7?

. What is the boiling point of water at

NEW WORDS sea level?
• condensation
• solidifying

Look carefully at the picture of the

boiling water above. What do you
think is inside the bubbles?

Boiling water.

Next, we will look at the changes of state that can happen when we cool a
substance.

Condensation and solidifying

When a gas changes to a liquid, the state change is called condensation.
Condensation is the opposite of evaporation. Have you noticed the little
droplets of water that form on the outside of a cold glass of water? They are
formed by condensation.

When the temperature of a gas is lowered, it takes energy away from the gas
particles. The movement of gas particles slows down as their energy decreases
...

170 Matter and Materials

 and they will start to experience attractive forces. These forces cause them to
move closer to each other and they eventually return to the liquid state.

.
DID YOU KNOW?
The volume of water
expands about 9 %

Water vapour in the air has condensed on Birds and animals in groups tend to huddle when it freezes into ice.
the cold surface of this glass window. together when they get cold.

What do groups of people, animals, or birds do when they get cold? They
huddle together! In the same way gas particles that are cooled down condense
and come together to form water droplets.

What would happen if we cooled the liquid even more? By cooling the liquid,
we would be removing energy from it. As the liquid particles lose energy, their
movement slows down even more. As their movements become slower and
slower, the attractive forces between become stronger. The particles eventually
'lock' into position in the solid state. They can no longer move freely and are
only able to vibrate in their fixed positions. We say the liquid has solidified.

INVESTIGATION: What happens when we heat and

then cool candle wax?
.

AIM: What is your aim for this investigation?

HYPOTHESIS: What do you propose will happen in this investigation? This is

your hypothesis.
.

MATERIALS AND APPARATUS:

• empty tin can or foil pie dish

• bunsen burner or spirit lamp
• tripod stand
• wire gauze
• candle wax
• matches

. .

Chapter 2. Particle model of matter 171

 METHOD:

1. You need to write the method for this investigation. you will either plan
this in a group, or your teacher might do the investigation as a
demonstration. You must write down the steps for the investigation. They
must be clear and allow someone else to repeat your investigation.

2. Draw a diagram of your setup for the investigation in the following space.
Remember to give your diagram a heading and to provide labels.

RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS:

1. What state of matter is the candle wax in at room temperature (at the start
of the investigation)?

2. What happened when you heated the candle wax?

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172 Matter and Materials

 3. What happened when you cooled the candle wax?

4. Would you say the melting point of candle wax is higher or lower than
room temperature?

CONCLUSION:
.
Write a conclusion for this investigation. You must make reference to the
particle model of matter in explaining the changes of state that occurred.

.
.

In the next activity we are going to have some fun with water balloons, but not
in the usual way. We are going to blow up a balloon without blowing into it and
we will make it rain inside the balloon! Sounds like magic? No, just science!

ACTIVITY: Hot water balloon

.

MATERIALS:
• large party balloon (plus
spares)
• 2 teaspoons of tap water
• microwave oven
• oven gloves
• safety goggles
• large bowl of ice cold water . Let's have some fun with balloons!

INSTRUCTIONS:

1. Before you begin, put on your safety goggles.

2. Pour water into the balloon and squeeze out all the air before tying a knot
in the neck of the balloon.
3. Place the balloon in the microwave oven and heat on full power until you
see the balloon starting to expand. Only a few seconds of heating should
be enough for the balloon to reach its full size (if you heat it for too long it
might pop). What do you observe?

. .

Chapter 2. Particle model of matter 173

 4. Remove the heated balloon with the oven glove. Shake it gently. If you are
very quiet you will hear something happening inside the balloon. What
does it sound like?

5. Place the balloon in the bowl of cold water. What do you observe?

QUESTIONS:

1. Did the balloon have any air inside it at the start of the experiment?

2. What made the balloon expand?

3. What is the name of the gas that made the balloon expand?
.

4. What did you hear inside the balloon when it started to cool down?

5. What caused the sound?

6. Where did the water droplets inside the balloon come from?

7. What happened to the balloon when it was cooled down in the cold water?

8. Which changes of state did the water undergo in this experiment?

Next, we are going to look at three important properties of matter that are
useful to scientists, namely density, mass and volume. These three properties
are all related to each other.

...

174 Matter and Materials

 .
2.4 Density, mass and volume .
NEW WORDS
• mass
You have probably heard the terms mass and volume before in Natural • volume
Sciences and Mathematics. But what about density? Have you ever used this • density
• physical
word before? Perhaps you have heard someone describe a cake as very dense? quantity
What does this mean?

This section introduces us to physical quantities that are important when we

study science. Two of these quantities, namely mass and volume, are
fundamental properties of matter. We are going to discuss them first, then we
will introduce density. Density is another property of matter that is very closely
related to the first two.

Mass tells us 'how much' matter we have

Look at the picture of a bag of rice.

How much rice is in the bag?
.
VISIT
An interesting video on
how to define a kilogram
The mass of an object or a substance (by using the world's
roundest object!)
tells us how much matter it consists of.
bit.ly/19e6zGs
The greater the mass of an object, the
more matter it contains.

Mass is measured in kilograms (kg). When we measure the mass of small

objects or small amounts of matter we often measure in grams (g) or even
milligrams (mg).

• One kilogram is the same as 1000 grams.

• One gram is the same as 1000 milligrams.

How many milligrams are in one kilogram?

If one gold bar has twice the mass of

another gold bar, then it contains twice
as many gold atoms. The mass of an
object stays the same, no matter
where it is. Unless a piece of it is cut
off, the same gold bar will have the
same number of gold atoms whether it
is in Gauteng, Bloemfontein, London,
Gold bars each with a mass of 250 g. How or the Moon. That means the mass will
much is this in kg?
always remain constant.

Volume tells us 'how much space' matter takes up

The amount of space that an object occupies is called its volume. Volume is
measured in litres and is calculated by multiplying the length, width and height
of an object. A litre is the space inside a cube that is 10 cm wide, 10 cm long and
10 cm deep.

. .

Chapter 2. Particle model of matter 175

 .
TAKE NOTE
When calculating
volume, 1 cm x 1 cm x 1
cm = 1 cm3 . This is the
same as 1 ml. That
means that 10 cm x 10
cm x 10 cm = 1000 cm3
which equals 1000 ml
or 1 litre.

This cube has a volume of 1 litre.

What is the volume of milk in the carton

and the volume of juice in the bottle in
the following photo?

TAKE NOTE
.

We can also use When we measure small volumes we

symbols for density use millilitres (ml) as the volume unit.
(D), mass (m) and 1000 millilitres is the same as one litre.
volume (V ), so the A carton of milk and a bottle of juice.
equation to calculate
density can be written
as D = m/V .
Density tells us how 'tightly packed' a material is
Density is a measure of how much mass of a material fits into a given volume.
We say density is the ratio of mass to volume. We can write a mathematical
relationship to show this ratio as follows:
density = mass/volume

If we have two materials with the same

volume, the material with a higher mass
will be more dense. It will have a higher
density. We can think of density as the
'lightness' or 'heaviness' of objects of
the same size.

Think back to the slice of cake that we

spoke about as being dense. This is
how we can use the word density in
everyday language. A piece of cake
that is described as dense will feel
A dense piece of cake. heavy.

In the next activity we are going to compare different materials that have the
same size (or volume), but different densities.

...

176 Matter and Materials

.

ACTIVITY: Which material is more dense?

.

MATERIALS:

A variety of objects that have the same size (volume) but different densities:
sponge, polystyrene, wood, metal, brick or stone.

INSTRUCTIONS:

1. Handle all the different materials and compare their masses. You do not
have to measure their masses on a scale. You can just feel how heavy they
are in your hand.
2. Arrange them in order of increasing density. Do this activity as a group
and discuss why some materials are more dense than others.
3. If you do have access to a triple beam balance, measure the masses of
each of the objects.

QUESTIONS:

1. Imagine a brick and a loaf of bread that are the same size. Would the brick .
VISIT
or the bread have a greater volume?
Learn more about density
with this simulation
bit.ly/142ixv5

2. Which one, the brick or the bread, has more mass?

3. Which one, the brick or the bread, would have the greater density? Explain
your answer.

. .

Chapter 2. Particle model of matter 177

 2.5 Density and .states of matter
We have now learnt about the three states of matter and the properties of each.
We know one of the ways in which solids, liquids and gases are different from
each other has to do with the distances between the particles in each respective
state. The particles in gases are much further apart than the particles in liquids
or solids.

Does this mean the different states of matter have different densities? We will
find out in the next activity.

ACTIVITY: Which has the highest density: a solid,

a liquid or a gas?
.

INSTRUCTIONS:

1. Compare the three identical containers below.

2. They all have the same volume and contain the same material
3. Container A contains a solid material, container B contains the liquid state
of that material and container C the gaseous state of the same material.
4. Answer the questions that follow.

QUESTIONS:

1. Which container (A, B or C) contains the greatest number of particles?

Which container contains the smallest number of particles?

2. Which container (A, B or C) contains the material with the greatest mass?
Which container has the smallest mass? Why do you say so?

...

178 Matter and Materials

 3. Which state has the highest density: solid (in container A), liquid (in
container B) or gas (in container C)? Which state has the lowest density?
Why do you say so?

.
.

We have just performed a conceptual activity (a 'thinking' activity) in which we

compared the densities of the three states of the same material.

The high density of a solid material explains why it cannot be compressed. The
particles in a solid are tightly packed and cannot be squeezed closer together
into a smaller volume.

Liquids are also very dense. The density of a liquid is roughly the same as the
density of the solid state of the same substance. This is because their particles
are close together, even though they are not locked into fixed positions. Most
liquids cannot be compressed into smaller volumes.
.
Liquids are slightly less dense than VISIT
Light ice, heavy water!
their solid states but water is an (video)
important exception. Have you ever bit.ly/14AyKxP
wondered why your ice cubes float on
top of the water in your glass?

The solid state of water (ice) is less

dense than the liquid, because in ice
the water molecules are packed in a
unique way. The image below on the
left shows shows that water molecules
in ice are packed in such a way that
there are open spaces between them.
On the right, the same water molecules
Ice blocks floating in a glass of water.
are shown in the liquid state.

Water molecules in the solid state (ice). Water molecules in the liquid state.

. .

Chapter 2. Particle model of matter 179

 Do you see how there are bigger
spaces between the water molecules in
a solid than in a liquid? This also helps
to explain why icebergs are able to
float in the sea.

Have you ever seen a frozen bottle of

water with the ice pushed up out of
the bottle? Why did the water push
out of the bottle when it turned to ice? A big floating iceberg in the Arctic.

. Gases are not very dense at all because of the large spaces between the gas
NEW WORDS particles. That means they contain a small number of particles in a large volume.
• cluster This why gases can be compressed: their particles can be squeezed closer
• impact
• immiscible
together to fit into a smaller volume. Think back to the air that is compressed to
fit inside a gas tank for a scuba diver.

In the activity 'Which has the highest density, a solid, a liquid or a gas?'we
compared the densities of different states of the same material. This is an easy
comparison because the particles in the different states are identical. By
comparing the number of particles in the same volume of each state, we can
determine the density of each state.

The densities of different materials are slightly more difficult to compare,

because different materials consist of particles with differing masses.

.
2.6 Density of different materials
We are now going to do a practical activity (a 'doing' activity) to compare the
densities of a solid, a liquid and a gas. It would be quite difficult to compare the
three states of the same material, as the material would have to be at three
different temperatures to be in three different states! For this reason we will
compare three different materials: sand, water and air.

INVESTIGATION: Comparing the densities of sand,

flour, water and air
.

INVESTIGATIVE QUESTION:

Which material has the highest density: .sand, flour, water or air?

HYPOTHESIS:

What do you predict: Which material has the highest density: sand, flour, water
or air?

...

180 Matter and Materials

IDENTIFY VARIABLES:

1. Which variables must be kept constant to make this a fair test?

2. What is the independent variable? (what is it that you have control over to
change in this investigation?)

3. What are the dependent variables? (Which variables will you be

measuring?)

MATERIALS AND APPARATUS:

• four identical cups (paper or plastic)

• sand
• flour
• tap water
• triple beam balance or scale
.
METHOD:

You will be designing this investigation yourself. If you are working in groups,
you need to first discuss how you are going to conduct (carry out) this
investigation. This is the planning. Write down your proposed method in your
notebook or on scrap paper. Discuss this with your teacher. Remember to also
think about how you are going to record your results. After you have
conducted the investigation, write down your method on the lines provided
here. Summarise each step in sequence and number the steps.

..

. .

Chapter 2. Particle model of matter 181

 RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS:

What were the results of your investigation? Summarise them below. You can
draw a table. If you were able to measure the mass of each cup, show your
calculations for the density of each material.

ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION:

1. Did anything go wrong during the experiment? If so, what?

2. Can you think of anything that could have improved this experiment?

...

182 Matter and Materials

 3. What steps did you include to ensure fair testing?

CONCLUSION:

What is your conclusion? (What is your .answer to the investigative question?)

.
.

In the last investigation we saw that two solids, namely sand and flour have
different densities as they are different materials. But what about liquids? Do all
liquids have the same density or does the type of material of the liquid affect
the density?

Have you ever noticed that oil floats on water?

.
VISIT
Create your own fluid
simulation of oil and
water.
bit.ly/15Ry2LR

Oil floats on water. This homemade salad dressing contains oil

that floats on top.

When you mix oil and water, as in the picture of the salad dressing the two
materials will eventually separate because they do not mix well. They are
immiscible. When they separate, the oil will always float on top. The two
separate layers of water and oil are referred to as 'phases', the oil phase and the
water phase.

Oil floats on water for two reasons:

. .

Chapter 2. Particle model of matter 183

 • A cup of oil has less mass than a cup of water. The oil is less dense than
water. This makes oil float on water, like a cork or an air-filled rubber duck
floats on the surface of the water.

• Oil does not dissolve in water. The oil molecules cluster together and float
on the surface. If a large amount of oil is poured into water, the oil will
spread out and form a layer on the surface of the water. Oil that is spilled
into the ocean or a lake spreads over a huge area. It poisons many animals,
birds, fish and plants and is very expensive to clean up. That is why oil
pollution has an extremely negative impact on our environment.

Oil pollution forms a thin layer on the A sea bird trapped in the oil from a spill.
surface of the sea water. The oil can spread The oil gets in between the bird's feathers,
out over a huge area as the layer is thin and sticking them together and preventing the
it floats on top of the water. bird from flying.

When two substances are in the same container, but not mixed (like oil and
water for instance), they will form two layers. In a certain sense, water and ice
also form two 'layers'. Which layer will be on top: the one which is more dense
or the one which is less dense?

In the next activity we look at how we can layer different liquids on top of each
other depending on the densities!

...

184 Matter and Materials

 .

ACTIVITY: Rainbow density column

.

MATERIALS:

• large glass vase or one litre glass measuring cylinder

• plastic cups
• honey
• golden syrup
• whole milk
• dish washing liquid
• water (can be coloured with food colouring, blue for example)
• vegetable oil
• rubbing alcohol (can be coloured with food colouring, red for example)
• a bolt
• a popcorn kernel
• a cherry tomato
• some plastic beads
• a ping pong ball/polystyrene ball

INSTRUCTIONS:

1. Use the same amount of each liquid. The amount will be determined by the .
height of the vase or measuring cylinder. Pour equal volumes of each liquid VISIT
into the cups. A video showing how to
. make a rainbow density
2. If you have access to a scale, measure the mass of each cup with a column.
different liquid. Arrange them in order from heaviest to lightest. bit.ly/14oGnEu

3. Start with the heaviest liquid (honey) and pour it into the container first.
Be careful not to let any of it touch the sides of the container.
4. Next pour in the next heaviest until you have poured all the liquids into the
container. If you have a pipette, use it to carefully layer the liquids.
5. Stand the column on a desk and carefully drop in the bolt, popcorn kernel,
cherry tomato and beads. Take note of where each object settles in the
density column.
6. Finally, drop the ping pong/polystyrene ball on top.

QUESTIONS:

1. Use the space provided to make a drawing of the density column that you
made in class. Use coloured pencils if you have them. Label each layer. If
you measured the mass of each liquid, write the mass in brackets after
each label. Draw in the different objects to show where they dropped to in
the density column.

. .

Chapter 2. Particle model of matter 185

 .

2. Which liquid is the most dense and which is the least dense? Explain your
answer.

3. Do you notice any relationship between the mass and density of the
different liquids?

4. Arrange the objects from most dense to least dense. Explain how you did
this.

...

186 Matter and Materials

 5. Why do you think the objects dropped to different levels in the liquid?

.
6. Which objects are more dense than water? Which objects are less dense
than water?

.
.

ACTIVITY: Some density calculations

.

INSTRUCTIONS:

1. Below is a table with some different substances and their densities. Use
this information to do the following calculations.
2. Show how you worked out each answer and do not forget to include the
units in your answer.

Material density (g/mL)

water (liquid) 1

ice 0.917
.
glass 2.6

salt 2.2

chalk 2.36

coal 1.5

cork 0.25

QUESTIONS:

1. You have a 500g block of butter at home. You found out that its volume is
555mL. What is the density of the butter?

. .

Chapter 2. Particle model of matter 187

 .

2. Which is more dense, salt or chalk?

3. You have a large glass marble and you want to find out what its volume is.
You measure the mass and find it to be 50 g. What is its volume?

. .

4. You have a piece of coal and a piece of cork which are exactly the same
size. They have the same volume of 100 mL. Which one will have the
greater mass? Calculate the exact mass of each piece.

...

188 Matter and Materials

We have learnt that the density of a material depends on how tightly packed
the particles inside the material are. The more tightly packed they are, the more
dense we say they are.

The following diagram represents a container (on the left) that contains a small
amount of gas. Imagine that all the gas from the small container is moved into
the empty container on the right. Draw the gas particles in the container on the
right.

A gas will expand to fill whatever space it is in. In the larger container we will
still have the same number of gas particles, but now they are filling a much
larger space.

If we take a certain amount of gas from one container and place it into another,
larger container, the gas expandsto fill the larger container. The same mass of
gas is now in a larger volume, the gas now has a lower density.

Solids and liquids cannot behave in this way. Their densities will remain more or
.
less constant no matter in which container they are placed. This is because their NEW WORDS
particles are relatively close together with strong forces between them. But • expand
• contract
what happens when we heat them? We have learnt that this is the same as • reinforce
giving them extra energy. How will heating them affect the packing of the
particles and the density?

In the next section we are going to look more closely at what happens to the
particles inside materials when they expand. We are also going to look at the
opposite of expansion, namely contraction.

.
2.7 Expansion and contraction of materials
Have you ever been inside a tin-roofed house? On a hot days, you often hear
the metal roof panels groan and creak. Do you know why this happens?

Some materials become slightly larger when they are heated. We say they
expand. Materials can also shrink slightly when they are cooled. We say they
contract.

. .

Chapter 2. Particle model of matter 189

 The metal roof panels expand and
contract as the outside temperature
changes. When this happens, the
panels scrape against each other and
against the nails that keep them in
place. The scraping of metal against
metal causes the creaky, groaning
noises.

How is it possible for materials to

contract and expand? Can you think of
A house with a tin roof. an explanation?

To understand this phenomenon, we will look at some examples of expansion.

We will then try to explain expansion in terms of the particle model.

Some solids expand more than others. When we choose materials for a new job,
it is important to know how much they will expand. This way we can allow for
expansion when the materials get hot.

In the following diagram, the picture on the left shows a concrete path or road
surface. How have the engineers who built the road allowed for expansion?

Expansion can create forces strong enough to damage materials.

The picture above shows what could happen if no allowance is made for the
expansion of the concrete blocks. The forces created by the expansion of the
concrete are so strong that the road surface has cracked!

This is a very important principle to

remember when building bridges.
When engineers design a bridge, they
must allow for contraction and
expansion of the materials used to build
the bridge. Have a look at the following
photo showing a close-up of the gap
between the two road surfaces of a
bridge. Can you see the interlocking
'teeth'? These allow the bridge to
expand and contract while the teeth
slide past each other.
The expansion joint in a bridge.

...

190 Matter and Materials

 .

ACTIVITY: How much longer?

.

In this activity we will compare the expansion of different solid materials by

drawing a graph. You will need the following information for your graph:
How far a 100 metre length of the
Material material will expand when the
temperature increases by 10°C
Brass 19 mm

Iron 12 mm

Steel 11 mm

Platinum alloy 10 mm

Concrete 11 mm

Ordinary glass 11 mm

Ovenproof glass 3,5 mm

Draw a bar graph with 'Expansion' on the y-axis and 'Materials' as categories on
the x-axis. Choose an appropriate title for you graph.

. .

Chapter 2. Particle model of matter 191

 QUESTIONS:

1. Which material expands the most upon heating?

2. Which material expands the least?

3. Which solid would be the best material to reinforce concrete? (Hint: the
reinforcing material should expand as much as the concrete, otherwise it
will damage the concrete during expansion.)

4. A man builds a house with large windows set in beautiful frames made of
brass. The house is in a region where it gets very hot during summer.
Imagine that the owner of the house has a problem: the windows of the
house look beautiful in their shiny brass frames but they keep falling out
during the summer months. As a scientist, how would you explain this and
what would your advice to the owner of the house be? Should the frames
be replaced? If so, with which material? What other solutions can you
suggest?

5. The following diagram shows a metal ball and ring apparatus. The ring and
ball are both made of brass. At room temperature, the ball is just the right
size to pass through the ring.

Do you think the ball will still fit through the ring when the ball has been
heated?

6. Do you think the brass ball will have more mass when it has expanded?
Explain your answer.
...

192 Matter and Materials

 7. What will happen to the brass ball when its temperature drops back to
room temperature? Will it be larger than, smaller than, or the same size as
before it was heated? Explain your .answer.

.
.

Now that we have seen that materials can expand, how can we explain
expansion of a material in terms of the behaviour of the particles in that
material?

We have learnt that when matter is heated, the particles of that matter will
move faster and push further apart from each other. What happens to the
particles in matter when it is cooled?

When a substance cools (energy is removed), the particles in that substance will
slow down and move closer together. That is why most materials contract when
they are cooled.

Expansion and contraction in a thermometer

Let's look at a thermometer to understand expansion and contraction.

ACTIVITY: How does a thermometer work?

.

The common glass thermometer is called a bulb thermometer. All bulb

. is connected to a long, thin tube. The
thermometers have a fairly large bulb that
thermometer has a brightly coloured liquid on the inside. Some thermometers
contain mercury as it expands and contracts quite a lot when heated or cooled.

Look carefully at the following set of diagrams. They represent the same
thermometer at two different temperatures.

. .

Chapter 2. Particle model of matter 193

 QUESTIONS:

1. The drawings represent the particles in the liquid inside a thermometer.

What is the temperature measured on the thermometer on the left?

. 2. The drawing on the right is of the same thermometer, but slightly different.
DID YOU KNOW? Can you tell the difference?
Mercury is the only
metal that is a liquid at
room temperature.
. the best representation of the liquid in
3. Which of the circles (A, B, C, or D) is
the thermometer on the right? Why did you choose this one?

4. Does a material have less mass when it has contracted? Explain.

5. If the temperature was raised and the thermometer read 30°C, which circle
would now best represent the particles in the liquid of the thermometer?
Why?

6. How does the volume change when a material is heated? Why?

...

194 Matter and Materials

 7. How does the density change when a material is heated? Why?

.
.

We have learnt that thinking about matter in terms of the particles inside it can
help us to understand many interesting phenomena: the physical properties of
the different states of matter, changes from one state of matter to another, .
TAKE NOTE
density, and expansion and contraction.
When a material is
How can we measure how much of a liquid or a solid we have? If we want to heated, its particles
know how much of a material we have, we can measure its mass. What move further apart.
instrument do we use to measure mass? When the material cools
down, the particles
move closer again.
Heating and cooling
cause the volume of the
material to change.

We can use a scale to measure the mass of a person or any other object.

Think back to the investigation comparing the densities of sand, water, flour and
air. How did you measure the mass of the air in a cup?

We are now going to shift our focus to gases. Gases have much lower densities
compared to solids and liquids. That means a large volume of gas will have a
small mass. Small masses can be difficult to measure without a special,
super-sensitive scale. Scientists have devised a different way of measuring how
much of a gas they have.

. .

Chapter 2. Particle model of matter 195

 .
. 2.8 Pressure
NEW WORDS
• pressure gauge
• air valve What is gas pressure?
We have learnt that gases contain millions of fast-moving particles. The
following picture represents gas particles inside a container.

.
DID YOU KNOW?
Wind is simply moving Gas particles in constant motion, inside a container. They collide with each other and with
air! The movement of
the inside of the container.
the air is caused by
differences in pressure
between one area of the
As the particles whizz around, they bump and bounce off each other. They also
Earth's atmosphere and
bump against the inside of the container. The force of the particles bumping
another. When the wind
against the sides of the container cause a phenomenon called gas pressure. The
blows, it is the
number of bumps (or collisions) will depend on the number of gas particles in
atmosphere equaling
the container. More particles inside the container means more collisions, and
out uneven pressures by
more collisions mean a higher pressure.
moving air from a high
If we can measure the pressure of the gas, we will have an idea of how much
pressure area to a low
gas is inside the container.
pressure area.

How can gas pressure be measured?

Have you ever seen anyone check the pressure in a car tyre? You may have
seen them use a device like those in the photo below. It is called a tyre pressure
gauge and it is specially designed to measure the air pressure inside a tyre.

A simple tyre pressure gauge.

The round end of the gauge should be pressed against the air valve of the tyre.
This opens the valve and lets some of the air from the tyre escape into the
gauge. The air particles bump against a disc inside the gauge. The force
generated by many gas molecule collisions pushes out a bar at the back of the
gauge. Can you see it in the picture? For this particular pressure gauge, the
pressure inside the tyre is indicated by how far back the bar is pushed out of the
back of the gauge. Note the numbers along the bar which allow us to measure
the pressure.
...

196 Matter and Materials

 Other, more complicated pressure gauges all work in a similar way. .
VISIT
How to check tyre air
pressure:
bit.ly/1cxNqjr

Two more complicated types of tyre Measuring the pressure inside a tyre using a
pressure gauges for measuring the air pressure gauge.
pressure inside car tyres. The right one is a
digital gauge.

How could we increase or reduce the amount of gas in a container? In the next
activity we are going to see if we can understand gas pressure in terms of the
particle model of matter.

By blowing air into the balloon, the girl is forcing air particles into it.

ACTIVITY: Understanding gas pressure

.

MATERIALS:

• brown paper bags (medium size)

• balloons
• .
empty plastic cold drink or water bottles (2-litre bottles are preferable)
• bicycle pump and tyre

INSTRUCTIONS:

1. This step requires a brown paper bag.

a) Blow up a brown paper bag until it is fully inflated.
b) Try blowing it up even more. See if you can make it pop by blowing
into it.

. .

Chapter 2. Particle model of matter 197

 c) Write two or three sentences to describe what it feels like to blow into
the bag when it is 'empty', compared to when it is 'full' of air. Does it
feel different? Is it more difficult to blow into the bag when it is
already full?

2. This step requires a balloon.

a) Blow up the balloon until it is the size of an orange. Pinch it closed but
do not tie a knot in the top.
b) Now blow up the balloon as large as you can.
c) Try blowing it up even more. See if you can make it pop by blowing
into it.
d) Write two or three sentences to describe what it feels like to blow into
the balloon when it is 'empty', compared to when it is 'full' of air. Does
it feel different? Is it more difficult to blow into the balloon when it is
already full?
e) Tie a knot in the top of an inflated balloon. Leave the balloon in the
classroom and examine it again after one week. Does it look the same
as when you inflated it a week ago? Perhaps it looks a bit like this
balloon in the following photo:

A deflated birthday balloon.

f) Remember to write your observations below.

3. This step requires a balloon and an empty plastic bottle.

a) Stretch the balloon over the top of the bottle, with the balloon
hanging down into the bottle.
b) Blow into the balloon. What do you observe? Can you blow up the
balloon?

c) Now make a small hole in the bottom of the bottle. Blow into the
balloon again. What do you observe now?

...

198 Matter and Materials

 4. This step requires a bicycle tyre and pump.
a) Use the pump to pump air into the tyre. Continue to pump until it
becomes too difficult to pump any more air into the tyre.
b) Write 1 or 2 sentences about your observations.

QUESTIONS:

Try to answer the following questions by explaining what is happening to the air
particles in each case. Use the words 'particles', 'collisions' and 'pressure' in your
answers.

1. What happens when you blow up a paper bag or a balloon, or when you
pump air into a tyre?

2. When you blow into a paper bag, why does the bag pop or start to leak air
after a while?

3. When you blow into a balloon that is fully inflated, why does the balloon
pop?

4. Why do you think the balloon became smaller when it was left for a week?
The following diagram should provide a hint:

..

. .

Chapter 2. Particle model of matter 199

 5. Explain why you think it was impossible to blow up the balloon inside the
bottle? Why was it possible to blow up the balloon when there was a hole
in the bottle?

6. Why does it become more and more difficult to pump air into the bicycle
tyre?

How does heating or cooling a gas change its pressure?

If the gas is heated, the particles will move faster as they gain more energy.
That means they will collide with the inside of the container more often and with
more force. This causes an increase in pressure.

If the gas is cooled, the particles will move more slowly, because they will have
less energy. The gas pressure will decrease, because the particles will bounce
against the inside of the container less frequently and with less force. Look at
the following table which illustrates this.

Cool gas Hot gas

Fewer and less energetic collisions. More and more energetic collisions.

...

200 Matter and Materials

How does changing the volume of a gas change its pressure?
When a gas is squeezed into a smaller volume, the particles have less space to
move. This is shown in the diagram below. Have you noticed that when people
are squashed into small spaces, they bump into things more often? In the same
way, the gas particles will collide more often with each other and with the inside
of the container if they have less space to move in. More collisions means
increased pressure!

We have learnt that a gas will expand to fill all the available space. So, what will
happen if we take a certain amount of gas out of one container and place it into
another container that is twice as large?

We still have the same number of gas particles, but now they are inside a much
larger volume. There is twice as much space between the molecules as there
was in the smaller container.

What has happened to the density of the gas? Has it increased, decreased or
stayed the same?

In this chapter, we learnt how many different physical properties of matter can
be better understood when we think in terms of the behaviour of the particles in
the matter.

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Chapter 2. Particle model of matter 201

 ..

SUMMARY:
.
Key Concepts
• All matter can be described in terms of the particles it consists of, and
how they are arranged. These extremely small particles are called atoms
or molecules, depending on the type of material.
• The theory that describes matter in terms of particles is called the
particle model of matter. It helps us to understand the macroscopic
properties of a material in terms of the behaviour of the particles in that
material.
• The particle model describes the particles in solids as follows:
– They are closely and regularly packed and locked into position;
– The only movement they are allowed is vibration;
– They are held together by strong forces; and
– The spaces between them are very small.
• The particle model describes the particles in liquids as follows:
– They are close together but not locked in position;
– They are in constant motion and slide past each other;
– They are held together by moderately strong forces; and
– The spaces between them are very small (in most cases only slightly
larger than the spaces between solid particles).
• The particle model describes the particles in gases as follows:
– They are in constant fast motion;
– They are not arranged in any way but free to move;
– The forces between them are weak; and
– They are far apart with large empty spaces between them.
• Since the particles of liquids and gases are in constant motion they are
able to diffuse. Diffusion is a process in which particles spread out,
through random movement from high to low concentration, until they
are evenly distributed.
• When two substances mix, their particles intermingle until their
composition is uniform throughout. This is also called diffusion, and the
process is much faster in gases than in liquids, because the particles in
gases are further apart.
• Changes of state are usually the result of heating or cooling:
– When a solid is heated it will change to a liquid (in a process called
melting) and, when heated further, the liquid will change to a gas
(in a process called evaporation).
– When a gas is cooled it will change to a liquid (in a process called
condensation) and, when cooled even further, the liquid will change
to a solid (in a process called freezing).
• The density of a material is a measure of its 'relative heaviness'. Denser
materials have a greater mass in relation to their size; that is why they
feel 'heavy'.
• The density of a material depends on two things:
– the mass of the individual particles of that materials - the larger the
mass, the denser the material; and
– the size of the spaces between the particles in the material - the
larger the spaces, the less dense the material.
– These explain how to calculate density, namely density =
mass/volume
• Materials with a loose texture (like bread and sponge, for example) have
empty spaces or holes inside them, which means they have less mass in
relation to their volume. These materials tend to be less dense.
• Materials that are less dense always float on materials that are more
dense.
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202 Matter and Materials

 • The particles of matter are constantly moving. In solids these
movements are limited to vibrations, but in liquids and gases the
particles have more freedom.
• Most materials will expand when they are heated and contract when
they are cooled. This is because heating makes the particles move
further apart and cooling makes them move closer together.
• When we want to know how much of a gas we have, we can measure
its pressure.
• The 'pressure' of a gas is caused by the particles of the gas colliding
with the inside of a container and with each other.
• More gas particles inside the container will mean more collisions against
the sides, and therefore, more pressure.
. Map
Concept
Have a look at the concept map that shows how the many concepts relating
to the particle model of matter fit together. There are 4 empty blocks which
you need to fill in.

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Chapter 2. Particle model of matter 203

.
 .

REVISION:
.

1. Write your own explanation of what you think the particle model of matter
tells us. [2 marks]

2. What is unusual about water in terms of the particle model of matter?

Explain why water is an exception. [2 marks]

3. Complete the following table with the terms and definitions of different
changes of state. [4 marks]

Change of state Explanation

.

When heat is added and a solid

changes to a liquid

Condensing

When heat is added and the

particles at the surface of a liquid
change to the gas state

Solidifying

4. Explain what happens to the particles in a solid when heat is added to the
solid and it changes to a liquid. [3 marks]

. .

Chapter 2. Particle model of matter 205

 5. Complete the following sentence by writing it out in full again: During
expansion, the spaces between the particles get , and during
contraction, the spaces between the particles get . [2 marks]

6. How can a piece of metal get bigger (expand) and still have the same
mass? Explain this in terms of the behaviour of the particles. [2 marks]

7. Why does oil float on top of water? [1 mark]

8. Draw a picture to show the path of a perfume particle from a flower on one
side of a room to your nose on the other. [2 marks]

.
.

9. Next time you are at the petrol station, look around for a warning sign that
shows you should not light a match or use a cell phone. Why do you think
it is dangerous to light a match or use a cell phone anywhere near a petrol
station? [2 marks]

10. If you fill a bicycle pump with air, and seal the end with your finger, the
plunger can still be pushed in quite a way before the pressure forces air
out of the pump. If the pump is filled with water instead of air, the plunger
can hardly move. Why is this so? Try to use the words 'particles', 'spaces',
and 'compress' in your explanation. [4 marks]

...

206 Matter and Materials

 11. The following table represents a summary of the entire chapter. You must
complete it, using your own words and or diagrams. Some of the blocks in
the table already contain information to help you form your own
sentences. [18 marks]

State of matter Solid Liquid Gas

Diagram showing
how the particles
are arranged

Arrangement of the Very closely packed.

particles Regular arrangement

Spaces between Very large

particles

Forces of attraction Strong, but weaker

between particles than in solids
.
Movement of Fast and random
particles movement

Shape No fixed shape

Depends on the
container
Volume No fixed volume
Depends on the
container

Compressibility Cannot be
compressed

Diffusion Diffuses slowly

Density compared Highest density Almost as dense as

to the other states (except in the case the solid
of ice)

Total [42 marks]

.
.

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Chapter 2. Particle model of matter 207