Human health and

diseases
Health
 State
of complete, physical, mental and social well being and
not merely an absence of a disease or infirmity.
 Disease- impaired physiological functioning of the body due to
infection ,environmental stress or inherited weakness of an
organ.
 Diseases- 1. infectious and 2. non infectious
 COMMON DISEASES IN HUMANS
 Caused by pathogens- are parasites which gain entry into our
body by various means, multiply and interfere with normal
vital activities, resulting in morphological and functional
damage.
  BACTERIAL INFECTIONS

TYPHOID
Caused by Salmonella typhi
Contaminated food and water
Typhoid Mary- Mary Mallon
Symptoms- Sustained high fever (39° to 40°C),
weakness, stomach pain, constipation,
headache and loss of appetite
WIDAL TEST- antibodies in patient’s blood
PNEUMONIA

 Acute lung infection affecting the alveoli.

 Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus
influenza
 byinhaling the droplets/aerosols released by an infected
person or even by sharing glasses and utensils with an
infected person.
 Symptoms-fever, chills, cough and headache. In severe
cases, the lips and finger nails may turn grey to bluish in
colour.
 Dysentery(Shigella), plague(Yersina),
diphtheria(Cornebacterium), are some of the other
bacterial diseases in man.
Viral Diseases
 Common cold
 Rhino viruses
 infect the nose and respiratory passage but not the lungs.
 Symptoms – nasal congestion and discharge, sore throat, hoarseness,
cough, headache, tiredness, which usually last for 3-7 days.
 Droplets resulting from cough or sneezes of an infected person are
either inhaled directly or transmitted through contaminated objects such
as pens,cups, etc., and cause infection in a healthy person.
 PROTOZOANS DISEASE
 MALARIA- mosquito borne haemolytic disease caused by Plasmodium.
 species of Plasmodium (P. vivax, P. malaria and P. falciparum)
 SYMPTOMS- high fever & chills recurring every 3-4 days, headache,
nausea, enlargement of liver
LIFE CYCLE OF PLASMODIUM
 Plasmodium requires two hosts – human and mosquitoes – to
complete its life cycle ,the female Anopheles
 female Anopheles mosquito is the vector (transmitting agent)
 Asexual phase- in man
 Plasmodium enters the human body as sporozoites (infectious
form) through the bite of infected female Anopheles mosquito.
 The parasites initially multiply within the liver cells and then
attack the red blood cells (RBCs) resulting in their rupture.
 The rupture of RBCs is associated with release of a toxic
substance, haemozoin, which is responsible for the chill and
high fever recurring every three to four days.
 Gametocytes develop in the RBCs.
 Sexual phase – in mosquito
 When a female Anopheles mosquito bites an
infected person, these gametes enter the
mosquito’s body and undergo further
development.
 Theparasites multiply within them to form
sporozoites that are stored in their salivary
glands.
 When these mosquitoes bite a human, the
sporozoites are introduced into his/her body
and the life cycle continues.
AMOEBIASIS(AMOEBIC DYSENTRY)
Entamoeba histolytica causes amoebiasis
(amoebic dysentery).
protozoan parasite in the large intestine of human
 Symptoms -constipation, abdominal pain and
cramps, stools with excess mucous and blood clots.
 Houseflies - mechanical carriers - transmit the
parasite from faeces of infected person to food.
Drinking water and food contaminated by faecal
matter.
Ascaris lumbricoides
causes Ascariasis - an intestinal parasite
 Symptoms -internal bleeding, muscular
pain, fever, anemia and blockage of the
intestinal passage.
 Through contaminated water, vegetables,
fruits, etc.
The eggs of the parasite are excreted
along with the faeces of infected person
which contaminate soil, water, plants, etc.
Wuchereria (W. bancrofti and
W. malayi)- elephantiasis or
filariasis,
filarial worms cause a chronic
inflammation the lymphatic
vessels of the lower limbs.
The genital organs are affected,
resulting in gross deformities.
transmitted by female mosquito
vectors(Aedes, Anopheles,
Culex)
 FUNGAL INFECTIONS
 genera Microsporum, Trichophyton
and Epidermophyton are
responsible for ringworms infections
 SYMPTOMS-Appearance of dry, scaly
lesions on skin, nails and scalp
accompanied by intense itching.
 Heat and moisture help these fungi to
grow, in skin folds in the groin or
between the toes.
 Ringworms are acquired from soil or
by using towels, clothes or even the
comb of infected individuals.
Maintenance of personal and public hygiene is very important for
prevention and control of many infectious diseases

 .

 keeping the body clean; consumption of clean drinking

water, food, vegetables, fruits, etc.
 Food & water borne diseases- Public hygiene includes
proper disposal of waste and excreta; periodic
cleaning and disinfection of water reservoirs, pools
and tanks and observing standard practices of
hygiene in public catering.
 Air-borne diseases- contact with the infected persons
or their belongings should be avoided.
 Vector borne- to control or eliminate the vectors and their
breeding places.
 by avoiding stagnation of water in and around residential areas,
 regular cleaning of household coolers, use of mosquito nets,
 introducing fish like Gambusia in ponds that feed on mosquito
larvae,
 spraying of insecticides in ditches, drainage areas and swamps,
etc.
 doors and windows should be provided with wire mesh to
prevent the entry of mosquitoes.
 Such precautions have become all the more important especially
in the light of recent widespread incidences of the vector-borne
(Aedes mosquitoes) diseases like dengue and chikungunya in
many parts of India
IMMUNITY https://youtu.be/UZTf3OXJDWA?si=DTnopgizKIp53SjS

overall ability of the host to fight the disease-

causing organisms, conferred by the immune
system.
two types: (i) Innate immunity and (ii) Acquired
immunity.
INNATE IMMUNITY is non-specific type of
defence, that is present at the time of birth.
Accomplished by providing different types of
barriers to the entry of the foreign agents into
Innate immunity
(i) Physical barriers : Skin -main barrier prevents entry of the micro-organisms.
Mucus lining respiratory, gastrointestinal and urogenital tracts
helps trapping microbes entering our body.
(ii) Physiological barriers : Acid in the stomach,
saliva in the mouth, prevent microbial growth
tears from eyes
(iii) Cellular barriers :
Leukocytes (WBC) - polymorpho-nuclear leukocytes
(PMNL-neutrophils)
monocytes phagocytosize and destroy microbes.
natural killer cells
macrophages
(iv) Cytokine barriers : Virus-infected cells secrete proteins interferons
protect non-infected cells from further viral
infection.
Acquired immunity
 pathogen specific & characterised by memory.
 This means that our body when it encounters a
pathogen for the first time produces a response called
primary response which is of low intensity.
Subsequent encounter with the same pathogen elicits a
highly intensified secondary response. This is because
our body appears to have memory of the first encounter.
 B-lymphocytes and T- lymphocytes.
 The B-lymphocytes produce an army of proteins in
response to pathogens into our blood to fight with them.
 These proteins are called antibodies
Antibody structure
Each antibody molecule
has four peptide chains,
two small called light
chains and two longer
called heavy chains.
 Hence, an antibody is
represented as H2L2.
Different types of
antibodies are produced
in our body. IgA, IgM, IgE,
IgG are some of them.
ANTIBODY STRUCTURE
ANTIBODY MEDIATED /HUMORAL IMMUNITY
 When a pathogen enters the body ,the B lymphocytes are activated to
produce PLASMA CELLS AND MEMORY CELLS
 PLASMA CELLS produce an army of proteins- ANTIBODIES.
 Memory B cells carry the memory of the antigen, a subsequent
encounter with the same antigen results in a faster intensified
response.
 B – LYMPHOCYTES

 PLASMA CELLS MEMORY CELLS

 ANTIBODIES MEMORY
T-CELL MEDIATED OR CELL MEDIATED IMMUNE RESPONSE

T cells themselves do not secrete antibodies

but help B cells
When an antigen enter the body, T cells are
activated. The activated T cells differentiate
into
1.Killer T cells (Tk )
2.Helper T cells (Th )
3.Suppressor T cells (Ts )
4.Memory T cells (Tm)
 CMI- responsible for graft rejection.
 Grafts from just any source – an animal,
another primate, or any human beings cannot
be made since the grafts would be rejected
sooner or later.
 Tissue matching, blood group matching are
essential before undertaking any
graft/transplant and even after this the patient
has to take immuno–suppresants all his/her life.
 The body is able to differentiate ‘self ’ and
‘nonself’ and the cell-mediated immune
response is responsible for the graft rejection.
Active and Passive Immunity
 Active immunity- When a host is exposed to antigens, which may be
in the form of living or dead microbes or other proteins, antibodies are
produced in the host body.
 It is slow and takes time to give its full effective response.
 Injecting the microbes deliberately during immunisation(vaccination)
or infectious organisms gaining access into body during natural
infection induce active immunity.
 Passive immunity- When ready-made antibodies are directly given
to protect the body against foreign agents.
 The yellowish fluid colostrum secreted by mother during the initial
days of lactation has abundant antibodies (IgA) to protect the infant.
The foetus also receives some antibodies from their mother, through
the placenta during pregnancy.
Vaccination and Immunisation
 based on the property of ‘memory’ of the immune system.
 In vaccination, a preparation of antigenic proteins of pathogen or
inactivated/weakened pathogen (vaccine) are introduced into the body.
 The antibodies produced against these antigens would neutralise the
pathogenic agents during actual infection.
 The vaccines generate memory – B and T-cells that recognise the
pathogen quickly on subsequent exposure there’s a massive production
of antibodies.
 If a person is infected with some deadly microbes to which quick
immune response is required (tetanus), preformed antibodies, or
antitoxin (a preparation containing antibodies to the toxin) is injected.
 Even in snakebites, the injection which is given to the patients, contain
preformed antibodies against the snake venom. This type of
immunisation is called passive immunisation.
 Vaccines produced using Recombinant DNA technology large scale
Allergies
 An overreaction or exaggerated response of the
immune system to certain antigens present in the
environment.
 The substances to which such an immune response
is produced are called allergens.
 The antibodies produced - IgE type.
 Examples of allergens- mites in dust, pollens, animal
dander, etc.
 Symptoms - sneezing, watery eyes, running nose
and difficulty in breathing.
 Allergy is due to the release of chemicals
like histamine and serotonin from the
mast cells.
 For determining the cause of allergy,
the patient is exposed to or injected with
very small doses of possible allergens,
and the reactions studied.
 Drugs like anti-histamine, adrenalin and
steroids quickly reduce the symptoms of
allergy.
Auto Immunity
Memory-based acquired immunity -based on the
ability to differentiate foreign organisms (e.g.,
pathogens) from self cells.
Sometimes, due to genetic and other unknown
reasons, the body attacks self-cells. This results
in damage to the body and is called auto-
immune disease.
Rheumatoid arthritis- Tender, warm, swollen
joints. Joint stiffness that is usually worse in the
mornings and after inactivity. Fatigue, fever and
weight loss.
Immune System in the Body
Immune system recognises foreign
antigens, responds to these and
remembers them.
plays an important role in allergic
reactions, auto-immune diseases and
organ transplantation.
consists of lymphoid organs, tissues,
cells and antibodies.
 Y M P H O ID O R G A N : S
L

PRIMARY LYMPHOID ORGANS- BONE MARROW &

THYMUS( lymphocytes originate, proliferate and
mature)
 migrate to
SECONDARY LYMPHOID ORGANS (spleen, lymph
nodes, tonsils, Peyer’s patches of Small
Intestine and appendix)

interaction of lymphocytes with the antigen, which
then proliferate to become effector cells.
 PRIMARY LYMPHOID ORGANS
 Bone marrow -main lymphoid organ where all
blood cells including lymphocytes are produced.
B CELLS originate and mature in bone
marrow.
 Thymus-lobed organ located near the heart and
beneath the breastbone. T CELLS originate in
bone marrow , travel to thymus and mature
there.
 Both bone-marrow and thymus provide micro-
environments for the development and
maturation of T-lymphocytes.
SECONDARY
LYMPOID
ORGANS
Spleen - large bean
shaped organ. It
contains lymphocytes
and phagocytes.
Acts as a filter to
trap blood-borne
microorganisms and
 Lymph nodes -small
solid structures located
at different points along
the lymphatic system.
 Serve to trap the micro-
organisms or other
antigens, which get into
the lymph and tissue
fluid.
 Antigens trapped in
lymph nodes activate
lymphocytes and cause
the immune response.
Lymphoid tissue located within the lining of the
major tracts (respiratory, digestive and
urogenital tracts) called mucosa associated
lymphoid tissue (MALT).
 AIDS
 Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome-deficiency of immune
system, acquired during the lifetime of an individual indicating that it
is not a congenital disease.
 ‘Syndrome’-group of symptoms.
 first reported in 1981.
 caused by the Human Immuno deficiency Virus (HIV), a
retrovirus, which have an envelope enclosing the RNA genome.
 Transmission (a) sexual contact with infected person,
 (b) by transfusion of contaminated blood and blood products,
 (c) by sharing infected needles as in the case of intravenous drug
abusers and
 (d) from infected mother to her child through placenta.
 People who are at high risk
 Individuals who have multiple sexual partners,
 drug addicts who take drugs intravenously,
 individuals who require repeated blood transfusions
 children born to an HIV infected mother
 HIV/AIDS is not spread by mere touch or physical
contact; it spreads only through body fluids.
 Thereis always a time-lag between the infection and
appearance of AIDS symptoms. This period may vary
from a few months to many years (usually 5-10
years).
LIFE CYCLE OF HIV
1. HIV enters the body of the person
2. virus enters into macrophages
REVERSE
3. Viral RNA Viral DNA.
TRANSCRIPTASE
4. Viral DNA gets incorporated into host cell’s DNA
5. directs the infected cells to produce virus particles.
6. The macrophages continue to produce virus (acts like a HIV factory.)
7. Simultaneously, HIV enters into helper T-lymphocytes (TH), replicates
and produce progeny viruses.
8. The progeny viruses released in the blood,attack other helper T-
lymphocytes.
9. This is repeated leading to a progressive decrease in the number of
helper T lymphocytes in the body of the infected person.
10.During this period, the person suffers from bouts of fever, diarrhoea and
weight loss.
 After getting into the body of the person, the virus enters into
macrophages where RNA genome of the virus replicates to form viral
DNA with the help of the enzyme reverse transcriptase.
 This viral DNA gets incorporated into host cell’s DNA and directs the
infected cells to produce virus particles.
 The macrophages continue to produce virus and in this way acts like a
HIV factory.
 Simultaneously, HIV enters into helper T-lymphocytes (TH), replicates
and produce progeny viruses.
 The progeny viruses released in the blood, attack other helper T-
lymphocytes. This is repeated leading to a progressive decrease in the
number of helper T lymphocytes in the body of the infected person.
 During this period, the person suffers from bouts of fever, diarrhoea
and weight loss.
 Due to decrease in the number of helper T lymphocytes,
the person starts suffering from infections that could
have been otherwise overcome such as those due to
bacteria especially Mycobacterium, viruses, fungi and
even parasites like Toxoplasma.
 Patientbecomes so immuno-deficient that he/she is
unable to protect himself/herself against these
infections.
 Diagnostic
test- enzyme linked immuno-sorbent
assay (ELISA).
 Treatment- anti-retroviral drugs. They can only prolong
the life of the patient but cannot prevent death, which is
inevitable.
Prevention of AIDS
 National AIDS Control Organisation (NACO) and other non-governmental
organisation (NGOs) are doing a lot to educate people about AIDS.
 WHO has started a number of programmes to prevent the spreading of
HIV infection.
 Making blood (from blood banks) safe from HIV,
 ensuring the use of only disposable needles and syringes in public and
private hospitals and clinics,
 free distribution of condoms,
 controlling drug abuse,
 advocating safe sex and promoting regular check-ups for HIV in
susceptible populations.
 HIV/AIDS-infected people need help and sympathy instead of being
shunned by society. Unless society recognises it as a problem to be dealt
with in a collective manner – the chances of wider spread of the disease
CANCER
Uncontrolled multiplication of cells.
In our body, cell growth and differentiation –
highly controlled and regulated.
In cancer cells- breakdown of these regulatory
mechanisms.
 Normal cells - contact inhibition- contact with
other cells inhibits their uncontrolled growth.
Cancer cells have lost this property – continue
to divide giving rise to masses of cells called
tumors.
 Tumors are of two types: benign and malignant.
 Benign tumors - confined to their original location and do not
spread to other parts and cause little damage.
 Malignant tumors-mass of proliferating cells called neoplastic
or tumor cells.
 These cells grow very rapidly, invading and damaging the
surrounding normal tissues. As these cells actively divide and
grow they also starve the normal cells by competing for vital
nutrients.
 Cells separate from such tumors reach distant sites through
blood, and wherever they get lodged in the body, they start a
new tumor there. This property called METASTASIS
Causes of cancer

Physical, chemical or biological agents. These agents are
called carcinogens.
 Physical carcinogens- Ionising radiations like X-rays and
gamma rays and non-ionizing radiations like UV cause DNA
damage leading to neoplastic transformation.
 Chemical carcinogens - tobacco smoke have been
identified as a major cause of lung cancer.
 Biological agents- Cancer causing viruses called
oncogenic viruses have genes called viral oncogenes.
 Several genes called cellular oncogenes (c-onc) or proto
oncogenes have been identified in normal cells which, when
activated under certain conditions, could lead to oncogenic
transformation of the cells.
Cancer detection and diagnosis
 biopsy and histopathological studies of the tissue.
 Leukemias-blood and bone marrow tests for increased cell counts.
 Biopsy- a piece of the suspected tissue cut into thin sections is
stained and examined under microscope (histopathological studies)
by a pathologist.
 Radiography (use of X-rays), CT and MRI.
 Computed tomography CT uses X-rays to generate a three-
dimensional image of the internals of an object.
 Magnetic Resonance Imaging- uses strong magnetic fields and
non-ionising radiations to accurately detect pathological and
physiological changes in the living tissue.
 Antibodies against cancer-specific antigens are also used for detection
of certain cancers.
 Techniques of molecular biology- to
detect genes in individuals with inherited
susceptibility to certain cancers.
 Identificationof such genes- helpful in
prevention of cancers.
 Such individuals may be advised to avoid
exposure to particular carcinogens to which
they are susceptible (e.g., tobacco smoke in
case of lung cancer).
Treatment of cancer
 surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy and
immunotherapy.
 Radiotherapy- tumor cells are irradiated lethally,
taking proper care of the normal tissues surrounding the
tumor mass.
 Chemotherapeutic drugs are used to kill cancerous
cells. Some are specific for particular tumors.
 side effects like hair loss, anemia, etc.
 biological response modifiers/α-interferon -Tumor
cells avoid being detected and destroyed by immune
system. Therefore, patients are given α-interferon
which activates their immune system and helps in
Drug and alcohol abuse
 commonly abused - opioids, cannabinoids and coca alkaloids
 Opioids- bind to specific opioid receptors - central nervous system
and gastrointestinal tract.
 extracted - latex of poppy plant Papaver somniferum.
 Heroin(smack) - chemically diacetylmorphine - white, odourless,
bitter crystalline compound.
 Obtained by acetylation of morphine.
 Heroin is a depressant and
 slows down body functions.
 Taken by snorting and injection.
 Cannabinoids- interact with cannabinoid receptors of
the brain.
 obtained - inflorescences of the plant Cannabis
sativa.
 Theflowers, leaves and the resin of cannabis plant
are used to produce marijuana, hashish, charas and
ganja.
 taken by inhalation and oral ingestion,
 effects on cardiovascular system of the body
 Coca alkaloid or cocaine
 coca plant Erythroxylum coca, native to South
America.
 It interferes with the transport of the neuro-
transmitter dopamine.
 Cocaine, commonly called coke or crack is usually
snorted.
 It has a potent stimulating action on central nervous
system, producing a sense of euphoria ( a feeling or
state of intense excitement) and happiness and
increased energy.
 Excessive dosage of cocaine causes hallucinations.
 Otherplants with hallucinogenic properties - Atropa
belladona and Datura .
 cannabinoids - abused by some sportspersons.
 Drugslike barbiturates, amphetamines,
benzodiazepines- used as medicines to help
patients cope with mental illnesses like depression
and insomnia, are often abused.
 Morphine is a very effective sedative and painkiller,
and is very useful in patients who have undergone
surgery
 Tobacco- It is smoked, chewed or used as a snuff.
 contains chemical substances including nicotine, an alkaloid.
 Nicotine stimulates adrenal gland adrenaline and nor-
adrenaline


 raise blood pressure and

increase heart rate.
 Cancers of lung, urinary bladder and throat, bronchitis(inflammation
of bronchi), emphysema(over-inflation of alveoli), coronary heart
disease, gastric ulcer, etc.
 Tobacco chewing - increased risk of cancer of the oral cavity.
 Smoking increases carbon monoxide (CO) content in blood and
reduces the concentration of haembound oxygen. This causes oxygen
deficiency in the body.
Adolescence and Drug/Alcohol Abuse
 Adolescence-‘a period’ and ‘a process’ during which a child
becomes mature in terms of his/her attitudes and beliefs for
effective participation in society.
 The period between 12-18 years - bridge linking childhood and
adulthood.
 Accompanied by biological and behavioural changes. Vulnerable
phase of mental and psychological development of an individual.
 Curiosity, need for adventure and excitement, and
experimentation, stress, from pressures to excel in academics or
examinations
 Perception among youth that it is ‘cool’ or progressive to smoke,
use drugs or alcohol.
 Television, movies, newspapers, internet also help to promote this
perception
 Addiction and Dependence- Addiction is a psychological
attachment to certain effects –such as euphoria and a
temporary feeling of well-being –associated with drugs and
alcohol
 Vicious circle- drugs even once, can be a fore-runner to
addiction
 Dependence- tendency of the body to manifest a
characteristic and unpleasant withdrawal syndrome if
regular dose of drugs/alcohol is abruptly discontinued. This
is characterised by anxiety, shakiness, nausea and sweating,
which may be relieved when use is resumed again.
 Insome cases, withdrawal symptoms can be severe and
even life threatening and the person may need medical
supervision
Effects of Drug/Alcohol Abuse
 reckless behaviour, vandalism(action involving deliberate destruction
of or damage to public or private property) and violence.
 Excessive doses leads to coma and death due to respiratory failure,
heart failure or cerebral haemorrhage.
 warning signs among youth - drop in academic performance,
unexplained absence from school/college, lack of interest in personal
hygiene, withdrawal, isolation, depression, fatigue, aggressive and
rebellious behaviour, deteriorating relationships with family and
friends, loss of interest in hobbies, change in sleeping and eating
habits, fluctuations in weight, appetite, etc
 Intravenous drugs (direct injection into the vein using a needle and
syringe)-serious infections like AIDS and Hepatitis B.
 damages nervous system and liver (cirrhosis). The use of drugs and
alcohol during pregnancy is also known to adversely affect the foetus
 Sports persons- misuse narcotic analgesics, anabolic steroids,
diuretics and certain hormones to increase muscle strength and bulk
and to promote aggressiveness and as a result increase athletic
performance.
 side-effects-in females include masculinisation (features like males),
increased aggressiveness, mood swings, depression, abnormal
menstrual cycles, excessive hair growth on the face and body,
enlargement of clitoris, deepening of voice.
 In males it includes acne, increased aggressiveness, mood swings,
depression, reduction of size of the testicles, decreased sperm
production, potential for kidney and liver dysfunction, breast
enlargement, premature baldness, enlargement of the prostate gland
Prevention and Control

Avoid undue peer pressure
Education and counselling
Seeking help from parents and peers
Looking for danger signs
Seeking professional and medical help