Article

Circular Economy in Charcoal Production: Valorization of

Residues for Increased Efficiency and Sustainability
Angélica de Cássia Oliveira Carneiro 1 , Humberto Fauller de Siqueira 1 , Ricardo José Tauffer Barros 2 ,
Antonio José Vinha Zanuncio 3, * , Amélia Guimarães Carvalho 3 , Vicente Toledo Machado de Morais Junior 3 ,
Luciano Cavalcante de Jesus França 3 , Amanda Ladeira Carvalho 1 , Dandara Paula da Silva Guimarães 1 ,
Evanderson Luis Capelete Evangelista 1 , Olivia Pereira Lopes 3 , Shoraia Germani Winter 3
and Iara Fontes Demuner 1

1 Forest Sciences Department, UFV—Federal University of Viçosa, Av. Peter Henry Rolfs,
Viçosa 36571-000, Brazil; cassiacarneiro@ufv.br (A.d.C.O.C.); fauller86@gmail.com (H.F.d.S.);
amanda.ladeira@ufv.br (A.L.C.); dandara.guimaraes95@gmail.com (D.P.d.S.G.);
evanderson.evangelista@ufv.br (E.L.C.E.); iarademuner@gmail.com (I.F.D.)
2 ArcelorMittal Tubarão (ES), R&D ArcelorMittal Brasil, Industrial Pole Tubarão, Serra 29160-904, Brazil;
ricardo.tauffer@arcelormittal.com
3 Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Federal University of Uberlândia, Goiás Street, 2000,
Vila Nova 38500-000, Brazil; ameliagcarvalho@ufu.br (A.G.C.); vicente.morais@ufu.br (V.T.M.d.M.J.);
luciano.franca@ufu.br (L.C.d.J.F.); olivia.plopes@hotmail.com (O.P.L.); shoraia.winter@ufu.br (S.G.W.)
* Correspondence: ajvzanuncio@ufu.br

Abstract: This study explores a circular economy approach in charcoal production, utilizing
combustion gases from the process itself to optimize efficiency and quality, minimizing
waste and reducing emissions. The research investigates the pre-drying of Eucalyptus sp.
wood with these gases before carbonization, through an innovative system that directs
gases from the carbonizing furnace to a separate drying furnace. Wood samples were
dried at 120 ◦ C and 150 ◦ C for 15, 22.5, and 30 h before carbonization. The analysis
included the gravimetric yield of charcoal, semi-carbonized wood, and fines, in addition
Academic Editor: Giovanni Esposito to evaluating key charcoal properties. Results demonstrated that drying with combustion
gases at 150 ◦ C increased the charcoal yield by 7%, regardless of drying time. Furthermore,
Received: 30 January 2025
Revised: 13 March 2025 this pre-drying improved charcoal quality, raising fixed carbon content from 74.68% to
Accepted: 24 March 2025 over 81% and reducing volatile matter from 24.40% to below 18%. These findings highlight
Published: 3 April 2025 that the utilization of combustion gases for wood drying not only significantly enhances
Citation: Carneiro, A.d.C.O.; the efficiency and quality of charcoal production but also contributes to the reduction in
Siqueira, H.F.d.; Barros, R.J.T.; greenhouse gas emissions, promoting a more sustainable and environmentally friendly
Zanuncio, A.J.V.; Carvalho, A.G.; alternative compared to conventional methods.
Junior, V.T.M.d.M.; França, L.C.d.J.;
Carvalho, A.L.; da Silva Guimarães,
Keywords: eco-friendly charcoal production; renewable energy; sustainable bioenergy;
D.P.; Evangelista, E.L.C.; et al. Circular
Economy in Charcoal Production:
waste valorization
Valorization of Residues for Increased
Efficiency and Sustainability.
Sustainability 2025, 17, 3191. https://
doi.org/10.3390/su17073191 1. Introduction
Copyright: © 2025 by the authors. Energy is fundamental to human development, underpinning technological, economic,
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. and social progress. Fossil fuels play a critical role in driving the industrial revolution and
This article is an open access article fostering the growth of modern economies. However, reliance on these finite resources has
distributed under the terms and contributed to global warming and pollution [1]. Consequently, shifting the energy matrix
conditions of the Creative Commons
towards renewable sources, such as solar, wind, hydro, and biomass, is essential [2,3].
Attribution (CC BY) license
Investing in clean and renewable technologies is therefore crucial to ensuring a prosperous
(https://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by/4.0/).

Sustainability 2025, 17, 3191 https://doi.org/10.3390/su17073191

Sustainability 2025, 17, 3191 2 of 12

and sustainable future for the coming generations, promoting development that respects
planetary boundaries.
Brazil produces five million tons of charcoal annually, with 71% consumed by the steel
and metallurgical sector, positioning the country as a leader in sustainability within this
sector, which accounts for 7% of global greenhouse gas emissions [4]. Demand for charcoal
is expected to increase due to its high quality and its potential as a renewable energy source
to replace coal [5]. However, its competitiveness depends on a robust production chain that
employs advanced technology and utilizes all byproducts of the process [6].
Wood moisture content is a major challenge in charcoal production. Carbonizing
wood with high moisture content increases carbonization time, pollutant emissions, fine
particle generation, and reduces charcoal gravimetric yield [7,8]. Freshly harvested wood
has a high moisture content, often with the water mass exceeding the wood mass [9,10].
Controlling drying is difficult because it is influenced by both wood characteristics and
environmental parameters. High-density wood with a larger diameter and the presence
of bark, when stored in environments with low temperature and high relative humidity,
tends to dry more slowly [11,12]. Furthermore, water interacts with wood in different ways,
forming weak capillary bonds in void spaces and strong hydrogen bonds with hydroxyl
groups in the cell wall, resulting in varying drying rates over time [13].
Air drying is the most common method for reducing the moisture content of wood
intended for charcoal production due to its low cost and the possibility of implementation
near harvesting sites, thus reducing forest transport costs [14]. However, it is a lengthy
process, typically taking between six months and a year, and often fails to achieve the 35%
moisture content recommended for wood carbonization [15]. Artificial drying presents
itself as an efficient alternative to complement traditional field drying, allowing for the car-
bonization of wood with a lower moisture content. This innovative approach significantly
enhances the gravimetric yield of the process, yielding positive economic and environmen-
tal impacts. By boosting charcoal production, artificial drying supports sector development,
while reducing the land required for eucalyptus plantations mitigates the environmental
footprint of the activity. Furthermore, optimizing the production process by eliminating the
transportation stage between the dryer and the carbonization furnace leads to a substantial
reduction in production costs.
Therefore, there is a need for methods to improve the charcoal production process.
This study aimed to evaluate the effect of channeling combustion gases to dry wood within
the furnace, varying the time and temperature employed, and analyzing the resulting
impacts on charcoal yield and quality.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Acquisition and Characterization of the Raw Material
Seven-year-old Eucalyptus sp. trees were felled and sectioned into 1 m logs with
diameters ranging from 13.5 to 16.5 cm; the species and age were chosen because they are
those used in the production of charcoal in Brazil. This size was chosen to fit the dimensions
of the carbonization furnace. Wood properties were determined by selecting 12 logs per
diameter class and extracting 5 cm thick disks at 25%, 50%, and 75% of each log’s total
length. Heartwood and sapwood areas on the disks were visually analyzed to determine
the heartwood/sapwood ratio. These same samples were used to determine basic density
using the ratio of dry mass to saturated volume.
Wood moisture content (dry basis) during artificial drying was determined using three
logs per diameter class, totaling nine logs per kiln load. Three 5 cm thick disks were cut
from each log at 25%, 50%, and 75% of its total length. Moisture content was calculated
using the following equation: UBs = (Um − Ms)/Ms, where UBs = moisture content (dry
Sustainability 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 12

Sustainability 2025, 17, 3191 3 of 12

cut from each log at 25%, 50%, and 75% of its total length. Moisture content was calculated
using the following equation: UBs = (Um − Ms)/Ms, where UBs = moisture content (dry
basis), Ms = dry mass, and Um == wet
wet mass.
mass. The
The average
average moisture
moisture content of the disks was
taken as the moisture content of the respective treated logs.
of the respective treated logs.

2.2. Description of
2.2. Description of the
the Kiln-Furnace
Kiln-Furnace System
System and
and the
the Gas
Gas Transport
Transport System
System
The
The furnace
furnace system
system consisted
consisted of of four
four circular
circular furnaces
furnaces connected
connected to to aa central
central gas
gas
burner via ducts (Figure 1). Each furnace had a volumetric capacity of
burner via ducts (Figure 1). Each furnace had a volumetric capacity of approximately 1 m3approximately
m3st)
1(1.4 (1.4ofst) of wood
wood and and
waswas constructed
constructed of solid
of solid ceramic
ceramic brickslaid
bricks laidwith
withclay
clay mortar.
mortar. The
The
internal dimensions of each furnace were 1.20 m in diameter, with 1.00 m
internal dimensions of each furnace were 1.20 m in diameter, with 1.00 m high walls andhigh walls and a
0.40 m dome. Four 5 × 5 cm air intake openings (air controllers) were evenly
a 0.40 m dome. Four 5 × 5 cm air intake openings (air controllers) were evenly distributed distributed
around
around thethe furnace
furnace perimeter
perimeter atat ground
ground and
and floor
floor level.
level.

Figure 1.
Figure 1.Schematic representation
Schematic of the
representation of kiln–furnace system
the kiln–furnace adapted
system for transporting
adapted the exhaust
for transporting the
gases. gases.
exhaust

The furnace for burning the carbonization gases was divided into two components:
the combustion
combustion chamber
chamberand andthethechimney.
chimney.The Thecombustion
combustionchamber
chamber was
wasbuilt with
built with double
dou-
20
blecm20 walls of solid
cm walls ceramic
of solid bricksbricks
ceramic and a andclay, asugar,
clay, and cement
sugar, and mortar
cementmixture, forming
mortar mixture,
aforming
cylinder with internal
a cylinder with dimensions of 75 cm of
internal dimensions in 75
height
cm in and 65 cm
height andin diameter. It was also
65 cm in diameter. It
internally lined withlined
was also internally ceramic
withfiber blanket
ceramic fiberfor improved
blanket thermal insulation.
for improved thermal insulation.
40 ×
A 40 × 40 cm hinged
hingedwindow
windowwas wasinstalled
installedonon the side
the of of
side thethe
combustion
combustion chamber
chamberfor
auxiliary fuel fuel
for auxiliary feeding, ignition,
feeding, and maintenance.
ignition, and maintenance. A 15 A × 15 cm× 15metal grate grate
cm metal was installed
was in-
in the center of the furnace base to provide air intake to the combustion
stalled in the center of the furnace base to provide air intake to the combustion chamber chamber via a
via×a 15
15 15 × 75 ×cm
× 15 75(height × width
cm (height × width× length)
× length) underground
underground duct.
duct.
After constructing the combustion chamber, a constriction was created, reducing the
internal diameter to 35 cm cm toto increase
increase gas gas residence
residence time.
time. Above this constriction,
constriction, the
chimney, with an internal
internal diameter
diameterof of50 50cm,
cm,waswasbuilt.
built.TheThe chimney was constructed
chimney was constructed of
of double-walled
double-walled masonry,
masonry, using
using thethe
same same materials
materials as the
as the combustion
combustion chamber,
chamber, andand
ex-
extended
tended two two meters
meters above
above thethe combustion
combustion chamber.
chamber. It was
It was alsoalso internally
internally lined
lined withwith
ce-
ceramic fiber
ramic fiber blanket.
blanket.
The
The carbonization
carbonization gas gas transport ducts were
transport ducts were built
built with
with solid
solid ceramic
ceramic bricks
bricks and
and laid
laid
with
with clay
claymortar.
mortar.Four
Fourducts,
ducts,each
eachwith
withinternal
internaldimensions
dimensions of 15
of cm high,
15 cm 15 cm
high, 15 wide, and
cm wide,
85 cm long, connected the furnaces to the furnace. A manually
and 85 cm long, connected the furnaces to the furnace. A manually operated valve to operated valve to control
the flow rate of carbonization gases to the furnace was installed in the center of each duct,
60 cm from the furnace wall
Sustainability 2025, 17, 3191 4 of 12

In this system, two furnaces were used for carbonization and gas generation, while
the other two were used for drying. The gas transport system was designed to utilize
combustion gases from the furnace by injecting them into the drying furnaces (Figure 1).
The gases generated during carbonization were burned in the furnace’s combustion
chamber and released as thermal energy through the chimney. A centrifugal fan and
metal piping drew the gases into the chimney and directed them to the drying furnace via
masonry ducts.
Combustion gas extraction from the chimney occurred 2.10 m above the furnace
base through 2 mm thick metal tubing with a 180 mm internal diameter. At this point of
the chimney, the metal tubing was installed at a 90◦ angle to the furnace floor to extract
the gases. Immediately below this tubing, a section of 2 mm thick galvanized sheets
with a 180 mm internal diameter was connected to transport the combustion gases to the
location of the centrifugal fan. A safety valve was installed in this tubing, 1.80 m from the
floor, to interrupt the combustion gas flow if necessary. Below this valve, 1.5 m from the
floor, a manually operated damper (12 × 20 cm opening) was also installed to control the
combustion gas temperature in the drying furnace.
The 0.5 hp, 1800 rpm centrifugal fan drew the carbonization gases and conveyed
them to the drying furnace. A Y-shaped duct, constructed of solid ceramic bricks and clay
mortar with a 15 × 15 cm square cross-section, was connected to the fan outlet to direct the
combustion gases to the drying furnaces.
Combustion gases were injected into the drying furnace through a 15 × 15 cm opening
located on the furnace’s side wall. After passing through the wood load in the drying
furnace, the combustion gases were released into the atmosphere through the chimney due
to the positive pressure generated by the centrifugal fan.

2.3. Drying Inside the Kiln and Subsequent Wood Carbonization

Wood loading was performed manually, arranging the wood vertically up to one
meter in height. In the remaining space, in the furnace dome, the wood was positioned
horizontally. Larger diameter logs (15 ± 3 cm) were placed near the air controllers, while
smaller diameter logs (9 ± 3 cm) were placed in the center of the furnace. Logs with a
diameter of 12 ± 3 cm were placed in the remaining areas.
After loading, the doors were closed with solid ceramic bricks and clay mortar, leaving
two centered openings, one at the top and one at the bottom, for furnace ignition. Igni-
tion was performed as follows: first, the gas burner’s combustion chamber was ignited,
followed by the carbonization furnace. Ignition in the carbonization furnace occurred at
the top of the door. After this stage was established, the top opening was closed to begin
carbonization. Lignocellulosic residues were used as biomass fuel for ignition in both
procedures. Carbonization was conducted while monitoring the temperature in the furnace
dome according to the theoretical curve, with slight variations depending on the wood’s
initial moisture content (Figure 2).
Furnace temperature was monitored using a Minipa MT-350 infrared pyrometer
(Minipa Indústria e Comércio Ltd., São Paulo, Brazil) with a measurement range of 30
◦ C to 550 ◦ C and controlled by adjusting the air controllers. The process was considered

complete when the carbonization front reached the last air controllers near the gas outlet to
the duct connecting the furnace to the gas burner.
The procedure concluded with the closing of all air controllers and the gas conduction
duct. Clay was applied to seal any cracks or fissures in the furnace to aid cooling.
The gases generated during the carbonization process were burned in the furnace’s
combustion chamber and transported to the drying furnace for artificial wood drying
Sustainability 2025, 17, 3191 5 of 12

Sustainability 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 12

within the furnace. The total mass of wood used was measured to calculate moisture loss
and yields.

Figure 2. Theoretical carbonization curve of the wood.

Furnace temperature was monitored using a Minipa MT-350 infrared pyrometer with
a measurement range of 30 °C to 550 °C and controlled by adjusting the air controllers.
The process was considered complete when the carbonization front reached the last air
controllers near the gas outlet to the duct connecting the furnace to the gas burner.
The procedure concluded with the closing of all air controllers and the gas conduc-
tion duct. Clay was applied to seal any cracks or fissures in the furnace to aid cooling.
The gases generated during the carbonization process were burned in the furnace’s
combustion chamber and transported to the drying furnace for artificial wood drying
within the furnace. The total mass of wood used was measured to calculate moisture loss
Figure
and 2. Theoretical carbonization curve of the wood.
yields.
Figure 2. Theoretical carbonization curve of the wood.
In
Inthe
the drying
drying furnace, wood loading
furnace, wood loading and
andfurnace
furnaceclosing
closingwere
wereperformed
performedsimilarly
similarly
to
to the carbonization
Furnace temperature
the carbonization furnace.
furnace.was Ignition
monitored
Ignition was then
using
was then started
a Minipa
started in the
MT-350
in the drying
drying furnace,
infrared
furnace, repeating
pyrometer
repeatingwith
the
the operational
aoperational
measurement procedure
range of
procedure used
30
used °C for
for to the
the550 carbonization
°C furnace
and controlled
carbonization furnace by (Figure
3). 3).the air controllers.
adjusting
(Figure
The process was considered complete when the carbonization front reached the last air
controllers near the gas outlet to the duct connecting the furnace to the gas burner.
The procedure concluded with the closing of all air controllers and the gas conduc-
tion duct. Clay was applied to seal any cracks or fissures in the furnace to aid cooling.
The gases generated during the carbonization process were burned in the furnace’s
combustion chamber and transported to the drying furnace for artificial wood drying
within the furnace. The total mass of wood used was measured to calculate moisture loss
and yields.
In the drying furnace, wood loading and furnace closing were performed similarly
to the carbonization furnace. Ignition was then started in the drying furnace, repeating
the operational procedure used for the carbonization furnace (Figure 3).

Theoreticaldrying
Figure3.3.Theoretical
Figure dryingand
andcarbonization
carbonizationcurve
curveof
ofthe
thewood.
wood.

After cooling and opening the furnaces, material smaller than 10.5 mm (fines), partially
After cooling and opening the furnaces, material smaller than 10.5 mm (fines), par-
carbonized wood (embers), and charcoal were separated and weighed. Charcoal samples
tially carbonized wood (embers), and charcoal were separated and weighed. Charcoal
were then collected for a qualitative analysis.
samples were then collected for a qualitative analysis.
2.4. Thermal Profile of the Carbonization Kiln and the Drying Kiln
In both the carbonization and drying furnaces, temperature monitoring points were
installed: one at the top and two on the furnace wall, 50 cm from the ground. Temperature
data were collected using a Minipa MT-350 infrared temperature sensor with a measure-
ment range of 30 ◦ C to 550 ◦ C. In the drying system, temperature was also monitored at the
gas inlet to the drying furnace using type K thermocouples (Thermo Sensors Corporation,
Garland,
Figure TX, USA) drying
3. Theoretical and anand
ICEL TD-880 datalogger
carbonization (Hall
curve of the Technologies, Coppell, TX, USA).
wood.
The temperatures of the carbonization furnaces, drying furnaces, and combustion
gasesAfter
werecooling
monitored andand
opening the at
recorded furnaces,
regular 1material smaller
h intervals fromthan 10.5 of
the start mm (fines),
each par-
treatment.
tially carbonized wood (embers), and charcoal were separated and weighed. Charcoal
samples were then collected for a qualitative analysis.
Sustainability 2025, 17, 3191 6 of 12

These data were used to create a thermal profile of the wood drying system using the
burner’s combustion gases.
To evaluate the effect of wood drying time inside the furnace on the charcoal produc-
tion cycle, the total carbonization time was measured. This involved recording the time
spent on each drying treatment and the carbonization time itself, with the latter considered
to be the time until the furnaces were completely sealed.

2.5. Calculation of Carbonization Yields

The gravimetric yield in charcoal, semi-carbonized wood and fines were calculated
according to Equations (1)–(3).

CGY = 100 × DMS/Mms (1)

where CGY = charcoal gravimetric yield (%); DMS = dry mass of charcoal (kg); and
DWM = dry wood mass (kg).

GYF = 100 × Dmf/Mms (2)

where GYF = gravimetric yield in fines (%); Dmf = dry mass of fines (kg); and Mms = dry
wood mass (kg).
Sw = 100 × Sm/Dm (3)

where Sw = semi-carbonized wood Yield (%); Sm = semi-carbonized wood dry mass (kg);
e Dm = dry wood mass (kg).

2.6. Charcoal Properties

Charcoal samples were ground and sieved, and the fraction passing through a 60-mesh
sieve was collected. These samples were then dried in an oven at 103 ± 2 ◦ C until a
constant mass was achieved, according to NBR 6923 [16]. The higher heating value (HHV)
of the charcoal was determined using an adiabatic bomb calorimeter, in accordance with
NBR 8633 [17]. The determination of volatile matter (VM), ash content (AC), and fixed
carbon (FC) followed the procedures outlined in NBR 8112 [18].
Charcoal friability was assessed using the “pan test”. This test involves crushing
approximately 500 g of quartered charcoal and sieving it. The fraction retained on a
25.4 mm sieve was used for the test. This material was placed in a covered steel pan and
subjected to a pressure of 1 metric ton in a laboratory press for 1 min. The pressure was
then released, and the charcoal was sieved again, with all particles smaller than 10.5 mm
being discarded. Friability was calculated based on the final mass after sieving.

2.7. Statistical Analysis

The experiment was conducted using a completely randomized design (CRD) in
a factorial arrangement with two temperatures (120 and 150 ◦ C), three drying times
(15, 22.5, and 30 h), and four replications; this temperature was selected to facilitate the
drying of the wood while minimizing structural damage. The yields and properties of the
charcoal were assessed for normality using the Shapiro–Wilk test and for homogeneity of
variances using Bartlett’s test. Two analyses of variance (ANOVAs) were performed, one
including the control values. When a statistically significant difference was observed using
the F-test, at a 5% significance level, Dunnett’s test was used for post hoc comparisons.
 charcoal were assessed for normality using the Shapiro–Wilk test and for homogeneity of
variances using Bartlett’s test. Two analyses of variance (ANOVAs) were performed, one
including the control values. When a statistically significant difference was observed us-
Sustainability 2025, 17, 3191 ing the F-test, at a 5% significance level, Dunnett’s test was used for post hoc comparisons.
7 of 12

3. Results and Discussion

3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Wood Properties
3.1. Wood Properties
The wood exhibited an average basic density of 485.8 kg/m3 and a mean heartwood-
The wood exhibited 3 and a mean heartwood-
to-sapwood ratio (H/S) ofan average
0.88 (Tablebasic density
1). These of 485.8
values are kg/m
consistent with those reported
to-sapwood ratio (H/S) of 0.88 (Table 1). These values are consistent with
in the literature for Eucalyptus sp. clones cultivated for charcoal production those[19].
reported in
the literature for Eucalyptus sp. clones cultivated for charcoal production [19].
Table 1. Carbonization process yields.
Table 1. Carbonization process yields.
Drying Time Charcoal Gravimet- Semi-Carbonized Fine Yield
Drying Time
(Hour) Charcoal Gravimetric
ric Yield (%) Semi-Carbonized
Wood Yield (%) Fine(%)
Yield
(Hour) Yield (%) Wood Yield (%) (%)
Control - 31.2 6.50 3.98
Control - 31.2 6.50 3.98
15 35.21 10.87 4.18
120 °C 15
22.5 35.21
36.20 10.87
6.91 4.18
3.08
120 ◦ C 22.5 36.20 6.91 3.08
30 35.58 5.54 3.64
30 35.58 5.54 3.64
15 36.55 3.14 2.88
15 36.55 3.14 2.88
150 °C 22.5 38.84 3.61 2.31
150 ◦ C 22.5 38.84 3.61 2.31
3030 39.03
39.03 6.09
6.09 3.00
3.00

The heartwood-to-sapwood ratio (H/S) exhibits a negative correlation with the char-
The heartwood-to-sapwood ratio (H/S) exhibits a negative correlation with the char-
coal yield, as a greater proportion of heartwood impedes fluid transport due to vessel
coal yield, as a greater proportion of heartwood impedes fluid transport due to vessel
occlusion by tyloses [20]. Moreover, in Eucalyptus sp. clones, regardless of age, heartwood
occlusion by tyloses [20]. Moreover, in Eucalyptus sp. clones,3 regardless of age, heartwood
demonstrates low permeability, ranging from 0 to 3.9 cm /cm·atm·s, whereas sapwood
demonstrates low permeability, ranging3 from 0 to 3.9 cm3 /cm·atm·s, whereas sapwood
permeability ranged from 270 to 400 cm /cm·atm·s [21]. Consequently, heartwood imper-
permeability ranged from 270 to 400 cm3 /cm·atm·s [21]. Consequently, heartwood im-
meability causes water vaporization within the wood during carbonization, leading to
permeability causes water vaporization within the wood during carbonization, leading to
cracking in the charcoal and increased production of fines.
cracking in the charcoal and increased production of fines.
3.2. Parameters
3.2. Parameters of
of Wood Drying in
Wood Drying in the
the Kiln
Kiln and
and Carbonization
Carbonization
Carbonization performed
Carbonization performed without
without the
the use of combustion
use of combustion gases
gases for
for wood
wood drying
drying
closely approximated
closely approximated the
the theoretical
theoretical carbonization
carbonization curve
curve (Figure
(Figure 4).
4). Following
Following 35
35 hh of
of kiln
kiln
carbonization, the average wall temperature exceeded that of the bottom region, indicat-
carbonization, the average wall temperature exceeded that of the bottom region, indicating
ing advancement
the the advancement of carbonization
of the the carbonization front.
front.

Figure
Figure 4. Temperature of
4. Temperature of carbonization
carbonization kiln.
kiln.

The introduction of combustion gases from carbonization in other furnaces facilitated

the wood drying and influenced the material’s carbonization curve (Figures 5 and 6).
Sustainability 2025, 17, 3191 The
The introduction
introduction ofof combustion
combustion gases
gases from
from carbonization
carbonization inin other
other furnaces
furnaces facilitated
facilitated
8 of 12
thethe wood
wood drying
drying and
and influenced
influenced thethe material’s
material’s carbonization
carbonization curve
curve (Figures
(Figures 5 and
5 and 6).6).

Figure
Figure 5. 5.
Figure 5. Internal
Internal
Internal temperature
temperature
temperature of
of of the
thethe kiln
kiln
kiln as as
as aa function
function
a function of of
of artificial
artificial
artificial drying
drying
drying and
and
and wood
wood
wood carbonization
carbonization
carbonization
treatments inside the kiln. (A) Drying at 120 ◦ C for 15 h + carbonization; (B) drying at 120 ◦ C for
treatments inside the kiln. (A) Drying at 120 °C for 15 h + carbonization; (B) drying at 120 °C°C
treatments inside the kiln. (A) Drying at 120 °C for 15 h + carbonization; (B) drying at 120 forfor 22.5
22.5
22.5 h + carbonization; (C) drying at 120 ◦ C for 30 h + carbonization.
h +hcarbonization;
+ carbonization;(C)(C) drying
drying at at
120 120
°C°C
forfor
3030h +hcarbonization.
+ carbonization.

Figure 6. Internal temperature of the kiln as a function of artificial drying and wood carbonization
Figure
Figure 6. 6. Internal
Internal temperature
temperature of of
thethe kiln
kiln as
as150 a◦function
a function of of artificial
artificial drying
drying and
and wood
wood carbonization
carbonization
treatments inside the kiln. (A) Drying at C for 15 h + carbonization; (B) drying at 150 ◦ C for
treatments
treatments inside
inside thethe kiln.
kiln. (A)
(A) Drying
Drying at at
150150
◦ °C °C
forfor
15 15
h h
+ + carbonization;
carbonization;
22.5 h + carbonization; (C) drying at 150 C for 30 h + carbonization. (B)
(B) drying
drying at at
150150
°C°Cforfor 22.5
22.5
h +hcarbonization;
+ carbonization;
(C)(C) drying
drying at at
150150
°C°C
forfor
3030
h +hcarbonization.
+ carbonization.
For a drying temperature of 120 ◦ C, temperature peaks of 61.6 ◦ C, 65 ◦ C, and 65.45 ◦ C
For
were For a drying
a drying
observed temperature
temperature
after 15, 22.5, of
andof
120120h°C,
30°C, temperature
temperature
of peaks
peaks ofof
drying, respectively. 61.6
61.6
At °C,
°C, 6565
a drying°C,°C, and
and 65.45
65.45
temperature°C°C
of
were
were ◦ observed
150 observed after 15, 22.5, and
after 15,temperature
C, the observed 30
22.5, and 30peaksh of drying,
h of drying, ◦
respectively.
were 83.8 ◦
respectively.
C, 86.55 At At a ◦
drying
a drying
C, and temperature
87 Ctemperature ofof
for drying times
of 15, 22.5, and 30 h, respectively.
The utilization of high-temperature carbonization gases for artificial drying followed
by carbonization facilitated the artificial drying and initial heating of the wood load and
Sustainability 2025, 17, 3191 9 of 12

kiln structure, resulting in process efficiency gains. The gas cooling process proved effective,
as these gases exited the carbonization kiln at temperatures exceeding 300 ◦ C [22]. Without
this cooling, there would be a risk of self-ignition of the loaded wood and degradation due
to high-temperature exposure [23].
Regardless of the evaluated time and temperature, at the end of the artificial drying
process, when the kilns were ignited, there was a sudden increase in internal temperature,
surpassing the theoretical curve. This occurred due to the ignition process of the kiln
to initiate carbonization, resulting from the combustion of lignocellulosic residues and
part of the loaded wood. In kilns with artificial wood drying, this increase was more
pronounced, as minimal energy was required to remove the remaining moisture. This
efficiency gain implies a reduction in carbonization time and an increase in gravimetric
yield [8,24]. After the ignition, the temperatures observed at the top of the kilns after
the artificial drying followed by carbonization were within the range stipulated by the
theoretical curve, demonstrating that artificial drying inside the kiln does not interfere with
process control.
In the third and fourth phases of carbonization, higher temperatures were observed
on the kiln wall compared to the control, especially in the back region. The insertion of
carbonization gases occurred on only one side of the kiln, and the preferred path taken by
these gases caused a greater reduction in moisture content in this region and, consequently,
a greater heat exchange with the kiln structure, resulting in higher temperatures in these
areas during carbonization.

3.3. Charcoal Production Yields

The use of carbonization gases increased the gravimetric yield in all treatments and
reduced the content of sticks and fines at a temperature of 150 ◦ C (Table 2).

Table 2. Effect of combustion gas wood drying on charcoal properties: volatile matter (VM), ash (A),
fixed carbon (FC), and higher heating value (HHV).

120 ◦ C 150 ◦ C
Properties Control
15 h 22.5 h 30 h 15 h 22.5 h 30 h
VM (%) 24.40 17.30 16.49 17.31 16.45 17.96 17.05
FC (%) 74.68 82.09 82.92 82.40 82.78 81.31 82.36
A (%) 0.92 0.60 0.59 0.68 0.67 0.60 0.65
HHV
30.53 32.61 33.65 32.78 33.62 32.94 33.01
(MJ/kg)

Gravimetric yield increased between 12.8% and 25.1% when the wood was dried using
carbonization gases. The smallest increases were observed at 120 ◦ C for 15 h, while the
largest occurred at 150 ◦ C for 30 h. These gains were attributed to the removal of water
from the wood by the combustion gases, thereby reducing the amount of woody material
required to be fully combusted to provide the energy needed for residual moisture removal.
Additionally, the pre-heating of the wood load and the furnace during the drying process
contributed to a reduction in the wood consumption during the ignition and endothermic
phases of carbonization.
The increased gravimetric yield represents important environmental and economic
benefits, as a smaller area of planted forests will be required to meet the demand. This
translates to reduced consumption of fertilizers, pesticides, fossil fuels, and other inputs
used in the eucalyptus wood production chain.
The use of 150 ◦ C combustion gases reduced ember formation during wood carboniza-
tion. The increased energy input for artificial drying decreased the water mass within
Sustainability 2025, 17, 3191 10 of 12

the loaded wood. Consequently, given the self-thermal nature of the process—where the
material itself provides energy—less energy was consumed for water removal, enhancing
wood-to-charcoal conversion. This also resulted in a reduced quantity of semi-carbonized
wood. The observed values align with the previous studies [25] and were considered low,
indicating a near-complete wood conversion to charcoal and demonstrating the suitability
and effectiveness of the theoretical carbonization curve employed.
Employing combustion gases for artificial drying also reduced the generation of fines
at 150 ◦ C. During carbonization, the rapid temperature increases cause water within the
wood to vaporize. This volume expansion can lead to the collapse or rupture of anatomical
components, reducing charcoal’s mechanical strength and increasing fine production [26].
Thus, lower moisture content during carbonization results in fewer fines.

3.4. Charcoal Properties

The application of combustion gases in charcoal production led to an improvement in
product quality, as evidenced by an increase in the higher heating value and fixed carbon
content, coupled with a reduction in volatile matter content.
The fixed carbon content was 74.68%. All treatments using carbonization gases for
wood drying showed an increase of at least 9%. Fixed carbon corresponds to the material
that burns in solid form during combustion, being desirable for use in steel mills (ref.).
The increase in fixed carbon content reduced the volatile matter content, with a decrease
of up to 31% in its content with wood drying. The ash content remained constant among
treatments. The changes in the proximate composition of the charcoal were reflected in
the higher heating value of the produced charcoals, where the treatments with artificial
drying presented values higher than 32.22 MJ/kg, and the control presented 30.53 MJ/kg.
Therefore, artificial wood drying using carbonization gases increased the carbonization
yield and the quality of the produced charcoal, generating quantitative and qualitative
gains.

4. Conclusions
The results of this study clearly indicate the positive impact of employing carboniza-
tion gases for artificial wood drying prior to carbonization. The pre-drying process effec-
tively reduced wood moisture content, leading to a more efficient carbonization process
and several key improvements in charcoal production. Notably, gravimetric yields in-
creased significantly (up to 25.1%), minimizing the formation of undesirable byproducts
such as semi-carbonized wood and fines. Furthermore, the resulting charcoal exhibited
superior quality characteristics, including a substantial increase in fixed carbon content (at
least 9%), a marked reduction in volatile matter content (up to 31%), and consequently, a
higher heating value, exceeding 32.22 MJ/kg. These improvements are attributed to the
enhanced control over the carbonization process facilitated by the pre-drying stage. This
technique offers a promising approach to enhance the sustainability and economic viability
of charcoal production by reducing raw material consumption and producing a higher
quality product, suitable for demanding applications such as steelmaking.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.d.C.O.C., H.F.d.S., R.J.T.B. and A.J.V.Z.; methodology,

A.J.V.Z., A.G.C., O.P.L. and I.F.D.; formal analysis, A.d.C.O.C., V.T.M.d.M.J., L.C.d.J.F. and D.P.d.S.G.;
writing—original draft preparation, A.d.C.O.C., H.F.d.S., A.J.V.Z., A.L.C. and E.L.C.E.; writing—
review and editing, A.d.C.O.C., A.J.V.Z., S.G.W. and A.G.C. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.

Funding: The authors are grateful to the Brazilian agencies “National Council for Scientific and
Technological Development (CNPq) (CNPQ 308328/2021-3).
Sustainability 2025, 17, 3191 11 of 12

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement: The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are
available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest: Author Ricardo José Tauffer Barros are employed by R&D ArcelorMittal Brasil.
The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or
financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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