Prepared by

Dr/ Khadra Mohammed Atiea

Assist. Prof. of Nursing Administration
Dr/Soaad Ahmed
Assist. Prof. of Community health Nursing
Dr. Amany Ibrahim
Lecturer of Pediatric Nursing
Faculty of Nursing
Fayum University
-2025-

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Chapter Content Page no.

1. 3
Introduction to nursing research
2. 12
Research problem& hypothesis
3. 21
Research design
4. 30
Population in Nursing research
5. 36
Sample Selection and Study Setting

6. Data Collection Methods 44

7. Data Interpretation in Nursing Research 56

8. 60
Bibliography
9. 69
Research critique
10. 72
Critical Thinking

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 Introduction to nursing research

Outlines

 Definition of nursing research

 Types of nursing research

 Sources of nursing knowledge

 Goals of nursing research.

 Role of nurses in research

 Process for nursing research

Objectives: at the end of this lecture, each student should be able to:
o Define nursing research

o Identify types of nursing research

o Explain sources of nursing knowledge

o Mention goals of nursing research

o Describe roles of nurses in research

o Implement nursing research process

1
Meaning of research

The root meaning of the word is

• Search again or

• Examine Carefully

• Research is a systematic enquiry.

 Definitions:

Research: is a systematic inquiry that uses disciplined methods to answer

questions or solve problems.
Nursing Research: is a systemic, objective process of analyzing phenomena of
importance to nursing.
Nursing research: include all studies concerning nursing practice, nursing
education & nursing administration
 Types of nursing research:

Basic versus Applied Research - As traditionally defined,

Basic research is undertaken to extend the base of knowledge in a

discipline, or to formulate or refine a theory.
Research: is a systematic inquiry that uses disciplined methods to answer
questions or solve problems.

 Sources of nursing knowledge

1- Trial & Error: As a mean of discovering knowledge. If one approach did

not work, another one was used.
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 2- Tradition: Involves the handing down of knowledge from one generation to
another and leading to actions that occurs.

3- Authority: Experts or authorities in a given field often provide knowledge

for other people.

4- Personal Experience: To be personally involved in an event, situation or

circumstances. e.g., steps of gaining nursing practices are: knowing,
observing & doing.

5- Role Modeling: Imitating the behavior of an exemplar.

6- Mentorship: An intense form of role modeling. The mentor serves as

teacher, sponsor, guide, exemplar & counselor for novice nurse.

- The most objective & reliable source of nursing knowledge is obtained

through scientific research.

- The scientific method uses empirical data, which are data gathered
through the sense organs.

 Goals of nursing research:

The ultimate goal of research is to develop, refine & expand a base of

knowledge. The ultimate goal is to provide evidence-based care that promotes
quality outcomes. Evidence for clinical nursing research comes from both
nursing studies & studies from other disciplines. Importance of nursing research
cannot be stressed enough.
Some of the goals for conducting nursing research include:

 Improvements in nursing care: the major reason for conducting

nursing research is to foster optimum care for clients.

 Credibility for nursing profession. The most valid means of

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 developing nursing knowledge is the scientific.

 Accountability for Nursing Practice: Give rational for any nursing

practice

 Problem solving.

 Providing quality, cost effective care within the health care system.

 Promoting an understanding of patients & families experience with

health & illness.

 Roles of Nurses in Research:

There are many roles that nurses can assume in association with
research studies
o Principle investigator

o Member of a research team

o Evaluator of research findings

o Client advocate during a research study

o Subject in research studies

o User of research findings

 Overview of the Research Process

The scientific research process proceeds in an orderly fashion and

consists of the following steps:
Ø Identify the problem

Ø Determine the purpose of the study

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 Ø Review of literature
Ø Develop a theoretical/conceptual framework
Ø Identify the study assumptions
Ø Acknowledge the limitations of the study
Ø Formulate the hypothesis
Ø Define study variables
Ø Select the research design
Ø Identify the population
Ø Select the sample
Ø Conduct a pilot
Ø Collect the data
Ø Organize the data for analysis
Ø Analyze the data
Ø Interpret the findings

Ø Communicate the findings

1- Identify the problem:

clearly

Identify the problem that will be studied.

What will be examined by researcher?

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The problem of the study is best stated as a question, which demands answer.
The problem statement should specify the population and the variables that are
being studied.
2- Determine the purpose of the study:

furnishes why the study is being done.

Ex. (To develop a better understanding of the difficulties experienced by

women after loss of a body part that is closely associated with their feminine
identity).

Ex. Infection Control (Broad Topic)

Effect of using hand washing techniques for nurses working in premature center
and incidence of infection.
Is there a relationship between body image and self-esteem levels of women
who have experienced a mastectomy?

3- Review the literature:

Before beginning a research study, it is important to determine what

knowledge exists of the study topic.

abstracts, and computer assisted search.

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study. It can help the researcher to plan study methods

4- Develop Theoretical / conceptual framework:

Theoretical frameworks are a valuable part of scientific research. It will help in

selection of the study variables and in defining them. It will also direct the
hypothesis and interpretation of the findings.
5- Formulate the Hypothesis or Research Questions

A research expectation about the results of a research study is expressed in a

hypothesis.
A hypothesis predicts the relationship between two or more variables.

The hypotheses determine the relationship between the independent and

dependent variable.
The more positive the body image of women who have experienced a
mastectomy, the higher is their self-esteem level
6- Select the research design:

The research design is the plan for how the study will be conducted. It is
concerned with the type of data that will be collected and the means used to
obtain these data. The researcher chooses the design that is most appropriate to
test the study hypothesis or answer the research questions.
Ex. The researcher must decide if the study will examine cause-and-effect
relationships or will only describe existing situations.
7- Identify the population:

The population is a complete set of individuals or objects that possess some

common characteristics of interest to the researcher. The researcher must
specify the broad population or group of interest in a research study as well as
the actual population that is available for the study.
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 8- Conduct a pilot study:

A pilot study involves a trial version of the planned study. People are selected
for the pilot studies that are similar in characteristics to the sample that will be
used in the actual study.
9- Collect the data for analysis:

The data are the pieces of information or facts that are collected in a research
study. There are multitudes of data collection methods available to nurse
researcher.
10- Organize the data for analysis:

This step should be should have been planned long before the data were
collected. The researcher should have prepared dummy tables and graphs that
could then be filled in with the data once they were obtained.
Analyze the Data

Analyzing data involves how the findings can be used in clinical practice.
Interpreting the Findings. After the data have analyzed, the findings should be
interpreted in light of the study hypothesis or research questions. If a hypothesis
is tested, a determination is made as to whether the data support the researcher
hypothesis.

11- Communicate the findings:

The final step in the research process and the most important one for the nursing
is the communication of the study findings. Research findings can be
communicated through many different mediums as research journals, poster
session.

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 Research Problem & Hypothesis
Outlines:

 Nursing research problem

 Difference between problem and purpose of research study

 Difference between correlational and comparative studies

 Purposes of research hypothesis

 Classification of research hypothesis

 Criteria of research hypothesis

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Objectives: at the end of this lecture, each student should be able to:

o Identify nursing research problem

o Differentiate between problem and purpose of research study

o Differentiate between correlational and comparative studies

o Identify purposes of research hypothesis

o Classify research hypothesis

o Describe criteria of research hypothesis

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What is a Research Problem?

It is a problem that someone would like to investigate and it is the most

important step in the research process. It is considered a situation that needs to
be changed or addressed.
Research problem is a question or matter involving doubt, uncertainty, or
difficulty that proposed for solution or discussion.

 Sources of nursing research problems

◻ Personal experiences:

The nurse or nursing student may observe something in nursing practice that
was a source of concern.

Why some nurses seem to make patients feel like criminals when pain
medications are requested.
◻ Literature sources:

It is an excellent source of ideas for research nearly every published study

concludes with recommendation for further studies.
◻ Existing theories:

One type of research that is needed in nursing is the type that tests existing
theories. Research is process of theory development and testing.

 Previous research:
Although "doing your own thing" is important in the motivation of researchers
to conduct studies, the nursing profession needs researchers who are willing to
replicate or repeat other studies.

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Difference between the problem and the purpose of the study:

□ The problem statement of a study contains What will be examined by the

researcher or, the content of the study.
Example: Is there a difference in the anxiety levels of nursing students who
have read their clients` charts before interacting with them compared to those
students who haven`t read their clients` charts before interacting with them.
The purpose statement of a study contains why the study will be conducted.
Example: To determine a means of facilitating nursing students` first
interaction with client in the psychiatric setting.

 Research problem considerations:

Many factors should be considered when trying to decide if a certain topic is

appropriate for a scientific investigation.
1- Ethical issues: One of the most important considerations in a study concerns
the ethical aspects of the project. Such as in World War 2 in which prisoners
were subjected to many types of inhuman treatment.

2- Significance to nursing:

Every nursing study should have significance for nursing. The researcher should
ask questions such as
• Will the clients benefit from the findings of this study?

• Can nurses use the results?

If the answers are ―Yes‖ the problem has significance for nursing.

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 3- Personal motivation:

It`s may not be the single most important deciding factor in a researcher`s
decision to conduct a study, but it certainly ranks high on the priority list.
4- Researcher qualifications:

Not every nurse is qualified to conduct research. Caution must be exercised when
research aren`t well developed.
5- Feasibility of the study:

It`s an essential consideration of any research project. The researcher needs to

be reasonably sure that the study can actually be carried out (include time, cost,
equipment and supplies, administrative support, peer support, availability of
subjects).
• Time: It`s wise to allow more time than seems to be needed because
unexpected delays frequently occur.

• Cost: All research projects cost money; some studies are much more
expensive than others

• Administrative support: Many research projects require administrative

support. Not only is financial support helpful, but also in many cases
psychological support from the administration is even more helpful.

• Peer support: A climate of shared interest in nursing research is essential

among the members of the nursing profession.

• Availability of subjects: Potential subjects may not meet the study

criteria, may be unwilling to participate, or may already be participating in
other studies

Problem statement format is usually written as correlation or comparative

statement.
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 • Correlation statement:

-Example: Is there correlation between anxiety and midterm exam score of

baccalaureate nursing students?
• Comparative statement:

1- Descriptive study: Example: Is there a difference in readiness to learn about

preoperative teaching between preoperative pt. who have high anxiety levels
compared to preoperative pt. who don`t have high anxiety levels?

2- Experimental study: Example: Is there a difference in the preoperative

anxiety levels of pt. who were taught relaxation techniques compared to
those pt. who weren`t taught relaxation techniques?

Hypothesis

What are hypotheses? (Explanation- Prediction)

• To seeking the solution to a problem.

• For the relationship between two or more variables.

Remember
• Hypothesis (Presents to the answer the study question).

• Hypothesis (link to independent (cause) and dependent (effect) variables.

◻ Purposes of hypothesis:

• Maintain Objectivity in research by a specific part of a theory to be

tested.
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 • Testing Theoretical proposition through supporting or failing to
tested theory.

• Adding Scientific knowledge.

• Guiding Research design.

• Guiding Type of statistical analysis.

• Provide Understanding of the researcher expectations.

◻ Sources/Rational for Study hypothesis:

• Personal experience.

• Previous research studies.

• Theoretical propositions.

◻ Classification/Types of Hypotheses:

1. Simple hypothesis =Bivariate:

• The relationship between one independent (cause) & one dependent

(effect) variable‖. Ex: ((Researcher hypnotized that: early hydration with
water improves intestine motility after surgery with regional anesthesia)).

2. Complex Hypothesis = multivariate:

A relationship where: two or more independent variables (and / or) two or more
dependent variables, or both; in the same study.
• Hypotheses state a specific relationship that can be clearly (in to)
supported or not supported.

Example: Relation between mother’s smart phone dependency and

emotional intelligence and their children quality of sleep and eating habits.

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Much better to divide a complex hypothesis into two or more simple
hypotheses.
e.g.: to examine the action of two variables in conjunction with each other;
complex hypotheses are needed.
3- Null Hypothesis:

• Null hypothesis or statistical null hypothesis predicts that no relationship

exists between variables & no correlation between the variables or no
difference between groups on the variable that is being measured.

Example:

• There will be (is) no difference between men & women in knowledge

about HIV transmission routes. (Null hypothesis, simple & nondirectional).

4. Non-directional Research Hypothesis - Directional Hypothesis:

A. Non directional Research Hypothesis:

1- Merely predicts that a relationship exists.

2- Allow use two tailed statistical test.

3- May be used when the study is not theory based and the findings of
related studies are contradictory.

Ex. ―There is a change in the anxiety levels of preoperative patients after

Listening to a relaxation tape (Non directional hypothesis).

B. Directional Research Hypothesis:

1- Allow more precise testing of theoretical propositions

2- Allow use of one tailed statistical tests.

3- Allow predicts the type of relationship by using terms like ―more than‖,

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―greater than‖, ―decrease in‖, or ―positive correlation.

Ex: ―The anxiety levels of preoperative patients are lower after listening to a
relaxation tape‖ (Directional hypothesis).
N.B. In nursing researches, it is mostly replaced by the directional type of
hypotheses.

◻ Hypothesis Criteria:

1- Written in declarative sentence.

a- Answer or tentative solution to the problem

b - Written in the present tense

c - Can transpose only two words in some. Problem

Ex: ―Is there …………….? Problem statement. ((in to)) ―There is

… ............................Hypothesis.

2- Contains the population.

3- Contains the variables.

4- Reflects the problem statement.

5- Is empirically testable.

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 Research Design

Outlines:
 Definition of nursing research design

 Types of nursing research design

Objectives: at the end of this lecture, each student should be able to:
o Define nursing research design

o Explain types of nursing research design

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Definition:

Research design is a Pattern for the research study.

Research design is concerned with the type of data that will be collected and the
most appropriate means of obtaining it.
The design is not concerned with the specific data collection methods but with
overall plan for gathering data.
◻ Types of Research Design:

A- Experimental Design

1. True experimental

2. Pre experimental

3. Quasi experimental design

B- Non experimental Design

Experimental Design:
Is concerned with the cause-and-effect relationships.

All Experimental studies involve manipulation or control of the independent

variable (cause) and measurement of the dependent variable (effect).
Criteria of experimental design:

• Manipulation, randomization and element of control.

• Although this type of research are highly respected, causal relations are
difficult to establish, and researcher should avoid the word (Prove) when
results discussing)

• Controls are difficult to apply with human being, this is one of the reasons
that many nursing research studies have employed non experimental
designs.
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Types of Experimental Designs:

• There are three broad categories of experimental research designs:

a. True experimental

b. Pre-experimental

c. Quasi-experimental

• The differences between the three designs are determined by the amount of
control the researcher is able to exercise over the research conditions.

(a)- True Experimental Design:

The true experimental designs are those in which the researcher has a great deal
of control over the research situation. With this type of research of designs, the
researcher can have some confidence that the independent variable was the
cause of the change in the dependent variable.
There are three criteria

• The researcher manipulates the experimental variables.

• At least one experimental and one comparison group are included in the
study

• Subjects are randomly assigned to either the experimental or the

comparison group.

• There are three types of true experimental designs:

1- Pretest-Posttest is the most frequently used in experimental design.

In this design:

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 a) The subjects are randomly assigned to groups.

b) A pretest is given to both groups.

c) The experimental group receives the experimental treatment, and the

comparison group receives the routine treatment or no treatment.

d) A posttest is given to both groups.

The pretest-posttest control group design

The results of the study can only be generalized to situation in which a pretest
would be administered before the treatment.
• The disadvantages of this design concern the external reactive effects of
the pretest.

2- Posttest-only Group Design: In this design

• Subjects are randomly assigned to groups

• The experimental group receives the experimental treatment and the

comparison group receives routine treatment or no treatment, and

• A posttest is given to both groups.

3- Solomon Four-group Design:

Subjects are randomly assigned to one of the four groups.

Two of the groups, experimental group 1 and comparison group 1, are

pretested.
Two of the groups, experimental 1, and experimental group 2, receive the
experimental treatment.

• It controls for the reactive effects of the pretest.

• Unfortunately, this design requires a large sample and statistical analysis is

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 complicated.

The four groups in this design are (see figure below):

1. A treatment group with both pre-intervention and post-intervention

measurements

2. A control group with both pretest and posttest measurements

3. A treatment group with only a posttest measurement

4. A control group with only a posttest measurement

(b) - Quasi-Experimental

Like a true experiment, a quasi-experimental design aims to establish a cause-

and-effect relationship between an independent and dependent variable.
However, unlike a true experiment, a quasi-experiment does not rely on
random assignment. Instead, subjects are assigned to groups based on non-
random criteria.
• Are those in which there is either no comparison group or subjects are not
randomly assigned to groups (random assignment is a procedure that ensures
that each subject has an equal chance of being assigned or placed in any of
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 the groups in an experimental study.

• There are different designs fall into the category of quasi-experimental

designs:

1- Nonequivalent control group design.

2-Time-series design.
Nonequivalent Control Group Design

It is similar to the pretest-posttest control group design except that there is no

random assignment of subjects to the experimental and comparison group. You
hypothesize that after-new school program will lead to higher grades. You
choose two similar groups of children who attend different schools, one of
which implements the new program while the other does not. By comparing the
children who attend the program with those who do not, you can find out
whether it has an impact on grades.

Time Series Design

In this design the researcher periodically observes or measures the subjects. The
experimental treatment is administered between two of the observations.

– A researcher might assess the pain levels of a group of clients with low back
pain. After 3 weeks of pain assessment (O1 O2 O3) subjects could be taught a
special exercise to alleviate low back pain.
– The results of this study would help the researcher to determine if low back
pain persists, and if the effectiveness of the exercise persists

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 (c)- Pre-Experimental Design

This design is the name applied to the experimental designs that are very week
and in which the researcher has little control over the research
• One-shot Case Study: A single group is exposed to an experimental
treatment and observed after the treatment. X O

• A group of patients with diabetes might attend a diabetic class (X) and be
tested on their knowledge of diabetes (O) after the class is completed.

•This design calls for no comparison to be made.

• There is no way to determine if the of knowledge about diabetes was the
result of the class.

• The clients could have already possessed this knowledge before the class.

B- Non-Experimental Research

Non-experimental research is the type of research that lacks an independent

variable. Instead, the researcher observes the context in which the phenomenon
occurs and analyzes it to obtain information.
• Example. Nurse trying to determine clients’ perceptions of pain, the only
way to obtain this information would be ask these clients about their pain.

◻ Types of Non-experimental Design:

The most common types are:

1-Survey Studies:

Are investigations in which self-report data are collected from samples with the
purpose of describing populations on some variable or variables of interest.
Survey can be conducted by phone, mail, or through personal contact with the

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subjects.
2- Correlation Studies:

• The researcher examines the strength of relationship between variables by

how changes in one variable are associated with changes in another variable.

A correlation indicates the extent to which one variable (X) is related to

another variable (Y)
• As (X) increases, does (Y) increases, or as X increases, does (Y)
decreases?

Types Correlation studies:

• Positive correlational: Correlational coefficient may be positive (+1) if

the value of one variable increases, the value of the other variable increases.
Ex, academic performance of students is positively related to their self-
esteem

• Negative correlation (-1): the value of one variable increases the other
variable decreases.

Ex, teacher–student conflicts are negatively related to the students’ sense of

belonging to the school.
3- Comparative Studies:

• Are those studies that examine the differences between intact groups on
some dependent variable of interest.

For example, studying gender difference in learning mathematics.

• Comparative studies are classified as retrospective or prospective

1- In retrospective studies: sometimes called a historical cohort study, in

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 which researchers look back to a certain point in time to analyze a particular
group of subjects who have already experienced an outcome of interest.

- Researchers collect data from existing records to study a relationship and

determine the influence of a particular factor (ie: daily exercise) on a
particular outcome (ie: diabetes) and to analyze relative risk of the cohort
compared to the control group.

2- In prospective studies, sometimes called a prospective cohort study, where

researchers will follow and observe a group of subjects over a period of time
to gather information and record the development of outcomes.

so researchers will follow the subjects without manipulating any variables or

interfering with their environment.
Ex, watch the development of a disease and compare the risk factors among
subjects.

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 Population in Nursing Research

Outlines:

 Introduction
 Definition of population
 Types of Populations
 Population vs. Sample
 the importance of population in research
 Key Considerations in Selecting a Population

Learning objectives :

By the end of this lecture, students should be able to:

 Define population in the context of research.
 Differentiate between target population and sample.
 Discuss the importance of population in research

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 Population in Research

 Introduction:
In research, particularly in fields like nursing, psychology, and social
sciences, understanding the concept of population is essential. The population
is the group from which you draw conclusions and make inferences in your
research. This group represents a set of elements or individuals that share
specific characteristics, and your findings from the sample taken from this
population are used to generalize results.

 Definition of Population in Research:

 The population: is the entire group from which a sample is drawn.

 Population: refers to the complete set of individuals, elements, or objects
that meet the specific criteria for inclusion in a study.
Example: If a researcher is studying the effects of a new drug on patients with
hypertension, the population would consist of all patients diagnosed with
hypertension.

 Types of Populations in Research

 Target Population: refers to the entire group that is of primary interest to

the researcher and meets the criteria for the study.
 Or Target Population refers to the population that the researcher wishes
to study
Example: In a study on diabetes management, the target
population might be all adults with Type 2 diabetes in a specific region.
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  Accessible Population: is the portion of the target population that the
researcher can actually access for the study.
Example: If the target population is adults with Type 2 diabetes in
a particular city, the accessible population may be the subset of
individuals living in a specific healthcare facility or those who are
willing to participate in the study.
 Sampling Frame:
The sampling frame is the list or a database of all the individuals or elements
from which a sample will be drawn.
Example: A hospital’s patient registry could serve as the sampling
frame for a study on diabetes management.
 The Relationship Between Population and Sample:
In research, samples are often used because studying an entire population
may be impractical, time-consuming, or too costly. The sample is a smaller,
manageable subset of the population that is selected to represent the whole
group.
Population vs. Sample: The population refers to all possible subjects or
elements that fit a defined set of criteria, while the sample is the group of
subjects that researchers actually collect data from.
 Importance of Population in Research
The population influences every aspect of a study, from study design to
sampling methods.
1. Generalizability: Research aims to draw conclusions about a population
from a sample. A well-defined population ensures that findings can be
accurately applied to similar groups.
2. Representativeness: The sample should reflect the diversity of the
population. A biased sample can lead to inaccurate or misleading results.
3. Ethical Considerations: Populations should be selected based on ethical
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 guidelines, particularly when studying vulnerable groups. Informed
consent and protections must be ensured.
4. Sample Size: The size and composition of the population help determine
the appropriate sample size, ensuring reliable and valid research results.

 Key Considerations in Selecting a Population:

When selecting a population for research, several factors should be taken into
account:

1. Inclusion Criteria: Define the characteristics that make someone or

something eligible for inclusion in the study. These could be demographic
(e.g., age, gender), medical (e.g., diagnosis of a specific disease), or
geographic (e.g., residents of a specific area).
2. Exclusion Criteria: Criteria used to eliminate potential participants who
do not meet the necessary characteristics or who may skew the study
results.
Example: Excluding individuals with severe cognitive impairments in a study
on mental health interventions.

3. Access and Feasibility:Practical considerations such as ease of access to

the population and the costs involved in recruitment, and data collection

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 Sample Selection and Study Setting
 Outlines:
 Sample Selection
 Introduction
 Importance of sample selection in research
 Concepts of population and sample
 Common terminology used in sampling
 Types of Sampling Methods:
a) Probability Sampling:
1. Simple Random Sampling
2. Systematic Sampling
3. Stratified Sampling
4. Cluster Sampling
b) Non-Probability Sampling:
1. Convenience Sampling
2. Quota Sampling
3. Time samplling
 Research Setting :
 Setting of the Study
 Importance of Setting in Nursing Research
 Types of Settings in Nursing Research

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 Learning Objectives:
By the end of this lecture, students will be able to:
 Identify the importance of sample selection in nursing research.
 Differentiate between probability and non-probability sampling methods.
 Discuss the various sampling methods in nursing research.
 Identify the ethical issues related to sample selection.
 Identify the different types of settings in nursing research

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 Sample Selection and Study Setting

 Introduction:
In nursing research, proper sample selection is crucial for ensuring the validity and
reliability of a study. A sample is a group of individuals chosen from a larger population
to participate in a research study. The selection process directly influences the quality of
the findings, ensuring their generalizability and applicability to the broader population.
Researchers must select participants that reflect the characteristics of the population of
interest while adhering to ethical guidelines. The setting of a study, which can vary
widely, the setting provides context t to the study, influencing the variables under
investigation and interactions between researchers and participants.
 Sample Selection:
In any research study, the population is the entire group that the researcher is
interested in studying. However, due to practical constraints, it is often not feasible to
study the entire population. Therefore, a sample—comprising a smaller subset of the
population—is selected. The process of selecting this sample is known as sample
selection.
Common Terminology used in sampling:
Sampling:
 It is a process of selecting a portion of the population to represent the entire
population.
 The process of selecting a sample population from the target population
A sample is a selected proportion of the defined population. It is a subset of the
population is selected to represent the population. . For example, every
tenth person, every third student, and so on.
Population
 the entire group from which a sample is drawn.

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 The concept of sampling
 Methods of Sampling

Sampling methods may be classified into two types or approaches.

1. Probability sampling or Random sampling
2. Non-probability sampling or Non-random sampling

1. Probability sampling methods:

Probability sampling: lhrlare i tnei vnh loi eaectllhi lei eaeoeht i evloi ni
i.ilitantllh
Probability sampling is a method used in research where every individual or
element in a population has a known and non-zero chance of being selected for
the sample.

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This approach relies on random selection, which helps ensure that the sample is
representative of the entire population, allowing the results to be generalized to
the population with a certain degree of confidence.

The key features of probability sampling are:

1) Random Selection: Each individual in the population has a chance of
being chosen, and this selection process is random, reducing bias.
2) Non-zero Probability: Every member of the population has a chance,
even if it's small, to be included in the sample.
3) Representativeness: Since the selection is random and each participant
has an equal chance, the sample is more likely to represent the diversity
and characteristics of the entire population.

 Types of Sampling Methods:

1) Probability sampling or Random sampling:

1. Simple Random Sampling: Every individual in the population has an equal

chance of being selected.
Procedure:-

1-Obtain sampling frame (list of elements).

2- Give each element unique number.
3- Select the sample from a table of random numbers.

Example: A researcher randomly selects 100 individuals from a list of 1,000

patients using a random number generator.
2. Systematic Sampling: A sample is selected by taking every n th individual

-38-
 from a list.
Example: If a researcher decides to select every 10th person from a list of 1,000
people, they would randomly choose one person and then select every 10th
person thereafter.
Stratified Sampling: The population is divided into subgroups (strata),based on
specific characteristics (e.g., age, gender, income), and then a random sample is
taken from each subgroup.
Example: In a study of employee satisfaction, the population may be divided
into strata based on job position (e.g., managers, staff), and a random sample is
taken from each group.
3. Cluster Sampling: The population is divided into clusters, and entire clusters
are randomly selected.
Example: A study on education outcomes may randomly select a few schools
(clusters) and then survey all students within those schools.

2) Non Probability sampling:

lh lrl tna i nnrei nhi e tnai cnnhcei lei eelh i eaecte .i vnl ii llti naa
.oetnl il itailcnaaaien levinh iolveiclhrehlehtiettionailhtvl tceieln
 Types of Non Probability sampling:
1) Convenience sampling.
2) Quota sampling.
3) Time sampling
1) Convenience ( accidental sampling ):
Convenience sampling entails using the most conveniently available people
as study participants.
Example : A faculty member who distributes questionnaires to nursing students in
a class is using a convenience sample, or an accidental sample, as it is sometimes
called.
-39-
 Convenience sampling is the weakest form of sampling. It is also the most
commonly used sampling method in many disciplines.
Advantages of Convenience sampling:
 very easy method of sampling.
 frequently used method in behavioral sciences.
 It reduces the time, money and energy

Disadvanteges:
 It is not representative of the population.
 It is not free from errors.

2) Quota sampling
Quota sampling involves selecting participants based on specific
characteristics (e.g., age, gender, race) to ensure that certain groups are
represented in the sample, but the selection within each group is non-
random.

Key Features:
 The researcher divides the population into subgroups based on certain
characteristics.
 Participants are chosen non-randomly from each subgroup to meet a
predetermined quota.
 Although this method ensures certain characteristics are represented, it still
lacks random selection, which can lead to bias.

-40-
3) Time sampling :
Time sampling is a non-probability sampling procedure used by researchers
who are concerned with collecting data on activities that take place at specific
times of the day or night.
For example, a researcher who wanted to observe what was happening during
meal times in an intermediate care facility would collect data only at the times
when meals were being served.
 Sample size :
 There is no single rule that can be applied to determine of sample
size.
 It should be determined before the study is Conducted.
 Large sample is more representative of the Population but small
sample less accurate result.

igttS ent nt gnitteS

 The setting of a study refers to the physical, social, or cultural environment in

which the research takes place.
 evloinl iltnainnv uicalhlc ui— ettlh icnhirnvainl eaaiehihtv lh ive envcnuitne
inh icloothltaicehtev itl ,nloe or cnlla
 Importance of Setting in Nursing Research

1. Guides Sample Selection:A well-defined setting helps in choosing an

appropriate and relevant sample for the study.
2. Determines Data Collection Methods:
The setting influences the methods and tools used for data collection, such as
interviews, surveys, or observations.
3. Prevents Bias: A carefully selected setting reduces the risk of bias and
-41-
 ensures the findings are valid and reliable.
4. Affects Generalizability: The setting impacts how generalizable the
research findings are to other populations or settings.

 hSrg nt nigttS e nS ngtp S enfg gepy :

1) i ,nlva i ehrlvlhoeht i tcni n i nl iltna -vne ei nvei venan :sSS SyeSn igttS e and
calhlc nneveiintlehticnveil iivlrl e .ihe envcniclh tcte ilhicalhlcnai ettlh i
letehi lhrlare i tt alh i intlehti lttcloe ui te tlh i heni lhtevrehtllh ui lvi
.n e lh inenatncnvei ealrevaiivnctlce
lei niheniinlhii spnoiaeti ei tt ai lhi ni nl iltnai nnv i epnolhlh i tneieeeectlrehe
. tv lcnaiintleht -onhn eoehtiivltlclaielviil t

i-he envcnicnhina litneeiianceilhievln evicloothlti:se genigttS e -stnnt StS

i2
ettlh i tcni n i cnlla ui nlveiance ui lvi itealci nenatni einvtoeht .i utt le i lhi 2
atni ivloltllhui l en ei iverehtllhui nh i nenatnitne ei ettlh i letehi elct i lhi nen
.e tcntllh
spnoiaeti ei tt ai lhi ni cloothltai nenatni cehtevi lhre tl ntlh i tnei loincti lei ni
. olelh ice ntllhiivl vnoilhiinvtlclinht si tltivnte

invtlclinht siiuloeihtv lh ive envcnil iclh tcte ilhn:stngtfg Seg tSeSnigttS e

invtlctanvaailhi tt le iveante itlinloeicnveuicnvlhlcilaahe ionhn eoehtui i-3,nloe
lvi n lh i lhi iance.i vnei nloei ehrlvlhoehti cnhi lheatehcei eennrllv ui tventoehti
n nevehce.spnoiaetieive envcniivleectielct lh ilhinlniea evaaiintleht ionhn ei
. lneete icnveintinloeitnelv

-42-
 i-4-iifltnitneilhcven lh it eilei:sSptteSt SS gnigttS e -nenatninh i l ltnaitlla ui
htv lh i ve envcni l i na li tnelh i iancei lhi rlvttnai ettlh ui tcni n i lhalhei tvrea ui
teae-oe lclheiclh tatntllh .

eeeectlrehe i lei nhi niii e l he i tli neaiii spnoiaeti ehi lhalhei tt ai lhi tne
.inh eolci91-lh lrl tna ionhn eioehtnainenatni tvlh itneividei
 h gnftSgnt nfg gepy nigttS enS nienrSgnigSgytSt :
i
1. syyg nttnaeptSySre t
sn levincce itliinvtlclinht uiettitnelvinenatniclh ltllh ii:sSS SyeSn gttS e
i .(onaialolti ehevnalenelaltai(e. .uinl iltnalee iintleht
lvei lrev ei noiaeuietticnnaaeh e inltnin:stnnt StStstngn gttS e
i .(tlclinht vecvtltoehtinh i ntniclaaectllhi(e. .uial l tlcnail te ilhivencnlh iinv
2. aeptSySre tns epeytgpS tSy
i
nvtlclinht ionainnrei ieclelcinenatniclh ltllh uiaen lh itlinii:sSS SyeSn gttS e
i .(ae i lrev ei noiaei(e. .uiintleht inltninenvti l en e
ui nvtlclinht icloeievloinievln evivnh eileinenatni tntt en:stnnt StSn gttS e
i .n ei vlti uinh i lclleclhlolcience vlth uiaen lh itli ventevirnvlnelalta
n
3. st SyeSnst SegpetSt
uieclnaicnveihee e ielvirtahevneaeiilitantllh i(e. .uiintleht ilhii:sSS SyeSn gttS e
i .(cvltlcnaicnveinltnialolte inttlhloa
iclhel ehtlnaltaiclhcevh uive tlvlh i tvlcti vlrncainhn:he genpg gepy -stng
i iivltlcla itl
i .ivltectiinvtlclinht siiev lhnailhelvontllh
i
i
-43-
 i
i

Data Collection Methods

Learning objectives :

At completing this lecture, student should be able to……

 Define data collection.

 Plan for data collection
 Identify methods of data collection in research:
1. Observation
2. Interview
3. Focus group discussion
4. Questionnaire

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 Data Collection Methods

 Introduction
Data collection is an important aspect of any type of research study. The
choice of the many methods for collecting fishery data will depend on the
variables to be measured, the source and the resources available.
 Importance of Data Collection Plan
• A clear data collection plan helps in answering research questions accurately
• It organizes human and material resources efficiently
• Identifying problems during data collection may require modifications to the
proposal.

Stages in the Data Collection Process:

1) Stage 1: Permission to proceed: Consent must be obtained from relevant

authorities, individuals, and the community.
2) Stage 2: Data collection:
a. Plan logistics, such as location, timing, and resources.
b. Ensure quality control measures are in place to maintain consistency
and reliability in data collection (e.g., training data collectors, using
standardized instruments).
3) Stage 3: Data handling
Once the data have been collected and checked for completeness and
accuracy, a clear procedure should be developed for handling and storing them.

-45-
Decide if the questionnaires are to be numbered; identify the person who will be
responsible for storing the data; and how they are going to be stored.

 Source of Information:
iehive envcnilvi ntniclaaectllhuitnei ltvceileilhelvontllhicnhicloeievloi erevna
.cnte lvle uiencninltni leeevehticnnvnctevl tlc
From where or from whom will you get the information?

1) Existing information refers to information that is already documented or

collected in previous reports, records, program documents, or journals.
Examples:
 Organizational records (e.g., attendance)
 Published research or articles in academic journals
 Government reports or policy documents
2) People: Information can be gathered directly from individuals involved in
the study or from those who have relevant knowledge or experiences.:
Examples:
 Participants (who are part of a study or experiment)
 Teachers or educators (in a school setting)
 Parents, volunteers, or community members
3) Pictorial records and observations: Information gathered through visual
records such as photos, videos, or personal observations.
Examples:
 Photos or videos of events or activities
 Field notes taken during observations
4) Primary Data Source
Data collected for the first time, specifically for the purpose of the current
research. This data is fresh, original, and directly gathered by the researcher.

Examples:
-46-
  Surveys or questionnaires designed by the researcher
 Interviews conducted by the researcher
 Observations made by the researcher
5) Secondary Data Source: Information that has already been collected,
processed, and documented by others. Researchers use secondary data
sources to analyze or build upon existing information.
Examples:
 Published books or articles
 Research studies conducted by other researchers
 Archived data, like census reports or historical records

 Who will collect WHAT data?

• Research personnel should have prior experience with data collection, match
sample characteristics, and be pleasant, sociable, and nonjudgmental.
• Availability is crucial to avoid recruiting and training new staff.
 Time to collect data for each study component
• Consider the time required to reach the study area(s), the number of visits
required per study unit, and locate study units
Study Units: These are the participants or objects of observation in the study.
Example: If your study involves interviewing people in a specific community,
locating them might involve searching for their homes, calling them, or
scheduling appointments.

 Methods of data collection:

1. Interview: Interviews are one of the most commonly used methods of data
collection in research. They involve direct interaction between the researcher
and the respondent to gather information.
-47-
 Description:
Interview is a direct face-to-face attempt to obtain reliable and valid measures in
the form of verbal responses from one or more respondents. The goal is to collect
reliable and valid data through verbal responses.
 This method allows researchers to gather information about the participant's
thoughts, opinions, feelings, or behaviors.
 Advantages:
 Can generate rich, qualitative data.
 Allows for deeper clarifications.
 Researchers can probe further based on responses.
 Limitations:
 Time-consuming and resource-intensive.
 Subject to interviewer bias.
· Example: In-depth interviews with employees to explore workplace culture.

 Types of interview:
1) Structured Interviews: Highly organized with a fixed set of predetermined
questions. The interviewer asks the same set of questions to all participants in
the same order.
Format: The questions are usually closed-ended, with predefined answers (e.g.,
yes/no, multiple-choice).
2) Unstructured Interviews: Informal and flexible conversations with no set list
of questions. The researcher engages in an open discussion, allowing the
conversation to flow based on the participant’s responses.
Format: Primarily open-ended questions that encourage the participant to
share freely.
3) Semi-Structured Interviews: Combines elements of both structured and
unstructured interviews. The researcher prepares a set of guiding questions,
-48-
 but there is room for exploration based on responses.
Format: A mix of open-ended and closed-ended questions, with flexibility
for probing and follow-up questions.
 Ways of interviewing respondents
Once the researcher has selected his sample and developed his
questionnaire, there are several ways he can interview participants.
1) In-person Interviewing
When the researcher uses this method, he meets with the respondents face
to face and asks questions.
2) Telephone Interviewing
Using this technique can help the researcher to call respondents over the
phone and interview them.
3) Online Interviewing
With online interviewing, the researcher sends an email inviting
respondents to participate in an online survey.
 Steps of an Interview
1. Developing the Data Collection Tool :It can be a survey tool, or
questionnaire. The tool should be aligned with your research objectives
or interview goals.
2. Preparing the Interview Questions: it can be open-ended or closed-
ended.
3. Pilot Testing :Conduct a trial interview to test the questions and data
collection tool. Adjust based on feedback.
4. Scheduling & Conducting the Interview: the time, and the location
(whether physical or virtual).
5. Recording Responses: record the participant's responses. You can
take detailed notes or, with consent
6. Analyzing Data
-49-
 Advantages of Interviews:
 In-Depth Data: Provides detailed insights into participants' thoughts and
feelings.
 Clarification: Opportunity to clarify responses; questions can be
explained or rephrased if needed.
 Flexibility: Can adapt to the flow of conversation and focus on new topics.
 Personal Interaction: Builds rapport, encouraging open responses.
 Non-Verbal Cues: Allows observation of body language and tone.
 High Response Rate: More engaging than surveys, leading to higher
participation.
 Low cost (assuming relatively few)
 Rapid data collection

 Disadvantages of Interviews:
 Time-Consuming: Takes significant time to conduct and analyze.
 Costly: Requires more resources (money, time, personnel).
 Requires skilled and/or trained interviewers
 Limited Generalizability: Small sample size limits broader conclusions.
 May be difficult to analyze and summarize findings

2. The questionnaire :
Is a valuable tool in research, particularly in fields like nursing and
healthcare, it consisting of a series of questions used to gather data from
respondents. Questionnaires are widely used for collecting both quantitative and
qualitative data, and they can be administered in various ways such as online, in
person, by phone, or through mail.
Purpose of a Questionnaire:
-50-
 Nurse Researchers: Used to measure knowledge, attitudes, emotions,
cognition, and health behavior.
 Self-Reported Observations: Reflects individual perceptions of health and
well-being, often in patient experiences.
 Types of Questionnaires:

1) Interviewer-Administered Questionnaires:

a) In-person Interviews:
 More control over the interview process.
 Can observe respondent’s demeanor and clarify confusion.
 Use visual aids and tools for accurate data collection.
 May be time-consuming and expensive.

b) Telephone Interviews:
 Cost-effective, especially for geographically dispersed populations.
 Easily monitored and corrected by supervisors.
 Advanced technologies ( VR) can improve data collection and reduce
costs.

2) Self-Administered Questionnaires:

 Completed in the presence of research staff:

Allows for personal contact, clarification, and monitoring.
Targets specific groups (e.g., pregnant women, occupational cohorts).
 Distributed and returned by mail : Efficient for reaching a large
audience.

-51-
3) Structured Questionnaire:

 Defined questions, prepared in advance.

 Formal, often used in studies on economics, social problems
 Verifies previously collected data.

4) Un-Structured Questionnaire:

 Flexible, used during interviews as a guide.

 Suitable for studies on personal beliefs, or family groups.
Developing a questionnaire

Steps in Questionnaire Construction

1. Review the information requirements necessitating a questionnaire.

2. Develop and prioritize a list of potential questions that will satisfy the
information requirements.
3. Assess each potential question carefully.
4. Determine the types of questions to be asked.
5. Decide on the specific wording of each question to be asked.
6. Determine the structure of the questionnaire.
7. Evaluate the questionnaire
3. Observation:
 Observation is a systematic data collection approach.
 Researchers use all of their senses to examine people in natural settings or
naturally occurring situations.
 The researcher can observe verbal & non-verbal communication,
surrounding atmosphere, culture & situation.

-52-
 Observable Phenomena or (Observed Events):

1) Characteristics & Conditions: Traits like physical appearance, temporary

conditions (e.g., rashes).
2) Activities & Behavior: Health-related actions, patient habits, and
emotional states.
3) Skill Attainment: Behavioral demonstrations of skills (e.g., self-care,
decision-making).
4) Verbal Communication: Conversations and information exchange.
5) Non-verbal Communication: Facial expressions, posture, body
movements, etc.
6) Environmental Characteristics: Influence of surroundings on behavior
(e.g., hospital noise, safety hazards).

 Observer Roles:
1. Complete Participant:
The researcher participates fully in the activities of those being observed and
attempts to act as one of the group. The observation may be done either
overtly (where the group knows the researcher is observing) or covertly
(where the researcher’s role as an observer is hidden).

2. Participant-as-Observer: The researcher takes part in the activities of

those being observed, but everyone knows they are also there to
observe. Their role as a researcher is clear to the group, and they balance
being involved with watching and recording what happens.

3. Observer-as-Participant: The researcher briefly participates in the

group’s activities but spends the majority of their time observing and
-53-
 recording the behaviors and events. The researcher is more of an
observer than a participant.

4. Complete Observer:The researcher in this role does not participate in

any of the activities of the group. They are solely focused on observing
behaviors and events without interacting or influencing the group in any
way.

 Types of Observation:
1. Participant Observation: In this type of observation, the researcher
actively participates in the group or setting they are studying while also
observing the behaviors and interactions around them, often used in
qualitative studies.
example, a nurse researcher might work alongside hospital staff while
observing their interactions with patients to understand the care process
better
2. Non-Participant Observation: Researcher does not get involved in the
activities they are studying. Instead, they observe from a distance
without influencing or interacting with the group.
example, a nurse researcher might observe patient care on a hospital ward
without directly interacting with patients or staff to see how care is provided
naturally.
 Conducting Participant Observation:
 Negotiating Access: The researcher Requires permission to enter the
study setting, build rapport with participants, and understand the cultural
context of the environment.
 Working in the Field: Minimizing disruption, refining observation

-54-
 focus, and spending time in the field.
 Recording Observations (Field Notes): Observations should be
recorded promptly and securely to ensure accuracy and confidentiality of
the data.

Advantages of observation
 Provides accurate measurement of visible behaviors.
 Allows data collection in real-time, where and when an event happens.
 Does not rely on people’s willingness to provide information
 Directly see what people do rather than relying on what they say they do
Disadvantages of observation
 Appropriate only for frequently occurring behaviors
 Unable to assess opinions of attitudes causing behaviors
 May be expensive in data-collection-time costs
 Hawthorne effect : people usually perform better when they know they are
being observed

-55-
 Data Interpretation in Nursing Research

 Outline:
 Introduction
 Definition
 Types of data in nursing research
 Objectives of data analysis
 Methods of interpreting different types of data
1) Qualitative Data
2) Quantitative Data

 Learning objectives :
 Identify the concepts of data interpretation in nursing research.
 Mention the objectives of data analysis
 Discuss the various methods of analyzing and interpreting data

-56-
 Di itaa teret i ata in nursing research

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Iunn .ru run rpn anann arn a non run r gpe n nr n errr rn n an r pr rn n r rnn n f nnarnu
nrnrann ,ner rasn arnr au f uan urun nIn pr ar grn nnne nau sn rrn nn n enrn n rrr n pr n e rur
n an reffr arnn ,u In nurn fnaru an nn un ,rnrr g-r p eu nurn n r rnn n aunrrrr
n.enruanf nnarnur-ucrau nu

 Data interpretation :
Refers to the process of analyzing data to extract meaningful insights
that guide clinical decision-making.
 It is an essential step in nursing research to ensure that the research
findings are valid, reliable, and applicable to patient care.
 Data interpretation helps translate research results into evidence-based
practices, ensuring better patient outcomes.
 Objectives of Data Interpretation
 The main objective of data interpretation is to accurately understand
research findings.
 Interpretation aids in drawing conclusions, testing hypotheses, and
providing actionable insights for improving nursing care.

 Types of Data in Nursing Research

1) Qualitative Data:
Qualitative data is non-numerical information that provides insights
into the qualities, characteristics, and experiences of individuals. It is used to
understand complex phenomena, human behavior, emotions, and perceptions.
-57-
 Common Descriptive Data Collection Methods, including interviews, and
open-ended surveys.
Example :a study exploring the emotional experiences of patients recovering from
surgery
2) Quantitative Data:
Quantitative data refers to numerical information that can be measured and
analyzed statistically.
 It involves data that is structured and focuses on quantity, size, frequency, or
amount, such as patient vital signs, lab results, and medication usage.

 Interpretation of Qualitative Data:

Qualitative data provides rich, detailed insights into human experiences,
behaviors, and perceptions. Interpreting qualitative data is essential in
understanding the complexities of patient care, nursing practice, and
healthcare outcomes
1) Coding: Organizing responses into categories to make the data easier to
interpret.
Key Steps in Coding:
 Initial Coding: Start by assigning labels or codes to chunks of data
based on key words or ideas.
 Categorization: Group related codes together to form broader categories
or themes.
 Refinement: Review the categories and refine them for clarity and
relevance to the research question.
Example in Nursing:
A researcher analyzing patient interviews about pain management might use
codes like "pain relief," "medication side effects," or "emotional distress."

-58-
 These can then be grouped into categories like "Effectiveness of Pain
Management" or "Patient Experience of Pain."

2) Narrative Analysis: Analyzing individual stories or accounts to derive

insights relevant to nursing practice.
Key Steps in Narrative Analysis:
 Collection of Stories: Gather individual stories, often through interviews
or personal accounts, focusing on people's experiences and perceptions.
 Story Structure Analysis: Analyze the structure of each narrative,
looking at how the story is told (e.g., beginning, middle, end).
 Interpretation: Derive insights into the emotional, social, or
psychological factors influencing the narrator’s experience.

 Interpretation of Quantitative Data:

1. Descriptive Statistics: Basic statistical measures such as mean, median, and

mode to summarize data.
2. Inferential Statistics: Methods such as hypothesis testing, and confidence
intervals to infer patterns or relationships in the data.
3. Graphical Representation: Visualizing data using charts,and scatter plots to
identify relationships easily.

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 Bibliography

 Introduction
A bibliography is an alphabetically arranged list of titles, authors’ names, and
publication dates for a set of books, articles, and other sources. An annotated
bibliography furnishes critical and explanatory notes in addition to the
bibliographical listings; in other words, an annotated bibliography is simply a
bibliography that contains a commentary and summary of each reference used.
You will use this information to help you decide which sources you will use in
later essays.

 Bibliography Definition & Meaning

- A bibliography is defined as a list of works that are written by an author or
written by different authors and is typically printed as an appendix. It can also
be referred to as a database of descriptive or critical notes of writing that can
relate to a particular subject, author, or period.
- Bibliography in research refers to a list of books and other source material that
have been used in preparing a research paper.

 Bibliography Uses, Purpose, Importance

It’s common knowledge that every book or written material that is academic
should have a bibliography section at the very end. This document is still
important whether or not it is a mandatory requirement for the entire creation
and management of a research project. Here are some other reasons why this
document is important.

-60-
 1- It serves as an optimal resource
When one writes a bibliography, they allow themselves to create the best
possible versions of all their sources of information. This applies to whether the
sources are primary sources or secondary sources. Having a bibliography also
enables a reader to determine the authority of the cited work.

2- Plagiarism Prevention
Plagiarism is defined as presenting someone else’s work as your own with or
without their consent by incorporating it into your work without full
acknowledgment. It’s a serious issue nowadays and will always be taken as a
form of cheating. By citing sources in a bibliography, the fair practice of
crediting someone’s work is practiced and plagiarism can be avoided.

3- Maintaining accuracy
Books and magazines can be great sources of information for readers. And when
the writer of a book or a magazine includes their source of information in the
work they’ve written, they allow the readers to check how accurate it is or not.
This is particularly the case when a random obscure fact is inserted. When a
source of that fact is cited at the end of the book, the accuracy is then not
questioned by the reader

4- Enhances the value of a paper

Whenever a bibliography is included at the end of a paper, the reader has the
opportunity to check and cross-examine the information that is written down in
the paper. This, in turn, elevates the value of the paper in question since it
shows to the reader that the author has devoted a lot of time and effort to
complete the research. Whenever a bibliography is not included in a work, there
is a great chance that the paper will only be dismissed as inaccurate and full of
-61-
 hearsay.
5-It acts as a source tracker
A bibliography also allows the reader to keep track of all the sources that were
used during the research. This can be important since there will be times that
the reader/evaluator will want to cross-reference the facts that are listed, and the
bibliography section will allow them to do so. It also acts as a simple yet
systematic database of all the information related to the topic of the research.

 What’s In a Bibliography? Parts?

What information do you need to reference a book?

- Author Names
The bibliography needs to contain the name of the author of the cited source,
which can be one or more than one, and may also contain the name of the
editors or translators, if applicable.
- Title
The next component that should be included in a bibliography is the title of the
source, and should also include the edition, the volume, and the book title if the
source being cited is a chapter or article in a book. -Publication Information
This part of the bibliography states the names and locations of the companies
that published the sources being cited and may also include the page numbers
that were consulted and the URL, if applicable.
- Publication Date
This part of the bibliography states the publication date of the sources being
cited.
- Access Date
This part of the bibliography is included when online resources are cited
- Edition number, if it is a 2nd or later edition.
-62-
 - Place of publication.
- Publisher.
E.g. Wally, Marie, Rose (2008). Foundation of Nursing Research, fifth edition
(5th ed.), U.S.A, Alexander Levin Julie, 2008.

 What information do you need to reference a journal article?

- Author(s) of the article.
- Title of the article.
- Title of the journal.
- Year of publication.
- Volume number.
- Issue number.
- Inclusive page numbers.
(E.g.) Mohab, Hamido, Shady. (2007). Effect of using Guidelines technique for
women with Genital disorders. Applied Nursing Research, 4 (5): 39-44.

 What information do you need to reference an online journal article /

newspaper article?
- Author(s) of the article (If the article does not have an author then use Anon.
[abbreviation of anonymous
- Title of the Journal or Newspaper.
- Type of medium in square brackets e.g. [online] after newspaper or journal
title.
- Year of publication.
- Volume number (if there is one).
- Part number or date and month of publication (which ever applies)
- Available from: Is it available via a database on the World Wide Web? For
example; Available from: Science Direct on the World Wide Web (where
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 Science Direct is the name of a database).
- URL: the web address where you can access the document.
- Date of access in square brackets, e.g. [Accessed 25 January 2002] this is the
date on which you viewed the document. Internet documents undergo constant
revision so the exact date that you consulted the document is vital.

-64-
 Bibliography vs. References
- A bibliography contains all the sources that have been used in creating the
paper, even if they are directly cited or not, and may also provide works for
background or further reading and may also include descriptive notes.
- A references list (or simply references) includes sources that have been
directly cited in the paper and usually contains writings that specifically
support the ideas, claims, and concepts in a paper.

 Reference styles:

There are many reference styles in the literature. However, the

commonest style used in medical publishing is the Vancouver Style
followed by the Harvard Style. We shall first briefly describe the Harvard
style then a detailed description of the Vancouver style will be presented.
Regardless of the style any reference system is composed of two parts;
citation of the reference in the text and the reference list at the end of the
text. It is your responsibility and not the editor's / reader's to verify the
references against the original documents

-65-
 1- The APA format: American psychological association.

► Author (s) Last name, First initial(s). (Year). Title of article, Name of journal,
volume (number): pages in article.
Ex:
- Cuzack, et al., (2010). Anti-oxidants modulate induction of programmed
endothelial cell death, Applied nursing research, 2(3): 122-300.

- Frank, H. (2011). Wolves, Dogs, Rearing and Reinforcement: Complex

Interactions Underlying Species Differences in Training and Problem-
Solving Performance. Behavior Genetics, 41(6), 830-839.
-66-
 2- Chicago style
EX;
Frank, H. 2011. "Wolves, Dogs, Rearing and Reinforcement: Complex
Interactions Underlying Species Differences in Training and Problem-Solving
Performance." Behavior Genetics 41 (6):830-839.

3-Harvard Style
A-Citation of reference in text:Reference with single author, Name of author,
year publication (Hussein, 1899)
B- Author’s name, year, part of a sentence
- Hussein (1899) showed that
C- Reference with two authors;Both names are given
- (Hussein and Rateb, 1880)
D-Reference with three authors
- First name followed by et al, (Rateb et al., 1890)
D-Several references arrange chronologically;
- (Hussein, 1899, Rateb, 1900, Farid, 1911)
E- Several references with the same author and same year
- (Farid, 1800a, Farid, 1800b)

B-References list:
- Order of references is alphabetical (e.g.):
- Aaronson, N.K., Meyerowitz, B.E., Bard, M. et al. (1991). Quality of life
in oncology: Past achievements and future priorities. Cancer J.,
5(67):839- 43.

4-Vancouver Style

-67-
 A. Citation of reference in text:

 References should be numbered consecutively in the order in which they

are first mentioned in the text. Identify references in text, by Arabic numerals
(1)
in parentheses. Use superscript numbers between brackets e.g. . Separate 2
reference numbers e.g. (1, 2) Separate >2 reference numbers e.g. (1,2,3)

B. Reference list (Journals)

 Less than six authors

- Halpern SD, Ubel PA, Caplan AL. Solid-organ transplantation in

HIV- infected patients. N Engl J Med. 2002 Jul 25; 347(4):284-7.

 More than six authors: EX;

- Rose ME, Huerbin MB, Melick J, Marion DW, Palmer AM, Schiding
JK, et al. Regulation of interstitial excitatory amino acidconcentrations
after cortical contusion injury. Brain Res. 2002; 935(1-2):40-6.

-68-
 Research Critique

Objectives:
At the end of this lecture the student will be able to:
1. Importance of research critique
2. Purposes of research critique
3. Principles of research critique
4. Critique skills
5. Critique process
6. Critique a scientific article

Outlines:
1. Introduction
2. Importance of research critique
3. Purposes of research critique
4. Principles of research critique
5. Critique skills
6. Critique process

96
 Research Critique

Introduction
Research critique refers to planned, systematic and careful evaluation of a research work.
It based on some pre-specified standard criteria to judge the strength and weakness of
work. It requires critical thinking and intellectual skills, and involves a careful examination
of all aspects of study to judge the merits, limitation, meaning and significance based on
previous research experience.

Definitions
o A research critique is a careful appraisal of the strengths and weaknesses of the
study.
o An intellectual research critique is a careful, complete examination of a study to
judge its strengths, weaknesses, logical links, meaning and significance.

Importance of Research Critique

► To broaden understanding for use in practice.
► For implementing an evidence-based nursing practice.
► Encourages nurses to participate in clinical inquiry and provide evidence for use in
practice

Purposes of Critique
 To assess students’ methodological and analytical skills (identify limitations and
strengths).
 Written critique is a guide to researcher.
 To advance nursing knowledge and profession.
 To evaluate understanding of the students.
 To improve the scientific flaws of the research.
07
Principles of Research Critique
Some principles should be kept in mind while appraising a research work:
 Be objective: by making comments on specific to the work he/she is reviewing
irrespective of name, job and related information of author. First, she or he should
convey a sincere interest and understanding of the article. Never ridicule or demean
the project or researcher.
 Be constructive: The expert should start commenting on positive points of the
report first than should take about weak points and scope for improvement in
research study.
 Be balanced: The report should be considered in a balanced way, identify in
inadequacies as well as adequacies. The evaluator should not focus on a particular
aspect of research report like talking about only adequacies and inadequacies.
 Be a good adviser: The evaluator should avoid excessive nit-picking and
fault-finding on trivial details and should advise the scope of
improvement in weak areas and suggest alternatives to make things more
trustworthy.
 Be a good communicator: An evaluator should be always a good communicator by
choosing clear concise statements to communicate observations or critique report.

Four Key Aspects of Critique

1. Understanding the purpose and problem, while determining if the design and
methodology are consistent with the purpose.
2. Determining if the methodology is properly applied.
3. Assessing if outcomes and conclusions are believable and supported by findings.
4. Reflecting on overall quality, strengths, and limitations.

07
CRITIQUE SKILLS
Critiquing skill can be assessed by assessing the researchers' critical thinking, logical
reasoning, knowledge of research methodology, attention to details and recognition of
strengths and weaknesses of the researches.

Critical Thinking
Critical thinking defined as the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully
conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered
from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication,
as a guide to belief and action.
Logical Reasoning
Logical reasoning can explained as deductive reasoning determines whether the truth of a
conclusion can be determined for that rule, based solely on the truth of the premises or
inductive reasoning as opposed to deductive reasoning attempts to support a determination
of the rule.
What to be avoid during critique
 It is not legitimate to criticize the research paper for something beyond its purpose.
Do not complain that an author did not include something unless that something is a
necessary part of a research article.
 Do not require the unobtainable. We all would like perfect data and ideal measures
for variables, but neither usually exists in reality. It is legitimate to criticize data or
measures if better ones are readily available. Otherwise do not complain if the
author has done the best she can with imperfect data.
 Do not make an abundance of broad and general statements of the type. This

07
 research was well done with an interesting question and good data.' This means
nothing. You must be concrete, describing specific strengths and weaknesses.
Clearly state your reasons for concluding that the author has either done a good or
less than- good job on one or more parts of the elements of research.

 Do not turn in sloppy research. Making nothing but positive comments on a fellow
student's paper is of no value whatsoever. We are here to team. Definitely praise items
where the author was particularly creative, industrious, or ingenious. But also comment
(politely, but firmly) on weaknesses so the author can address them before turning a
paper in for a grade or as a journal submission. size

Knowledge of Research Methodology

Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the problem, how scientifically
the study is conducted. A researcher must have in-depth knowledge on research
methodology (both qualitative and quantitative research) to evaluate or critique research.
Without in-depth knowledge it is difficult for a researcher to enter to the study. She or he
should also be sound practically in conducting research.

Attention to Details
During critiquing research the researcher has to focus on his/her attention to the
whole study not only the important or interesting aspect. He/she has to go through details
from the introduction to bibliography.
Recognition of Strengths and Weaknesses
Critical appraisal is a systematic process used to identify the strengths and weaknesses
of a research article in order to assess the usefulness and validity of research findings.

CRITIQUE PROCESS FOR QUANTITATIVE STUDIES

The critique process is different in both qualitative and quantitative research.
07
A researcher will follow basic steps for all quantitative researches, they are as follows:
Comprehension
Comprehension means the ability to grasp the meaning of material by interpreting it.
It is the first step of research critique process. First the researcher will read the article
carefully identify terms he/she does not understand and determine their meaning in a
dictionary. Highlight difficult and important aspects each step of the research process.
Comparison
In this step the researcher will compare the research, which he/she is critiquing with
an ideal research. This requires knowledge of what each step of the research process
should be like. The ideal is compared with the real. Examine the extent to which the
researcher followed the rules for an ideal study.
Analysis
A systematic examination and evaluation of data or information, by breaking it into
its component parts to uncover their inter relationships. Here in research critiquing in the
step of analysis the researcher will observe the whether the study is significant, gave
proper result, shows logical links connecting one study element with another .

► STEPS FOR CRITIQUING QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

STUDIES
In critiquing the steps in the research process a number of questions need to be asked.
However, these questions are seeking more than a simple 'yes’ or 'no' answer. The
questions are posed to stimulate the reviewer to consider the implications of what the
researcher has done.

Writing Style

07
 Research reports should be well-written, grammatically correct, concise and well-
organized. The use of jargon should be avoided where possible. The style should be such
that it attracts the reader to read on.
During critique the evaluator will search the answer for the following questions:
 Is the paper well-organized?
 Is the narrative wordy and redundant?
 Are there irrelevant sections that can be deleted?
 Are there errors in spelling or grammar? If so identify them.
Author(s)
The author(s') qualifications and job title can be a useful indicator into the
researcher(s') knowledge of the area under investigation and ability to ask the appropriate
questions. The evaluator will assess whether the researcher(s') qualifications/position
indicate a degree of knowledge in this particular field of conducting research.
Report Title
The title should be between 10 and 15 words long and should clearly identify' for the
reader the purpose of the study. Titles that are too long or too short can be confusing or
misleading. It should succinctly suggest key variables and study population. The evaluator
has to find out whether the titles clear, accurate and unambiguous or not. to

Abstract
The abstract should provide a succinct overview of the research and should include
information regarding the purpose of the study, method, sample size and selection. It
provides a snapshot of the study. From the snapshot, decide how relevant the source is for
the purposes, in terms of topic, population, and
methodology'. Evaluator may ask the question to himself duringcritiquing the abstract as
does the abstract clearly concisely summaries main features of the report (problem,
method, result and conclusion)?

07
Research Problem
A research problem is often first presented to the reader in the introduction to the
study. Depending on what is to be investigated some authors will refer to it as the purpose
of the study. In either case the statement should at least broadly indicate to the reader what
is to be studied. Broad problems are often multifaceted and will need to become narrower
and more focused before they can be researched.
Literature Review
The primary' purpose of the literature review is to define or develop the research
question while also identifying an appropriate method of data collection. It should also
help to identify any gaps in the literature relating to the problem and to suggest how those
gaps might be filled. The majority of studies included should be of recent origin and
ideally less than fiveyears- old. The researcher during critique will observed whether:
 Review begins with an introduction which identifies the key words used to conduct
the search and information about which databases were used.
 Well-organized and included in a summary also.
 The themes that emerged from the literature should then be presented and discussed.
 The data is reviewed critically, highlighting both the strengths and limitations of the
study and be compared and contrasted with the findings of other studies.

Theoretical Framework
Theoretical frameworks are a concept that novice and experienced
researchers find confusing. It is initially important to note that not all research
studies Theoretical frameworks are a concept that novice and experienced researchers
find use a defined theoretical framework. A theoretical framework can be a conceptual
model that is used as a guide for the study or themes from the literature that are
conceptually mapped and used to set boundaries for the research.
The researcher will evaluate:
09
 dentified?
?
Is the framework appropriate?

Aims and Objectives, Research Question and Research Hypothesis

The purpose of the aims and objectives of a study, the research question and the
research hypothesis is to form a link between the initially stated purpose of the study or
research problem and how the study will be undertaken. They should be clearly stated and
be congruent with the data presented in the literature review. The following questions can
be asked like:
 Have aims and objectives, a research question or hypothesis been identified?
 If so are they clearly stated?
 Do they reflect the information presented in the literature review?

Ethical Considerations
Beauchamp and Childress (2001) identify four fundamental moral principles:
i. Autonomy
ii. ii. Non-maleficence,
iii. iii. Beneficence, and
iv. Justice. Autonomy infers that an individual has the light to freely decide to
participate in a research study without fear of coercion and with a full knowledge of
what is being investigated. Nonmaleficence implies an intention of not harming
and preventing harm occurring to participants both of a physical and psychological
nature. Beneficence is interpreted as the research benefiting the participant and
society as a whole. Justice is concerned with all participants being treated as equals
and no one group of individuals receiving preferential treatment because, e.g. of
their position in society. Ethical committees or institutional review boards have to
give approval before research can be undertaken. Their role is to determine that

00
 ethical principles are being applied and that the rights of the individual are being
adhered to. The researcher will check:

rom harm?

Operational Definitions
In a research study the researcher needs to ensure that the reader understands what is
meant by the terms and concepts that are used in the research. To ensure this any concepts
or terms referred to should be clearly defined.
The researcher will check:
 Are all the terms, theories and concepts mentioned in the study defined?
 Whether that are defined operationally which is different from dictionary definition?

Research Design
There are several types of quantitative studies that can be structured under the headings
of true experimental, quasi experimental and non-experimental designs. For critiquing
research design the following questions can answer.
 What type of design is used?
 Does the design seem to flow from the proposed research problem, theoretical
framework, literature review, and hypothesis?
 What type(s) of data collection method(s) is/are used in the study?
 Are the data collection procedures similar for all subjects?
 How have the rights of subjects been protected?
 What indications are given that informed consent of the subjects has been ensured?

07
Sample and Sample Size
The degree to which a sample reflects the population it was drawn from is known as
representativeness and in quantitative research this is a decisive factor in determining the
adequacy of a study. The size of the sample is also important in quantitative research as
small samples are at risk of being overly representative of small subgroups within the
target population. During critiquing of the sample and sampling technique
The evaluator should observe the following:
 How was the sample selected?
 What type of sampling method is used? Is it appropriate to the design?
 Does the sample reflect the population as identified in the problem or purpose
statement?
 Is the sample appropriate?
 To what population may the Findings be generalized? What are the limitations in
generalizability?

Data Collection Method

The next element to consider after the research design is the data collection method. In
a quantitative study any number of strategies can be adopted when collecting data and
these can include interviews, questionnaires, attitude scales or observational tools.
Questionnaires are the most commonly used data gathering instruments and consist mainly
of closed questions with a choice of fixed answers. Postal questionnaires are administered
via the mail and have the value of perceived anonymity. Questionnaires can also be
administered in face-to-face interviews or in some instances over the telephone.
Instrument Design
After identifying the appropriate data gathering method the next step that needs to be
considered is the design of the instrument. Researchers have the choice of using a
previously designed instrument or developing one for the study and this choice should be
clearly declared for the reader. Designing an instrument is a protracted and sometimes

06
difficult process, but the overall aim is that the final questions will be clearly linked to the
research questions and will elicit accurate information and will help achieve the goals of
the research. This, however, needs to be demonstrated by the researcher if a previously
designed instrument is selected the researcher should dearly establish that chosen
instrument is the most appropriate.
The evaluator who is critiquing the research should observe:
 Has the data gathering instrument been described?
 Is the instrument appropriate?
 How was it developed?
 Do the instruments or tools directly measure the variables of interest?
 Were reliability and validity testing undertaken and the results discussed?
 Was a pilot study undertaken?

Validity and Reliability

One of the most important features of any instrument is that it measures the concept
being studied in an unwavering and consistent way. These are addressed under the broad
headings of validity and reliability respectively. In general, validity is described as the
ability of the instrument to measure what it is supposed to measure and reliability the
instrument's ability to consistently and accurately measure the concept under study

Analysis and Results

The researcher should clearly identify what statistical tests were undertaken, why
these tests were used and what were the results. Tables, charts and graphs may be used to
summarize the results and should be accurate, clearly identified and enhance the
presentation of result. The percentage of the sample who participated in the study is an
important element in considering the generalizability of the results.
 What level of measurement is used to measure each of the major variables?
 What descriptive or inferential statistics are reported?

77
  Does the author report the level of significance set for the study? If so, what is it?
 If tables or figures are used, do they supplement and economize the text and precise
titles?

Discussion/Conclusion/Recommendations
The discussion of the findings should logically from the data and should be related
back to the literature review thus placing the study in context. If the hypothesis was
deemed to have been supported by the findings, the researcher should develop this
in the discussion. If a theoretical or conceptual framework was used in the study then
the relationship with the findings should be explored. Any interpretations or inferences
drawn should be clearly identified as such and consistent with the results.
The significance of the findings should be stated but these should be considered within
the overall strengths and limitations of the study. In addition, the researcher should make
relevant and meaningful suggestions for future research in the area.
During critiquing of the research study, the evaluator should focus on following points:
 Are the findings linked back to the literature review?
 If a hypothesis was identified was it supported?
 What generalizations are made?
 What recommendations for future research are stated or implied?
 Are there other studies with similar findings?
 What risks/benefits are involved for patients if the research findings would be used
in practice?

References
The research study should conclude with an accurate list of all the books; journal articles,
reports and other media that were referred to in the work. The referenced material is also a
useful source of further information on the subject being studied.

77
  Were all the books, journals and other media alluded to in the study accurately
referenced?
 Were a standardized system of writing report is followed during writing
bibliography?

► QUALITATIVE RESEARCH CRITIQUE

For critiquing qualitative studies there are some standards by which we can evaluate
qualitative studies. That's:
 Standard I : Descriptive vividness
 Standard II : Methodological congruence
 Standard III: Analytical precision
 Standard IV: Theoretical connectedness
 Standard V : Heuristic relevance
What to be avoid during critique
 It is not legitimate to criticize the research paper for something beyond its purpose.
Do not complain that an author did not include something unless that something is a
necessary part of a research article.
 Do not require the unobtainable. We all would like perfect data and ideal measures
for variables, but neither usually exists in reality. It is legitimate to criticize data or
measures if better ones are readily available. Otherwise do not complain if the
author has done the best she can with imperfect data.
 Do not make an abundance of broad and general statements of the type. This
research was well done with an interesting question and good data.' This means
nothing. You must be concrete, describing specific strengths and weaknesses.
Clearly state your reasons for concluding that the author has either done a good or
less than- good job on one or more parts of the elements of research.

 Do not turn in sloppy research. Making nothing but positive comments on a fellow
77
student's paper is of no value whatsoever. We are here to team. Definitely praise items
where the author was particularly creative, industrious, or ingenious. But also comment
(politely, but firmly) on weaknesses so the author can address them before turning a
paper in for a grade or as a journal submission.

77