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HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASE

1. Health does not simply mean absence of disease or physical
fitness. It could be defined as a state of complete physical,
mental, and social well being. Health is affected by:
(i) genetic disorders
(ii) Infections
(iii) Life style including food and water.
2. When the functioning of one or more organs or systems of the
body is adversely affected, characterised by appearance of
various signs and symptoms i.e. we have disease.
3. Disease can be broadly grouped into infectious and non-
infectious.
4. Disease which can easly transmitted from one person to another
are called infectious disease. (Common Cold, AIDS etc.)
5. Among non-infectious disease, cancer is major cause of death.
6. Disease causing organism are called pathogen. Most parasite
are therefore pathogen as they cause harm to host by living in (or
on) them.
7. Pathogen have to adapt to live within the environment of the host
of surviving in the stomach at low pH and resisting various
digestive enzymes.
8. Typhoid : Cause by bacteria, Salmonella typhi, Enter in small
intestine through food and water contaminated with them.
(2020,2024)[NCERT-130]
Symptoms : sustain high fever (39°C to 40°C), weakness,
stomach pain, constipation, Headache, loss of apetite etc.
Intestinal perforation and death may occur in severe case.
• Typhoid fever could be confirmed by widal test
(2012, 2019, 2020, 2024)[NCERT-130]

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9. Pneumonia : Bacteria like Streptococcus pneumoniae and

Haemophilus Influenzae are responsible, which infect the
alveoli of lungs.
(2020, 2021)[NCERT-131]
Alveoli get filled with fluid leading to severe problem in
respiration.
Symptoms : Fever, chills, cough. Headache, severe case - lips
and nails turn gray to bluish in colour
• Healthy person acquire the infection by inhaling the
droplet/aerosols released by an infected person or sharing
glasses and utensils with an infected person.
(2011)[NCERT-131]
10. Common Cold : Rhino viruses represent the group of viruses
which cause one of the most infectious human ailments -
Common cold
(2011, 2024)[NCERT-131]
• They infect nose and respiratory passage but not lungs.
(2012)[NCERT-131]
Symptoms : nasal congestion and discharge, sore throat,
hoarseness, cough headache etc. which usually last for 3 - 7
days.
• Droplet resulting from cough or sneezes of infected person
are either inhaled directly or transmitted through
contaminated object can cause infection in a healthy
person.
11. Malaria : Cause by different species of plasmodium (P. vivax, P.
malaria P. falciparum). P. falciparum is most serious and be
fatal. (2020,23)[NCERT-131]
• Plasmodium enter in human body as sporozoites (infectious
form) through the bite of infected female Anopheles
mosquito.
(2020)[NCERT-131]

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• Rupture of RBCs is associated with release of a toxic

substance, Haemozoin, which is responsible for the chill
and high fever.
(2010, 2024)[NCERT-131]
• Parasites multiply within the mosquito body to form
sporozoites that are stored in their salivary gland.
(2012, 2011) [NCERT-131]
• Malarial parasite require two host - human and mosquitoes
to complete its life cycle, the female Anopheles mosquito is
vector.
• Fertilisation and development take place in mosquito’s gut.
12. Amoebiasis (amoebic dysentery) : Cause by a protozoa
Entamoeba histolytica which is found in large Intestine of
human.
(2021)[NCERT-132]
Symptoms: Constipation, abdominal pain, cramp, stool with
Excess Mucus and blood clots.
• House fly act as mechanical carrier and serve to transmit the
parasite from faeces of infected person to food and food
products.
13. Ascariasis: Cause by intestinal parasite, Ascaris.
Symptoms : Internal bleeding, muscular pain, fever, anaemia
and blockage of intestinal passage.
• Egg of parasite are excreted along with faces of infected
persons which contaminate soil, water, plants etc.
(2013)[NCERT-132]
14. Elephantiasis or filiarasis: Wuchereria (W. bancrofti and W.
malayi), the filarial worm cause slowly developing chronic
inflammation of the organ in which they live for many years.
Usually lymphatic vessels of lower limbs.
(2013, 2020,2021,23, 24)[NCERT-133]

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• Pathogen are transmitted to a healthy person through bite by

female mosquito vectors.
15. Ringworm : Many fungi belonging to genera Microsporum,
Trichophyton and Epidermophyton responsible for ringworm.
(2023, 2024)[NCERT-133]
Symptoms : appearance of dry, scaly lesions on various part of
body such as skin, nails, scalp.
• Heat and moisture help these fungi to grow
16. Public hygiene include proper of waste and excreta, periodic
cleaning and disinfection of water reservoirs, pools, cesspools
and tanks these measures are particularly essential where
infectious agents are transmitted through food and water such as
typhoid, amoebiasis and ascariasis.
17. In case of air born disease (Pneumonia, common cold) in
addition to above measures, close contact with infected persons
or their belongings should be avoided.
18. Fishes like Gambusia in pond feed on mosquito larvae.
19. Vector born disease : Dengue and Chickenguniya (Aedes
mosquito)
20. To prevent these disease door and window should be provided
with wire mesh.
21. Immunity : Overall ability of host to fight the disease-causing
organism conferred by immune system is called Immunity.
Immunity 2 type:
[A] Innate Immunity: non specific type of defence, present at
the time of Birth.

INNATE IMMUNITY CONSISTS OF 4 TYPE OF BARRIERS

1. Physical barriers - Skin in our body in main barrier that prevent

Entry of microorganism.

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2. Mucus coating of the epithelium, lining of respiratory

gastrointestinal and urogenital tracts also help in trapping
microbes entering in body.
3. Physiological barrier : Acid in stomach, saliva in mouth,
tears from eyes - all prevent microbial growth.
4. Cellular barrier : Certain type of leukocyte (WBC) of our
body like polymorpho-nuclear leukocytes (PMNL-
Neutrophils) and monocytes and natural killer (type of
lymphocyte) in blood as well as macrophage in tissue can
phagocytose and destroy microbes.
5. Cytokine barriers : Virus infected cell secrete proteins
called interferons which protect non-infected cells from
further viral infection.
[B] Acquired Immunity : Pathogen specific, characterised by
memory.
1. When our body encounters a pathogen for first time it
produce a response called Primary response which is of
low Intensity.
[NEET-2022][NCERT-135]
2. Subsequent encounter with the same pathogen elicits a
highly intensified secondary or anamestic response.
[NEET-2022][NCERT-135]
3. Primary and secondary response are carried out with the
help of two special types of lymphocytes presents in our
blood i.e. B & T lymphocytes.
4. B lymphocyte produce army of protein in response to
pathogen in our blood to fight with them (while T-lymphocyte
not secrete antibody but help B cell to produce them) called
Antibody. [RE-NEET-2024]
5. Each Antibody molecule has four peptide chain two small
called light chain and two longer called heavy chain
(represented as H2 L2).

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6. Antibody found in blood and response is called as humoral

Immune response .
7. T-lymphocyte mediate Cell-Mediated Immunity.
8. The body is above to differentiate self and nonself and the
cell-mediated immune response is responsible for graft -
rejection.
22. When host is Exposed to antigen (living or dead microbes, other
protein) antibody produced in host this type of Immunity - Active
Immunity. [RE-NEET-2024]
23. When ready-made antibodies are directly given to protect the
body against foreign agent it is called Passive Immunity.
• Yellowish fluid colostrum secreted by mother during initial
few days of lactation (IgA Antibody), foetus also receive
some antibody from their mother through placenta are
Example of Passive Immunity.
(2015,2019)[NCERT-136]
24. Principle of immunisation or vaccination is based on property of
memory or immune system.
• In vaccination preparation of protein of pathogen or
inactivated/weakend pathogen (vaccine) are introduced into
body, the antibody produced in body against antigen
neutralise pathogenic agent during actual Infection.
• In case of tetanus, snakebite quick immune response hence
preformed antibodies give this type of immunisation called
passive Immunisation.
• Recombinant DNA technology has allowed the production of
antigenic polypeptide of pathogen in bacteria or yeast.
• Hepatitis B Vaccine produced from yeast.
25. The exaggerated response of immune system to certain
antigens present in environment is called allergy. Antibody
produced are of IgE type.

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• Common Examples of allergens are mites in dust, pollen,

animal dander. [NEET 2024]
• Symptoms of allergic reactions include sneezing, watery
eye, running nose difficulty in breathing.
• Allergy is due to release of chemical (histamine, serotonin)
from mast cell.
• Drugs to reduce symptom of allergy – Anti histamine,
adrenalin and steroids.
• More children in metro cities of India suffer from allergies and
asthma due to sensitivity to the environment.
(2007)[NCERT-137]
26. Memory-based acquired immunity evolved in higher vertebrates
based an ability to differentiate foreign organism (e.g. pathogen)
from self cells.
• Sometime due to genetic and other unknown reasons, body
attacks self-cell. This result in damage to the body and is
called auto-Immune disease. Ex-Rheumatoid arthritis.
(2022, 2016, 2018)[NCERT-137]
27. Immune System : It consist of lymphoid organ, tissue, cell and
soluble molecule like antibody.
28. Lymphoid organs : These are organs where origin and/or
maturation and proliferation of lymphocyte occur.
• Primary lymphoid organs : (Bone Marrow and Thymus)
where in mature lymphocytes differentiate into antigen-
senstive lymphocytes. [NEET 2024]
• Secondary lymphoid organ like (spleen, lymph node,
tonsils, payer’s patches of small intestine and
appendix) which then proliferate to become effector cell.
• Bone marrow is main lymphoid organ where all blood cell
including lymphocyte are produced. [NEET 2024]
• Thymus is lobed organ located near the heat and beneath
the breast bone. [NEET 2024]

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• Both bone marrow and thymus provide micro-environment

for development and maturation of T-lymphocyte.
[NEET 2024]
• Spleen is a large bean shaped organ.
• Spleen mainly contain lymphocyte and phagocyte and act as
filter of blood by trapping blood-born micro-organism.
• Spleen has a large reservoir of erythrocytes.
• Antigens trapped in lymph node (small solid structure
located at different point of lymphatic system) are
responsible for activation of lymphocyte present there and
cause the immune response.
• Lymphoid tissue located within the lining of major tract
(respiratory, digestive, and urogenital tracts) called Mucosa
Associated Lymphoid Tissue (MALT). It constitute about
50% of lymphoid tissue of human Body.
[RE-NEET-2024] [NEET 2017][NCERT-138]
29. AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome) : It is not a
Congenital disease, first reported in 1981.
• AIDS is caused by Human Immuno deficiency virus (HIV) a
member of a group of virus called retrovirus. (Have envelop
enclosing RNA genome)
• There is always a time lag between the infection and
appearance of AIDS symptoms. This period may vary few
month to many year (5-10 years).
• After getting into the body of person the virus enters into
macrophages where RNA genome of virus replicates to form
viral DNA with the help of Enzyme Reverse transcriptase.
(2016)[NCERT-138]
• These viral DNA get incorporated into host cell’s DNA and
directs the infected cell to produce virus particles.
• Macrophages act like HIV factory simultaneously HIV
enter into helper T-lymphocyte (TH) replicate and produce
progeny virus. (2023)[NCERT-140]

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• The progeny virus released in blood attack other helper T-

lymphocytes. Progressive decrease in TH of infected person
cause bouts of fever diarrhoea and weight loss.
(2010, 2014, 2015)[NCERT-140]
• Widely used diagnostic test for AIDS is Enzyme linked
immuno-sorbent assay (ELISA)
• Treatment of AIDS with anti-retroviral drug is partially
Effective.
• NACO (National AIDS Control Organisation), NGOs (non-
governmental organisations). [RE-NEET-2024]
30. Cancer : In our body, cell growth and differentiation is highly
controlled and regulated. In cancer cells, there is breakdown of
these regulatory mechanism.
• Normal Cell show a property called Contact inhibition by
virtue of which contact with other cell inhibits their
uncontrolled growth cancer cell appear to lost this property.
(2012, 2016)[NCERT-141]
• As a result this cancerous cell rest continue to divide give
rise to mass of cell called tumor.
31. Tumors are two type:
(A) Benign tumor : Normaly remain confined to their original
location and do not spread to other part of body cause little
damage.
(B) Malignant tumor : A mass of proliferating cells called
neoplastic or human cell, these cell grow very rapidly,
invading and damaging the surrounding normal tissue.
• As these cell actively divide and grow they also starve the
normal cell by competing for vital nutrients. Cell sloughed
from such tumors reach distant site by blood wherever they
get lodged in body they start a new tumor, this property
called metastasis most feared property of malignant
tumor. [RE-NEET-2024]

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32. Cause of Cancer - by physical, chemical, biological agent called

carcinogens which cause cancer.
[Ionising Radiation ð X-ray and Gamma ray,
Non-ionising Radiation ð UV-rays] ð Cause DNA damage
leading to neoplastic transformation.
• Cancer causing virus called oncogenic virus have gene
called viral oncogene.
• Several genes called cellular oncogene (C-onc) or proto
oncogene have been identified in normal cell which when
activated under certain condition could leads to oncogenic
transformation of cells.
33. Technique like radiography (use of X-ray), CT computed
tomography and MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) are very
useful to detect cancer of internal organs.
• Computed tomography use x-ray to generate 3D image of
internal object.
• MRI use strong magnetic field and non-ionising radiations to
accurately detect pathological and physiological change in
living tissue. (2010)[NCERT-141]
• Antibodies against cancer-specific antigens are also used
for detection of certain cancer.
34. Common approaches for treatment of cancer are surgery,
radiation therapy and immunotherapy.
• In radiotherapy tumor cell are irradiated lethally, taking
proper care of normal tissues surrounding the tumor mass.
• Chemotherapeutic drug are used to kill cancerous cell.
Some are specific for particular tumors.
• Most cancers are treated by combination of surgery,
radiotherapy and destruction by immune system.
• Biological response modifiers such as interferon which
activate their immune system and help destroying the tumor.
[RE-NEET-2024]

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35. Opioids : The drug which bind to specific opioid receptors

present in our central nervous system and gastrointestinal tract.
• Heroin commonly called smack is chemically
diacetylmorphine which is while, better crystalline
compound, obtain by acetylation of morphine which is
extracted from latex of poppy plant Papaver somniferum.
(2018, 2019,23,24)[NCERT-142]
• Heroin is depressant and slows down body functions taken
by snorting and injections.
36. Cannabinoids- group of chemicals which interact with
cannabinoid receptors present principally in the brain.
• Natural cannabinoids are obtain from infloroscence of plant
Cannabis sativa.
• The flower tops, leaves and resins of cannabis plant use in
various combination to produce marijuana, hashish, charas
and ganja. [NEET 2024]
• They effects on cardio vascular system of body and taken by
inhalation and oral ingestion.
37. Coca alkaloid or cocain : obtain from coca plant Erythroxylum
coca native to south america. It interferes with transport of
neurotransmitter dopamine.
(NEET 2023,2024)
• Cocaine commonly called coke or crack is usually snorted.
• It has a potent stimulating action on CNS, produce sense of
Euphoria and increased energy. Its excessive dose causes
hallucination.
• Other well known plant with hallucinogenic properties are
Atropa Belladona and Datura.
(2014)[NCERT-143]
38. Drug like barbiturates, amphetamines, benzodiazepines and
other similar drug that are normally used as medicine to help
patients cope with mental illnesses like depression and
insomnia.

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39. Morphine is a very effective sedative and pain killer and is very
useful in patients who have undergone surgery.
40. Tobacco contain a large number of chemical substance
including nicotine, an alkaloid. Nicotine stimulate adrenal gland
to release adrenaline and nor-adrenaline into blood circulation
both of which raise blood pressure and increase heart rate.
41. Smoking increase carbon monoxide (CO) content in blood and
reduce the concentration of Haembound oxygen. This cause
oxygen deficiency in the body.
42. Smoking is associated with increased incidence and increase
heart rate.
43. Adolescence means both a period and process during which a
child become mature in term of his/her attitude and beliefs for
effective participation in society. (period between 12-18 years of
age)
44. Adolescence is a bridge linking childhood and adulthood.
45. The most important thing, which one fails to realise is the
inherent addictive nature of alcohol and drugs.
46. Addiction is a psychological attachment to certain effects such
as Euphoria and temporary feeling of well-being associated with
drugs and alcohols.
47. With repeated use of drugs, the tolerance level of receptors
present in our body increases. Consequently the receptors
respond only to higher doses of drugs or alcohol leading to
greater intake and addiction.
48. Withdrawl syndrome : if regular dose of drugs / alcohol is
abruptly discontinued then this is characterised by anxiety,
shakiness, nausea and sweating.
49. Those who take drugs intravenously (direct injection into the vein
using a needle and syringe) are more likely to acquire serious
infections like AIDS and Hepatitis B.

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• Both AIDS and Hepatitis B infections are chronic infections

and ultimately fetal and both can be transmitted through
sexual contact or infected blood.
• Use of alcohol during aldolescence may also have long-term
effect. It could lead to heavy drinking in adulthood. The
chronic use of drug and alcohol damage nervous system
and liver (cirrhosis).
(2012)[NCERT-146]
• Side effect of the use of anabolic steroids in female include
masculinisatic (feature like male), increased
aggressiveness, mood swing, depression, abnormal
menstrual cycle, Excessive hair growth on face and body,
Enlargement of clitoris, deepening of voice.
• In male it include acne, increased aggressiveness, mood
swings depression, reduction of size of testicles, decreased
sperm production premature baldness, enlargement of
prostate gland.

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MICROBES IN HUMAN WELFARE

1. Microbes are present everywhere – in soil, water, Air, inside our
bodies & that of other animals & plants. Even where no other life
form would exist.
2. Microbes are diverse - Protozoa, Bacteria, Fungi & microscopic
animal & Plant.
3. Microbes like Bacteria & many Fungi can be grown on nutritive
media to from colonies that can be seen with the naked eyes.
4. Bacteria Magnification
Red shaped 1500 X
Spherical shaped 1500 X
Rod shaped Bacteria (Showing flagella) 50,000 X
TMV (Rod shaped) 1.00,000 - 1,50,000 X
Bacteria
5. Milk Curd
Lactobacillus
6. Lactobacillus (Lactic acid Bacteria) grow in milk & convert it to
curd
7. During growth, the LAB produce acids the coagulate & Partially
digest the milk protein.
8. Curd, improves its nutritional quality by increasing vitamin B-12
(NEET-2018)[NCERT-151]
9. In our stomach too, LAB play very beneficial role in checking
disease causing microbes.
10. Dough: used for making food such as Dosa & Idli (Fermented
by Bacteria)
11. The Puffed up appearance of dough is due to the production of
CO2 gas.
12. A number of traditional drinks & foods are also made by
fermentation by microbes.

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13. Today: Traditional Drink, Southern India, made by fermenting

sap from palm.
14. Microbes are also used to ferment fish, soyabean & Bamboo-
shoot to make foods.
15. Propionibacterium sharmanii
• Bacteria
• Large holes in swisscheese are due to production of CO2.
16. Roquefort cheese are ripened by growing a specific Fungi on
them. which gives them a particular flavour.
17. Saccharomyces cervisiae (yeast) called Backer’s / Brewer’s
yeast. used to make Bread, Beer, Wine, Rum, Whisky, Brandy.
18. Production on an industrial scale, required growing microbes in
very large vessels called fermentors.
19. Alcoholic Drinks:
• With Distillation : Whisky, Brandy, Rum
• Without Distillation: Wine & Beer
th
20. Antibiotics : Most significant discovery of 20 century.
• Produced by microbes.
• Chemical substances, which are produced by some
microbes & kill or retard the growth of other (disease-
causing) microbes.
21. Discovered by Alexander Fleming while working on
Staphylococci bacteria.
22. Antibiotics are Penicillin by Fungi Penicillium notatum
23. Full potential explored by Ernest chain & Howard Florey.
24. Used to treat American soldiers in World War II
25. Fleming, chain & Florey awarded the Nobel Prize in 1945, for
this discovery

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26. Antibiotics have greatly improved our capacity to treat deadly

disease such as plague, whooping cough (Kalikhasi), Diphtheria
(Gal-ghotu), Leprosy (Kusht rog)
• Aspergillus niger (Fungi) - Citric acid
Acetobacter aceti (Bacteria) - Acetic acid
Clostridium butylicum (Bacteria) - Butyric acid
Lactobacillus (Bacteria) - Lactic acid
[RE-NEET-2024] [NEET-2024,21,20,19,17, 16,15,13,12]
[NCERT-153]
27. Commercial production of Ethanol-yeast (Saccharomyces
cerevisiae)
(NEET-2024, 2011, 2019, 2017, 2015, 2012) [NCERT-153]
28. Lipases (used in detergent formulation) – Remove oily strains.
29. Pectinases & Proteases : Bottle Juice clarified.
30. Streptokinase (Streptococcus Bacteria)
(NEET-2024, 2019, 2016, 2015,2012) [NCERT-153]
• Modified by Genetic engineering
• Used as a Clot Busters
• Remove clot from the blood vessels of patients who
undergone myocardial infraction leading to heart attack.
31. Cyclosporin-A : Immunosuppressive agent in organ-trans plant
patients. (NEET-2024, 2022, 2019) [NCERT-153]
• Bioactive molecule
• Produced by Trichoderma Polysporum (Fungi)
[RE-NEET-2024]
32 Statins (yeast) : Monascus purpureus
[RE-NEET-2024] [NEET-2020, 2016, 2015, 2012]
• Blood-cholesterol lowering agent. [NCERT-153]

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• Acts by competitively inhibiting the enzyme responsible for

synthesis of cholesterol.
MICROBES IN SEWAGE TREATMENT
33. Sewage is treated in sewage treatment plants (STPs) make it
less polluting.
34. Treatment is done by Heterotrophic microbes (Naturally
present in sewage)
35. Primary treatment (Physical removal)
Secondary treatment (Biological removal)
PRIMARY TREATMENT
36. Filtration : Floating debris removed
(NEET-2017)[NCERT-154]
37. Sedimentation : Grid (Soil & Small Pebbles) rare removed.
38. All solids that settle from the primary sludge & the supernatant
form are the effluent.
39. Effluent from primary settling tank is taken for secondary
treatment.
Secondary Treatment
(NEET-2020)[NCERT-154]
40. Primary Effluent ð Large Aeration tank ð Secondary settling
tank ð Anaerobic sludge digestor.
41. Flocs : Masses of bacteria associated with fungal filaments to
form mesh like structure.
42. BOD is a measure of organic matter present in the water.
Greater the BOD of waste water, more is its polluting potential.
(NEET-2012)[NCERT-154]
43. During the digestion, bacteria produce a mixture of gases such
as CH4, H2S & CO2.
(NEET-2014)[NCERT-154]

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44. Biogas : Mixture of gases (Predominantly CH4) produced by

microbial activity & which may be used as fuel
(NEET-2012)[NCERT-154]
45. The ministry of Environment & Forests has initiated:
Ganga Action Plan & Yamuna Action Plan to save these major
rivers of our country from pollution.
Methanogens (Methanobacterium)
ò
Grow anaerobically on cellulosic material
ò
Produce large amount of CO2 & H2 with CH4
(NEET-2015)[NCERT-155]
46. These bacteria are also present in the rumen (A part of stomach)
of cattle.
47. In Rumen, these bacteria help in the breakdown of cellulose &
play an important role in nutrition of cattle.
48. The Biogas plant consists of a concrete tank (10-15 feet deep) in
which bio-waste are collected & a slurry of dung is fed.
49. Biogas used as cooking & lighting
50. The technology of Biogas production was developed in India
mainly due to the efforts of:
IARI (Indian Agriculture Research Institute)
KVIC (Khadi & Village Industries Commission)
51. Biocontrol : Use of Biological method for controlling plant
disease & pests.
52. Ladybird & Dragonflies are useful to get rid of Aphids &
Mosquitoes.
53. Microbial Biocontrol agent that can be introduced in order to
control butterfly caterpillars in the bacteria Bacillus
thuringensis (Bt)
(NEET-2013)[NCERT-157]

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54. Trichoderma
• Biological control agent, use in treatment of plant disease
• Free-living fungi
• Very common in root ecosystem
55. Baculoviruses : Pathogens that attack insects & other
arthropods.
(NEET-2019, 2013)[NCERT-157]
• Biocontrol agents in Genus Nucleopolyhedrovirus
• Species-specific, Narrow spectrum insecticidal
• No negative impacts on plants, Mammals, Birds, Fish or
even on non-target insects.
• Specially desirable when beneficial insects are being
conserved to aid in an overall Integrated Pest
Management (IPM) OR when an ecologically sensitive area
is being treated.

ORGANIC FARMING
• In which Biofertilisers are used
• Main source of Biofertilisers are Bacteria, Fungi &
Cynobacteria.
• Biofertilisers are organisms that enrich the nutrient quality of
the soil:
(NEET-2017, 2012)
[NCERT-158]
Bacteria that use as Biofertilisers
ò ò
Free-living Symbiotic
• Azotobacters • Frankia
• Beijernicka • Rhizobium
• Rhodospirillum

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MYCORRHIZA
• Symbiotic association between Fungi & Roots of higher
Plants.
(NEET-2012)[NCERT-158]
• Many members of the Genus Glomus form Mycorrhiza.
• Fungi provide plants to phosphorus from soil, pathogen
resistance, tolerance to salinity & drought & over all increase
plant growth & development.
• Plant provide to fungi - Shelter & Carbon.
(NEET-2012)[NCERT-158]
• N2-fixing cyanobacteria or BGA
eg: Anabaena, Nostoc, Oscillatoria
• In Paddy field, cyanobacteria serve as an important
biofertilisers.
• Cyanobacteria also add organic matter to the soil &
increase its fertility.

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