Nursing Research

Prepared by
Pediatric and psychiatric Nursing Departments Staff

Faculty of Nursing - Sohag University

2019-2020

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

NO TOPICS Page No

1 4-13
Introduction to nursing research

2 Research Methods 14-19

4 Sampling 25-32

5 Data collection methods 33-47

6 48-52
Writing a research proposal

7 Data interpretation 53-55

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 Introduction to nursing research

Out line:

 Definitions

 Importance of nursing research

 Purpose of research

 Sources of Nursing Knowledge

 Historical Development

 Priorities for Nursing Research

 Roles of Nurses in Research

 Scientific Research.

 Characteristics of Scientific Research.

 Overview of the Research Process.

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Meaning of research

The root meaning of the word is

• Search again or

• Examine Carefully

• Research is a systematic enquiry.

Definitions (Cont.):
 Research: is a systematic inquiry that uses disciplined methods to answer
questions or solve problems.

 Nursing Research: is a systemic, objective process of analyzing phenomena of

importance to Nursing.

 Nursing research: include all studies concerning nursing practice, nursing

education & nursing administration

Importance of nursing research:-

-Describe the characteristics of a particular nursing situation about which little is
known.

- Explain phenomena that must be considered nursing care.

- Predict the probable outcomes of certain nursing decision.

- Control the occurance of undesired outcomes.

- Initiate activities to promote desired client behavior.

General purpose of research:

 Research studies can be classified according general purpose of the study as
basic and applied research.
 Basic research: is concerned with generating new knowledge.

Characteristics of basic research

 Purpose of basic research is to test and generate new theory.

 Immediate application of the result does not occur.

 Often uses laboratory animals as subjects.

Applied research:- Is referred to as pure research.

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 Characteristics of applied research

 Directed toward generating knowledge that can be used in the near future.

 Often conducted to seek solutions to immediate problems.

 Majority of nursing studies have been examples of applied research.

Specific purposes of research

1- Description.

2- Exploration.

3- Explanation.

4- Prediction.

5- Control Purposes of nursing research.

Purposes of research related to nursing practices:

 The ultimate purpose is to provide high quality patient care.

 Determine the impact of nursing care on health of patient.

 Evaluate the effectiveness of nursing treatment modalities.

 Meet social needs and challenges

 Discover and develop an organized body of knowledge.

 Validate the improvement in nursing practice.

 Make health care efficient and cost effective.

Sources of Nursing Knowledge

1) Trial & Error: As a mean of discovering knowledge. If one approach did not
work, another one was used.

2) Tradition: Involves the handing down of knowledge from one generation to

another and leading to actions that occurs.

3) Authority: Experts or authorities in a given field often provide knowledge for

other people.

4) Personal Experience: To be personally involved in an event, situation or

circumstances. e.g., steps of gaining nursing practices are: knowing, observing
& doing.

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5) Role Modeling: Imitating the behavior of an exemplar.

6) Mentorship: An intense form of role modeling. The mentor serves as teacher,

sponsor, guide, exemplar & counselor for novice nurse.

7) The most objective & reliable source of nursing knowledge is obtained through
scientific research

8) The scientific method uses empirical data, which are data gathered through the
sense organs.

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Priorities for Nursing Research
This priorities includes research concerned with:-

 Health promotion and preventive health practices for all age groups

 Health care needs of high risk groups.

 Life satisfaction of individual and families

 Development of cost effective health care systems.

Roles of Nurses in Research

There are many roles that nurses can assume in association with research studies
as:-

 Principle investigator.

 Member of a research team.

 Evaluator of research findings.

 Client advocate during a research study.

 Subject in research studies.

 User of research findings.

Scientific Research
Scientific research is characterized by several features.
 The researcher uses systematic, orderly, and objective methods of seeking
information.

 This information is gained in the form of data or facts that are obtained in an
unbiased manner from some aspect of the real world.

 The researcher tries to exercise as much as control as possible over the research
situation, to minimize biased results.

 Scientific research is concerned with the ability to generalized results.

Overview of the Research Process

The scientific research process proceeds in an orderly fashion and consists of the
following steps:

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 Research Methods
There are two categories of research methods:
1-Quantitative data collection usually involves numbers, graphs and charts
2- Qualitative data collection methods deal with feelings and other non-quantifiable
elements.
Questionnaires can be used as qualitative, as well as, quantitative method.
Specifically, if open-ended questions are used qualitative methods will be used for
data analysis. Alternatively, if questionnaire consists of closed-ended questions, then
quantitative approach is adopted for data analysis.
Differences between Qualitative and Quantitative Methods: The main differences
between qualitative and quantitative research methods can be summarized in the
following points:
1- Data in quantitative research appears in the forms of numbers and specific
measurements and in qualitative research data can be in forms of words, images,
transcripts, etc.
2- Research findings in quantitative research can be illustrated in the forms of tables,
graphs and pie-charts, whereas, research findings in qualitative studies is usually
presented in analysis by only using words.
Types of researches:
1- Explanatory research: To explain things it offers understanding of the
phenomena. This type of research focuses on questions such as (Why? why such a
relationship exists? Example, why premature neonates have a certain patterns of
feeding and not the other?
2- Experiment research: Here the research manipulates the independent variable
observes and measures the subsequent changes in the dependent variable Example:
Effect of drug X on heart failure condition.
3- Historical research: It is frequently utilized by nurse researchers. It is related to
the history of nursing which explores documentary data sources.

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Selecting a research design (Outline):
1-Definition.
2-Types of research
3-Characteristics

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Research design: is defined as the overall plan for collecting and analyzing data
including specifications for improving the validity of the study.
1-What to do?
2-When to do?
3-Where to do?
5- How to do?
5-Why to do what? where and when?
Types of research design-: A- Experimental research design.
B- Non experimental research design.
C- Other types of research design.
Experimental research design:
Definition: are search study which the researcher manipulate the independent
variable and measures variations in the dependent variables
Types of experimental research design:
True- experimental research design: The experimental research design is scientific
investigation in which observations are made and data are collected according to a set
of well defined criteria
It is characterized by:
A-Manipulation
B-Control c- Randomization
A-Manipulation: These three characteristics increase the validity of the study. It
grantees that the change in the dependent variable is not because any other extension
variable but as a result of manipulation of the independent variable.
B- Control: the process of holding constant possible influences on the dependent
variable under investigation control group refers to group of subjects in the
experimental study treatment or manipulation and who's of interest.
c- Randomization
Quasi experimental research design: It is research design in which there is lack at
least one of the three characteristics of the true experimental research designs which
are manipulation control or randomization.
Non experimental research design (Outlines):-

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Definition.
- Reasons for choosing non experimental research design.- Types of non-
experimental
Research design
Non experimental research, design in which the researcher is a passive agent that is
he collects data without manipulation intervention or introduction of any new change
or 'treatment.
Reasons for choosing experimental research design
1- Independent variables are inherently not manipulated:
Eg we cannot confer upon incoming hospital patients various diagnosis in order to
study the effect of diagnosis upon preoperative anxiety.
2-Ethical constraints on manipulation, eg when study polio vaccine Salk or Sabin and
incidence of the disease.
Group I .................. salk
Group II.........:........ sabin
Group III :.................. No vaccine
Such a research could not be done for ethical reason.
3- Practical constraints__ such as
- Insufficient time. - Inconvenience
- Lack of cooperation
- Lack of adequate= funds.
Types of non- experimental research design pure descriptive research design: this
study is to obtain information about the current status o phenomena of interest that is
to describe what exists in terms of the frequency of occurrence rather than to describe
a relationship between variables. Eg : Determination of the„ _percent of ^teenage
~pregnant mothers, whose babies are premature.
~ Correlation descriptive research design
It is research design that explore the inter - relationship among variables of interest
without .any active "intervention or manipulation the,
Independent variables by the researcher, it only 'describe the existing relationships
without fully 'understanding or explaining the complex, casual pathway that exist. Eg

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Are men more likely than` woman to become alcoholics? Whether or not a particular
shape of sex chromosomes has caused a predisposition of alcohol. `
Retrospective research design:
This is a study that begins with manifestation of the dependent variable in the present
( eg. Lung cancer or low birth weight) and then t to some presumed cause occurring
in the past. Eg. Cigarette, smoking or addiction. A study begins with presumed causes
and then goes forward in time fb observe -presumed effect.
Eg. A research wants to test the hypothesis that the incidence of rubella during
pregnancy is related to malformation in the spring to do this research prospectively.
He begins with a sample of pregnant women (two groups) one group go to active
research design, in ;an examination of rubella in pregnancy , other group did not get
rubella in pregnancy and then observe the incidence of malformation in both groups.
The 'result of this study would say that the incidence was higher in which group.
Other types of non- experimental research design
1- The term survey can be used to describe any research activity in which the
investigator gathers data from aortionulation for.
the purpose of examining the characteristics
Opinions or intentions of populations, eg
what are people eat ? . -
What is their compliance in taking medication? What are their sleeping patterns?
c- Case study
It does not have a specific research design it could be performed in several ways and
steps -4 according to the phenomena to be studied according to the phenomena to be
studied an the purpose of the study.
Case studies are naturalistic studies, conducted in a setting that is not controlled by
the researcher, it involves one or served cases that are studied over time using multi~
Gathering methods. In fact almost all methods of data collecting could be used in the
case study
Characteristics of good research design.
1-Appropriate to the research
2-Lack of bias

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3-Control: The researcher must design a study that controls extraneous variable
through manipulation, randomization. And use of comparison.
4-Precision,): The term precision is used to refer: to appropriateness of the statistical
procedures used to analysis can detect any effect on the dependent variable by the
extraneous variables.
5-Internal validity: This is concerned with the questions ' are attributed to the
independent variables or other extraneous variables.
5fExternal validity: This is concerned with the generalizability of the research finding
to other individual and other setting.

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 Sampling

Sampling is the process of selecting units (e.g., people, organizations) from a

population of interest so that by studying the sample we may fairly generalize our
results back to the population from which they were chosen.

Definitions:
 Sampling is the process of selecting a representative group from the population
under study.

 The target population is the total group of individuals from which the sample
might be drawn.

 A sample is the group of people who take part in the investigation. The people
who take part are referred to as “participants”.

Types of Samples:

— A- Probability (Random) Samples

- Simple random sample

- Systematic random sample

- Stratified random sample

- Multistage sample

- Multiphase sample

- Cluster sample

— B- Non-Probability Samples

- Convenience sample

- Purposive sample

- Quota

- Snowball sampling

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 A- Probability (Random) Samples

1- Simple random sample

Is the simplest type of probability sampling, often using some type of computer
program or random number generator.

• Applicable when population is small, homogeneous & readily available

• All subsets of the frame are given an equal probability. Each element of the
frame thus has an equal probability of selection. (Everyone in the entire target
population has an equal chance of being selected).

• It provides for greatest number of possible samples. This is done by assigning a

number to each unit in the sampling frame.

• Random samples require a way of naming or numbering the target population

and then using some type of raffle method (lottery) to choose those to make up
the sample.

• A table of random number or lottery system is used to determine which units

are to be selected.

The advantages are that your sample should represent the target population and
eliminate sampling bias, but the disadvantage is that it is very difficult to achieve
(i.e. time, effort and money).

2- Stratified Sampling:
Involves separating the population into subgroups and then taking a simple random
sample from each of these subgroups.

Stratified Sampling is possible when it makes sense to partition the population into
groups based on a factor that may influence the variable that is being
measured. These groups are then called strata. An individual group is called a
stratum. With stratified sampling one should:

 partition the population into groups (strata)

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  obtain a simple random sample from each group (stratum)
 collect data on each sampling unit that was randomly sampled from each group
(stratum)

Examples of stratum include mothers, fathers, students, teachers, females, males,

etc. Sampling error is usually lower in stratified sampling than in random
sampling.

Stratified sampling works best when a heterogeneous population is split into fairly
homogeneous groups. Under these conditions, stratification generally produces more
precise estimates of the population percents than estimates that would be found from
a simple random sample.

Stratified random sampling often provides greater statistical accuracy than simple
random sampling and helps ensure that certain groups are accurately represented in
the sample.

Gathering such a sample would be extremely time consuming and difficult to do

(disadvantage). However, the advantage is that the sample should be highly
representative of the target population and therefore we can generalize from the
results obtained.

3- Cluster Sampling:

Cluster Sampling is very different from Stratified Sampling. With cluster sampling
one should:

 divide the population into groups (clusters).

 obtain a simple random sample of so many clusters from all possible clusters.
 obtain data on every sampling unit in each of the randomly selected clusters.

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 Cluster sampling is an example of 'two-stage sampling' .

 First stage a sample of areas is chosen;

 Second stage a sample of respondents within those areas is selected.

 Population divided into clusters of homogeneous units, usually based on

geographical contiguity.

 Sampling units are groups rather than individuals.

 A sample of such clusters is then selected.

 All units from the selected clusters are studied.

It is important to note that, unlike with the strata in stratified sampling, the clusters
should be microcosms, rather than subsections, of the population. Each cluster should
be heterogeneous. Additionally, the statistical analysis used with cluster sampling is
not only different, but also more complicated than that used with stratified sampling.

Involves dividing a population into smaller clusters, often based upon geographic
location or boundaries. A random sample of these clusters is then selected and all of
the subjects within in cluster are measured.

For example, imagine that you are trying to do a study on school principals in your
state. Collecting data from every single school principle would be cost-prohibitive
and time-consuming. Using a cluster sampling method, you randomly select five
counties from your state and then collect data from every subject in each of those five
counties.

1- Systematic Sampling:

Systematic Sampling means chooses subjects in a systematic (i.e. orderly /

logical) way from the target population, like every nth participant on a list of
names.

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To take a systematic sample, you list all the members of the population, and then
decided upon a sample you would like. By dividing the number of people in the
population by the number of people you want in your sample, you get a number we
will call n.

In systematic sampling, individuals or households are chosen at regular intervals

from the sampling frame. For this method we randomly select a number to tell us
where to start selecting individuals from the list.

For example, a systematic sample is to be selected from 1,200 students at a school.

The sample size selected is 100. The sampling fraction is 1200/100. The sampling
interval is therefore 12. The number of the first student to be included in the sample is
chosen randomly, for example, by blindly picking one out of 12 pieces of paper,
numbered 1 to 12. If number 6 is picked, then every twelfth student will be included
in the sample, starting with student number 6, until 100 students are selected. The
numbers selected would be 6, 18, 30, 42, etc.

The advantage to this method is that is should provide a representative sample, but
the disadvantage is that it is very difficult to achieve (i.e. time, effort and money).

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 — B- Non-Probability Samples

1- Convenience sampling:

Convenience sampling involves using participants in a study because they are

convenient and available

Uses people from target population available at the time and willing to take part.

An opportunity sample is obtained by asking members of the population of interest if

they would take part in your research. An example would be selecting a sample of
students from those coming out of the library.

This is a quick way and easy of choosing participants (advantage), but may not
provide a representative sample, and could be biased (disadvantage).

2- Purposive sampling:

A purposive sample is a non-probability sample that is selected based on

characteristics of a population and the objective of the study. Purposive sampling is
also known as judgmental, selective, or subjective sampling.

Purposive sampling involves seeking out individuals that meet certain criteria.

This type of sampling can be very useful in situations when you need to reach a
targeted sample quickly, and where sampling for proportionality is not the main
concern

 The researcher chooses the sample based on who they think would be
appropriate for the study. This is used primarily when there is a limited number
of people that have expertise in the area being researched, or when the interest

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 of the research is on a specific field or a small group. Different types of
purposive sampling include:
 Deviant case - The researcher obtains cases that substantially differ from the
dominant pattern (a special type of purposive sample). The case is selected in
order to obtain information on unusual cases that can be specially problematic
or specially good.
 Case study - The research is limited to one group, often with a similar
characteristic or of small size.
 Ad hoc quotas - A quota is established (e.g. 65% women) and researchers are
free to choose any respondent they wish as long as the quota is met.

3. Quota Sampling

Another non-probability method, quota sampling also identifies strata like stratified
sampling, but it also uses a convenience sampling approach as the researcher will be
the one to choose the necessary number of participants per stratum.

4- Snowball sampling

This method is commonly used in social sciences when investigating hard to reach
groups. Existing subjects are asked to nominate further subjects known to them, so
the sample increases in size like a rolling snowball. For example, when carrying out a
survey of risk behaviours amongst intravenous drug users, participants may be asked
to nominate other users to be interviewed.

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 Data collection methods

1. Questionnaire.

2. Interviews.

3. Observation Methods.

4. Physiological measures.

5. Attitude scales

 Liker scales.
 Semantic differential scales.

6. Psychological tests.

7. Visual analogue scale.

8. Preexisting data.

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1- QUESTIONNAIRE

Definition: Is a paper–and pencil self-reporting instruments, it contains questions that

respondents are asked to answer in writing.

Questionnaires can be used to measures knowledge levels, opinions, attitudes, factual

information, beliefs, ideas, feelings, and perceptions as well as to gather information.

Characteristic of good questionnaire:

1- It is important to use a high quality printing process and paper.

2- Questionnaire should be neat in appearance, grammatically correct, and contain no

typing or spelling errors.

3- Questionnaire should not be cluttered or crowded appearance to avoid confusion.

4- Adequate margin and spacing of the questions are needed.

5- It is better to add another page to the questionnaire rather than to crowding too
many questions.

6- Questionnaire should be written in a respondents preferred language and

appropriate for the knowledge and reading level of the least education.

7- Questionnaire should be short kept as possible.

8- A desirable length of a question is less than 20 words.

9- A question need to be divided into two questions if the length becomes excessive
or the question asks more than one idea at a time.

How to write the questions?

There are some guidelines to recognize how to construct or how to write the
questions:

1- State questions in an affirmative rather than negative manner.

EX: -All the following criteria should be met in research study except:

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 * There is a problem statement or purpose.

*The references cited in the literature are current.

*The limitation of study is acknowledged.

*The researcher provided the study hypothesis.

2- Avoid ambiguous question that contain word have more than one meaning like
{many, usually, few, several}.

3- Avoid double negative questions

EX: Do not you disagree with the idea that......?

4- Any question that implies the type of answer to be given may result in biased
responses Question should neutral wording.

EX: Do you believe that smoking is a disgusting habit?

The desired question here is:

What is your opinion about cigarette smoking?

5- Avoid double barreled question.

Which asks tow question in one?

EX: do you plan to pursue a master degree in nursing and seek an

administrative position graduation?

When a question contain "and" it is quite likely that

tow question are needed.

Types of questionnaire:

 Demographic question.

 Open-ended question.

 Closed-ended question.

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 Contingency question.

 Filler question.

1. Demographic question

-Used to describe the study sample.

-Include such factors as age .educational background and religion.

2. Open –ended questions

The researcher asks respondent to complete question in their own words in open–
ended question, essay and fill-in the blank, used in combination with closed-ended
question

3. closed-ended question

The most structured questions are closed-ended question which the respondent is
asked to choose from given alternatives.

There may be only two alternatives as a true or false question or many as in a

checklist type where respondents are asked to check all items that apply to them.

Other types of closed-ended questions include multiple-choice question and matching

questions.

The following example demonstrates categories that are collectively exhaustive and
mutually exclusive.

How many apples do you eat each week?

(A) None.

(B) 1 – 2.

(C) 3 – 4.

(D) More than 4.

(Exhaustive) categories

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 EX Please check your highest level of education

» Elementary.

» High school.

» College.

How would subjects respond that had not complete elementary school?

Adding an “other” category is needed in this condition. A blank is provided beside

the word other for respondents’ answers.

4. Contingency question

Questionnaire items those are relevant for some respondents and not for others.

Ex: A researcher might want to determine if a client has been satisfied with the
types of nursing care received during previous hospitalization.

1- Have you ever been hospitalized before? __ Yes___ NO

2- How would you rate the care received during your last hospitalization?
__ Poor __ Fair __ Good

5. Filler question

Items in which the researcher has no direct interest but are included on a
questionnaire to reduce the emphasis on the specific purpose of other question

Ex: If the main purpose of the study was to gain information concerning patients’
perception of the nursing care they had received, the researcher might include a lot of
other questions about the food they had been served, visiting hours.

If the subjects could determine that the only purpose of the study was to obtain their
perceptions of nursing care, they might hesitate to criticize the nursing care they had
received.

Placement of Question

 All questions about a certain topic should be grouped together.

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 Demographic questions (which ask for factual information about the subject)
should be grouped together.

 Demographic questions frequently placed in the beginning of a questionnaire

 Place simple questions at the beginning, these are easy to answer and may
encourage the respondent to continue with the questionnaire.

 Others chooses to place the demographic questions at the end as they belief
that this questions which asking for income or age , may be threatening to the
respondent.

Cover Letter

 Should accompany all mailed questionnaires and is helpful any time a

questionnaire is administered.

 The letter should be brief and contain the following:

1. Identification of the researcher and any sponsoring agency or person.

2. Purpose of the research.

3. How participant was selected.

4. Reason the respondent should answer the questionnaire.

5. Length of time to complete the questionnaire.

6. How data will be used or made public.

7. Deadline for return of questionnaire.

8. An offer to inform respondent of results of study

9. Contact phone number, address ,or both

10. Personal signature of the researcher

 The cover letter may be the single most important factor in motivating
respondents to complete questionnaires.

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Completion Instruction

» Information on how to complete the questionnaire must be clear and concise.

» If all questions are to be answered using the same type of format, a general set
of instructions may be written at the top of the questionnaire.

» Several different types of questions are included on instrument, and instruction

need to precede each type of question. It is very helpful to provide the respondent
with an example of appropriate way to respond to a particular type of question.

Factors Influencing Response Rate

1- Mailing at a time other than holiday seasons or popular vacation times.

2- Hand-addressed outer envelopes.
3- Personal signature of the researcher on cover letter.
4- Information in the cover letter that motivates respondents.
5- An incentive.
6- Neatness and clarity of instrument.
7- Ease of completion of instrument.
8- Time to complete the instrument does not exceed 10 to 15 minutes.
9- Guarantee of anonymity.
10- Inclusion of a preaddressed, stamped envelope.
Advantages and disadvantages of the questionnaire

Advantages Disadvantages
Quick and inexpensive. Mailing can be costly.
Easy for reliability, validity.Response rate may be low.
Less time consuming. Respondents may provide socially acceptable
answers
Data can be obtained from Respondents may fail to answer some of the
respondent in widespread items.
geographical area.
Respondents can remain There is no opportunity to clarify items that may
anonymous. be misunderstood by respondents
If anonymity is assured, Respondents must be literate.
respondents are more likely to Respondents may not be representative of the
provide honest answers. population
Respondent must have no physical disability that
would deter them from completing a
questionnaire

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 2-INTERVIEW

Definition:

An interviewer obtains responses from a subject in face – to – face encounter or

through a telephone call.

o Interview is frequently used in descriptive research studies & qualitative

studies.

o Interview is used to obtain factual data about people as well as to measure

their opinions, attitudes, and beliefs about certain topics.

TYPES OF INTERVIEW

 Un-structured Interviews.

 Structured Interviews.

 Semi structured Interviews.

Un-structured Interviews.

 The interviewer is given a great deal of freedom to direct the course of the
interview.

 Conducted more like a normal conversation.

 Particularly appropriate for exploratory or qualitative research studies where

the researcher does not possess enough knowledge about the topic to structure
questions in advance of data collection.

Structured Interviews

Involve asking the same questions, in the same order, and in the same manner of all
respondents in a study.

Structured interviews are most appropriate when straight forward factual

information is desired.

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Semi structured Interviews

Interviewers are generally required to ask a certain number of specific questions,

but additional probes are allowed or even encouraged. Both closed-ended and open-
ended questions are included in a semi structured interview.

Interview Instrument

 Interview Schedule.

 Audiotapes or Videotapes.

 Telephone interview.

Interview Schedule

Data obtained in interview are usually recorded on an instrument referred to as an

interview schedule. The interview schedule contains a set of questions to be asked by
the interviewer, and space to record the respondents answer.

Audiotapes or Videotapes

1- Data obtained from an interview also may be recorded on audiotapes or

videotapes.

2- The total interview process can be captured, and the interviewer is free to
observe the respondents.

3- Written permission is required, and the permission form should indicate how
the information will be use and how confidentiality will be maintained.

Telephone interview

The collection of data from subjects through use of phone calls rather than in face to
face meetings

INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

There are 2 basic categories of questions: open-ended and closed-ended questions.

(Discussed before)

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INTERVIEWER TRAINING

The investigator of a study in which interviews will be conducted has the

responsibility to provide training for all interviewers who will collect data during the
study.

1. The data collector was allowed to provide input into the development of an
operations manual, which includes a script and scoring guidelines regarding ways to
facilitate home visits.

2. The data collector viewed a videotape of an interview being done by a skilled

interviewer.

3. The data collector was given practice and feedback in a clinic setting.

4. Rehearsals were done in homes of people who would not be study participants.

5. A videotape was done of the data collector conducting a rehearsal interview.

The principal investigator critiqued the data collector’s performance

During the training session(s), the researcher should provide interviewers with a
description of the study and its purpose.

» General procedures are discussed, and the interview schedule is reviewed in

detail.

» The purpose of each question is pointed out, and the meaning of all words is
clarified.

» The process of recording information must be explicitly communicated.

» Interviewer training should be carried out in group, so that all interviewers

receive the same instructions.

» Role-playing of interviews helps the interviewer gain some appreciation of

what the actual interviews will be like.

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INFLUENE OF INTERVIEWERS ON RESPONDENTS

 In face-to-face interviews, the interviewer may have a great deal of influence

on the outcome.

 First impressions are very important in face-to- face Interviews.

 Interviewers should be neat in appearance, courteous, friendly, and relaxed.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF INTERVIEWS

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

-Responses can be obtained from a -Training programs are needed for

wide range of subjects. Interviewers.
-Response rate is high. -Interviews are time consuming and expensive.
-Most of the data obtained are Arrangements for interviews may be difficult -
usable. to make.
-In-depth responses can be obtained -Subjects may provide socially acceptable
nonverbal behavior and verbal responses.
mannerisms can be observed -Subjects may be anxious because answers are
being recorded.
-Subjects may be in flounced by interviewer’s
characteristics.
-Interviewers may misinterpret nonverbal
behavior.

3-OBSERVATION METHOD
Definition: Concerned with gathering data through visual observation

Determining behaviors to be observed

» Psychomotor skills (ability of diabetic patient to perform insulin injection).

» Personal habits (smoking and eating behaviors).

» Nonverbal communication pattern (facial expressions).

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RESEARCH OBSERVERS

 If the researcher decides to use other people to help him in collecting data,
training sessions are necessary. It is preferable to have more than one observer during
the training sessions so estimates of the reliability of the data can be made.

 Human error is quite likely to occur in visual observations.

OBSERVATION PROCEDURES

 The researcher must determine how and when observations will be made.

 The degree of structure of the observations and the period for gathering data
must be considered.

DEGREE OF OBSERVATION

1) Structured observations.

2) Unstructured observations.

STRUCTURED OBSERVATION

» Are carried out when the researcher has prior knowledge about the phenomena
of interest.

» The data collection tool is usually some kind of check list.

» The expected behaviors of interest have been identified on the check list.

UNSTRUCTURED OBSERVATION

» The researcher attempts to describe events or behaviors as they occur, with no

preconceived ideas of what will be seen.

» Requires a high degree of concentration and attention by the observer.

4-PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASURES

 Involve the collection of physical data from subjects.

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 These types of measures are generally more objective and accurate than many
of other methods.

 Advantages: is their precision and accuracy.

 Disadvantage: special expertise may be necessary to use some of these devices.

 The presence of certain data collection instrument may adversely influence the
subject.

5-ATTITUDE SCALE

 Self-report data collection instrument.

 Used to evaluate attitudes or feeling.

 The most commonly used attitude scales :

a) Likert scale.

b) Semantic differential scale.

LIKERT SCALE

 Was named after its developer ,rinses likert

 Ex: (nursing questionnaire)

 Please read the following items and indicate your agreement or disagreement
by checking the appropriate category

EX: SD = strongly disagree.

D = Disagree.

U = Uncertain.

A = Agree.

SA = strongly agree

SD D U A SA

___ ___ ___ ___ ___

Nursing diagnoses should be written on all nursing care plans. ___ ___ ___ ___

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 7-VISUAL ANALOGUE SCALE

Definition:

A Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) is a measurement instrument that tries to measure a

characteristic or attitude that is believed to range across a continuum of values and
cannot easily be directly measured.

 VAS is simple, reliable, reproducible, valid and sensitive tool.

 The vas is being used with increasing frequency in nursing research studies. It
has been found to be particularly useful with patients who are experiencing
discomfort, such as nausea, pain, fatigue and shortness of breath.

EX: The amount of pain that a patient feels ranges across a continuum
from none to an extreme amount of pain. How sever is your pain today? Place a
vertical mark on the line below to indicate how bad you feel your pain is today.

No Pain l___________________________l Very Severe Pain

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 Writing a research proposal
outline
 Introduction
 Definition ofresearch:-
 Definition of proposal
 Components of research proposal
 preparation of the proposal
 Statement of the problem
 Background of the problem
 Objectives
 Methods
 The work plan
 Personnel
 Facilities
 Budget
 Final aspects of the proposal
 Funding for research proposals
 Funding for research projects
 Private funds
 Federal funding
Introduction :
. A research proposal is a written document specifying what the investigator proposes
to study. Proposals serve to communicate the research problem , its significance, and
planned procedures for solving the problem to some interested party. Proposals are
written for various reasons. A student enrolled in. are search class is often expected to
submit a brief plan to the professor before data collection actually begins.
Definition ofresearch:-
Systematic inquiring that uses "orderly scientific methods to answer questions-
or solve problems.
Definition of proposal:
A document specifying what the researcher propose to study ; it communicates the
research problem, its significance, planned procedures for solving the problem, and
when funding is sought, how much the research will cost.
Components of research proposal:
1- The preparation of the proposal.
2- Funding for research proposals.
The preparation of the proposal:
The preparation of the proposal Include the following:
a- Statement of the problem.
b- Back ground of the problem.

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c- Objectives.
d- Methods..
e- The work plan.
f- Personnel.
g-facilities
h- Budget.
i- Final aspects of the proposal.
Statement of the problem:
The problem that intended research will address should be clearly and directly
identified early in the proposal.
The problem should be stated in such away that its importance is apparent to the
reviewer. The proposal should indicate the expected generalizability of the research,
its potential for improving nursing practice and patient care, and possible applications
or consequences of the knowledge to be gained.
Background of the problem:
- Background material should strengthen the author's arguments concerning the
significance on the study.
- This section should orient the reader to what is already about the problem and
indicate how the proposed research will augment that knowledge.
- The background section offers an excellent
opportunity for the proposal write to make evident his or her level of professionalism
and grasp of a field.
Objectives:
- A section of the proposal usually addresses the specific objectives to be achieved
in the proposed study. The objectives should not be phrased as vague generalities
such "the aim of this project is to improve patient care".
- The form in which the objectives are stated depends
on the nature of the investigation and the current level of knowledge.
- Objectives stated as hypotheses to be tested are the preferred form.
Methods:
Reviewers typically read the methods section of the proposal with greater care than
any other part. There fore, it is important to discuses procedures clearly and
completely, with a considerable amount of detail methods section includes a
description of the sampling plan, research plan , instrumentation, specific procedures,
and analytic strategies, together with a discussion of the rational for the method's,
potential methodological problems and intended strategies for handling such
problems. .

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The proposal reviewer normally expects to find a through description of the
population, the sample, the sampling plan, and the number of subjects.
The work plan:
A; proposal should always describe the plan according to which the various tasks and
subtasks will be accomplished. In other words, the researcher must show the
sequence of tasks to be performed, the anticipated length of time required for their
completion and the personal required for their accomplishment the work plan
indicates to the reader how realistic and through the researcher has been in designing
the. study.
Usually the work plan can be most effectively presented in tabular or graphic
form, accompanied by appropriate textual comments. Tables are useful in that they
permit diverse information to be present simultaneously.
Personnel:
In proposal addressed to funding agencies, the qualifications of key project
personnel should beprominently highlighted. The research competencies of the
project director and other team members are typically given major consideration in
evaluating a proposal.
Resumes of the personnel who will play key roles in the study should be included.
The resumes should clearly specify relevant background and experience. In addition
to resumes, the proposal should include a brief narrative that explains the specific
activities to which individual will be a signal. The personnel section should be
scrutinized by the author to determine if there are any weakness of the staff as a
whole,
Facilities :
The proposal should document the extent to whichspecial facilities required by the
project will be available. Access to physiological instrumentation libraries , data
processing equipment, computers," special documents or records, and so forth should
be described order to reassure sponsors or advisors that the project will be able to
proceed as planed
Budget:
The preparation of a budget often intimidates beginning proposal writers. The budget
translates the project activities into monetary terms. It is a statement of much money
will be required to accomplish the various tasks
Final aspects of the proposal:
It is advisable to begin the text proposal with a brief abstract. The abstract will
establish a farm of references for the reviewers as they begin to read the proposal.
The abstract should be brief but concisely state what the goals of the study are and
what general methods will be used.
Ordinarily the very first page of a proposal is the title page the title page includes
such information as the project title, the project director's name and signature.

50
The name and signature of an official who is. in aposition to commit the instruction.
The name of instruction,the name of the agency to which the proposal is
beingsubmitted, an identification of the competition into whichthe proposal is being
enteredand the date of the proposal.
In many cases it is necessary to submit proposals to funding agencies in two separate
parts. The technical proposal includes the problem statement, objectives, methods,
work plan and descriptions of the personnel and facilities. The business proposal
includes the budget and certifications.
Funding for research proposals:
If is include the following:
a) Federal funding.
b) Private funds.
Funding for research projects:
Is becoming more and more difficult to obtain. As increasing numbers of nurses
become prepared to carry out significant research, so, too, will applications for
research monies increase, successful proposal writers need to have good research and
proposal-writing skills, and they must also know how and from whom funding is
available. The combined set of skills and knowledge is sometimes referred so as
"grants man ship" .
Federal funding:
The federal government is the largest contributor to the support of research activities.
The two major types of federal disbursements are grants and contracts.
Grants are awarded for proposals in which the search
idea is developed by the investigator. The researcher who identifies an important
research problem can seek federal monies through a grant program of one or more
agencies of the government.
The contracts is an agency that identifies the need for a particular piece of research
issues a request for proposals (RFP), which details the work which the government
wants done. The contract method of securing research support severely constrains the
kinds of work in which investigators can engage. For this reason, most nurse
researchers
probably will want to compete for grants rather than contracts. Government
agencies are increasing using contracts as the mechanism for supporting research.
Private funds:
Health care research is supported by a number philanthropic foundations and
professional organization Private organizations typically are less rigid in
their proposal regulations, their reporting requirements, clearance of
instruments, and their monitoring of progress. Professional associations such as
the American nurses foundation, sigma Theta Tau, the American association
of university women, and the social science research council offer funds for
conducting research. Health organizations such as the American heart
association and the American Cancer society also support research activities.

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conclusion
Proposal represent the means for opening communication between researchers on the
one hand and parties interest at in the conduct of research on the other. Those parties
maybe funding agencies, faculty advisors, or institutional officers, depending upon
the circumstances. The proposal should be written in appositive, confident tone.
Instead of saying "the study will try to ...."It is better " .to indicate more positively
that the study will achieve some goals similar it is more optimistic to specify what the
investigator will do, rather than what it would do, if approved. Proposal writing, like
research, is both a skill and an art. We hope we have been helpful in communicating
some of what goes into the (skill) part and offerall readers our best wishes in
cultivating the art of doing and writing about research.

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 Data interpretation
Introduction:

• Data interpretation: Can be defined as applying statistical procedures to

analyze specific facts from a study or body of research. The final stages of a research
project, like the beginning stages , are often somewhat more difficult than
intermediary steps of data collection & analysis

Interpretation of results

• The result of data analysis procedures are only numbers with very little
inherent meaning associated with them It is a researcher `s role to imbue these
numbers with meaning

Interpreting hypothesized results

• When the tests of statistical significant support the original research hypotheses

• Naturally, the researchers are gratified when the results of many hours of effort
offer support for their predications

Interpreting non-significant results

• The statistical procedures currently relevant are greeted toward disconfirmation
of the hypothesis.
Errors will have been committed
• Internal validity problems
• The selection of deviant sample
• The use of a weak statistical procedure
• Too small sample
Interpreting unhypothesized significant results

• There properly nothing more perplexing to a researcher than to obtain results

opposite to those hypnotized for instance a nurse researcher might hypo size that
individualized patient teaching of breathing techniques is more effective than group
instruction but the results might reflect that the group method was better

The introduction

• The purpose of the introductory section of research report is to Acquairt

readers with the research problem on which the investigation has focused

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• The research should explain enough of the back ground of the study to make
clear the reasons why the problem was considered worth pursuing

• The introductory section should incorporate definitions of concepts under

investigation

The methods section

• The scientific reader need to know what has done to solve the problem
• The methods section is often subdivided into several parts
• The methods of sample selection together with the reasons for the selection of
these sampling design , need to be very clearly delineated
• The design of the study is often given more detailed coverage in an
experimental project than in a non-experimental one
• Identify what steps were taken to control the research situation in general &
extraneous variables in particular
• Describe the instruments used to measure the targets variables
• Provide information about what steps were followed in actually collecting the
data
• Any unforeseen events occurring during the collection of data that could affect
the findings should be described & assessed
The result section

• These section summarize the results of analysis

The discussion section

• The discussion section is typically develop to a consideration of

interpretations, limitations, &recommendations

• The research report should demonstrating that hypotheses were correct or in

correct, hypotheses are supported or not when the result of statistical tests are
reported and assess the impact of sampling deficiencies, design problems, instrument
weakness & to alert the reader to these difficulties

• The discussion section should include recommendation for investigations

which would help to test these hypotheses as well as suggestions for other research to
answer questions raised by findings of study

Types of Research Reports

This section describes the content, structure, features of three major kinds of research
reports

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 i. Theses & dissertations
ii. Journal articles
iii. Papers for professional meetings
1- Theses & dissertations:
• Theses typically document completely the steps performed in carrying out the
research investigation
Preliminary pages:
- Title page
- Acknowledgment page
- Table of contents
- List of tables
- List of figures
Main body
• Chapter1: introduction
• Chapter2:review of literature
• Chapter3: methods Chapter4: results
• Chapter5: discussion summary
Supplementary pages
• Bibliography Appendix

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