• Health is a state of complete physical, mental & social well- • Disease causing organisms are called Pathogens.

Parasites
being. It is affected by genetic disorders, infections, change are pathogens as they harm the host.
in life style (food, water, rest, exercise, habits etc). Good humour hypothesis (by Hippocrates & Indian
• Mind influences immune system (through neural and Ayurveda system): It states that health is a state of body & mind
endocrine systems) and thereby health. where there is a balance of certain humours. Persons with ‘black
• When the functioning of organs or systems of the body is bile’ belong to hot personality and would have fevers.
adversely affected, it is called a disease. William Harvey disproved this hypothesis. He discovered blood
• Diseases may be infectious (transmits from one person to circulation and demonstrated normal body temperature in
persons with black bile using thermometer.
another) or non-infectious (do not transmit. E.g. cancer).

COMMON INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN MAN

1. BACTERIAL DISEASES Life cycle of Plasmodium
a. Typhoid: Pathogen is Salmonella typhi.
• Mode of transmission: It enters small intestine through
food & water and migrates to other organs via blood.
• Symptoms: Sustained high fever (39o-40o C), headache,
weakness, stomach pain, constipation & loss of appetite.
Intestinal perforation and death may occur.
Widal test is used for confirmation of the disease.
Mary Mallon (Typhoid Mary) was a professional cook.
She was a typhoid carrier who spread typhoid for
several years through the food she prepared.
b. Pneumonia: Pathogen is Streptococcus pneumoniae &
b. Amoebiasis (Amoebic dysentery): Pathogen is
Haemophilus influenzae.
Entamoeba histolytica.
It infects lung alveoli. The alveoli get filled with fluid
• Mode of transmission: Houseflies (mechanical carriers)
leading to respiratory problems.
transmit parasites from faeces to food & water.
• Mode of transmission: Inhaling the droplets/aerosols
• Symptoms: Constipation, abdominal pain and cramps,
released by an infected person. Sharing glasses and
stools with excess mucus and blood clots.
utensils with an infected person.
• Symptoms: Respiratory problems, fever, chills, cough, 4. HELMINTH DISEASES
headache. In severe cases, lips and finger nails turn grey a. Ascariasis: Pathogen is Ascaris (Intestinal parasite).
to bluish colour. • Mode of transmission: Soil, water, vegetables, fruits etc.
Other bacterial diseases: Dysentery, plague, diphtheria, etc. contaminated with faeces containing eggs of parasites.
• Symptoms: Internal bleeding, muscular pain, fever,
2. VIRAL DISEASES
anaemia and blockage of intestinal passage.
a. Common cold: Pathogen is Rhinoviruses. b. Filariasis (Elephantiasis): Pathogen is Filarial worms
It infects nose & respiratory passage but not lungs. or Wuchereria (W. bancrofti & W. malayi).
• Mode of transmission: Inhaling droplets resulting from • Mode of transmission: Bite of female Culex mosquito.
cough or sneezes. Through contaminated objects (pens, • Symptoms: Filarial worms live in lymphatic vessels
books, cups, doorknobs, computer accessories) etc. (usually of lower limbs). It causes chronic inflammation
• Symptoms: Nasal congestion & discharge, fever, of the organs in which they live for many years. Limbs
headache, sore throat, cough, hoarseness, tiredness etc. and genital organs may be deformed.
Common cold lasts for 3-7 days.
5. FUNGAL DISEASES
3. PROTOZOAN DISEASES
a. Ring worms: Pathogens are Microsporum, Trichophyton
a. Malaria: Pathogen is Plasmodium sp. (P. vivax, P. & Epidermophyton. They are seen in groin, b/w toes etc.
malariae & P. falciparum). • Mode of transmission: From soil or by using towels,
Most serious (malignant) malaria is caused by P. cloths, comb etc. Heat and moisture help fungi to grow.
falciparum. • Symptoms: Dry, scaly lesions on skin, nails, scalp etc.
• Mode of transmission: By female Anopheles mosquito. Intense itching.
• Symptoms: Haemozoin (toxin released by Plasmodium)
PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF DISEASES
causes chill and high fever recurring every 3-4 days.
Personal hygiene
Keep the body clean. Use clean drinking water, food etc.
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 Public hygiene - Use of mosquito nets.
a. Proper disposal of wastes and excreta. - Introduce larvivorous fishes like Gambusia in ponds.
b. Periodic cleaning and disinfection of water reservoirs, - Spraying insecticides in ditches, drainage and swamps.
pools, cesspools and tanks. - Provide doors and windows with wire mesh.
c. Avoid contact with infected persons or their belongings (to These precautions can avoid vector-borne diseases like
control air-borne diseases). Malaria, Filariasis, Dengue & Chikun gunya.
d. Standard practices of hygiene in public catering. Vaccines & immunisation helped to control diseases like
e. Control and eliminate the vectors (e.g. mosquitoes). smallpox, polio, diphtheria, pneumonia & tetanus. Drugs like
- Avoid stagnation of water. antibiotics also helped to treat infectious diseases.
- Regular cleaning of household coolers.

HUMAN IMMUNE SYSTEM

IMMUNITY
§ It is the system that It is the ability of the immune system to fight the pathogens.
gives immunity to the It is 2 types: Innate and Acquired.
body by recognizing,
1. Innate (inborn) immunity
responding and
- It is the non-specific immunity present at the time of birth.
remembering foreign
- It includes 4 types of Barriers:
antigens.
a. Physical barriers: Prevents entry of microbes. E.g. Skin,
§ It plays role in allergic
Mucus coating of the respiratory, gastro-intestinal and
reaction, auto-
urino-genital tracts. Mucus traps microbes.
immune disease and
b. Physiological barriers: They prevent microbial growth.
organ transplantation.
E.g. gastric HCl, saliva, tear etc.
§ It includes lymphoid
c. Cellular barriers: Phagocytes like WBC [Polymorpho-
organs, tissues, cells
nuclear leukocytes (PMNL) or neutrophils, monocytes and
& antibodies.
natural killer lymphocytes], macrophages etc.
d. Cytokine barriers: Virus infected cells secrete a cytokine
LYMPHOID ORGANS protein called interferon. It protects non-infected cells
These are the organs where origin/maturation & proliferation from further viral infection.
of lymphocytes occur. 2 types: Primary & Secondary. 2. Acquired (adaptive) immunity
a. Primary lymphoid organs • It is pathogen specific immunity developed during lifetime.
The organs where lymphocytes are matured & differentiated • It is characterized by memory, i.e. during first encounter of
to antigen-sensitive lymphocytes. It is 2 types: a pathogen, body produces primary response in low
1. Bone marrow: The site of formation of all blood cells intensity. Second encounter of the same pathogen causes a
including B & T-lymphocytes. secondary (anamnestic) response in high intensity.
2. Thymus: A bilobed organ seen near the heart and beneath • Primary and secondary immune responses are carried out
the breastbone. It is large during birth but gradually with B-lymphocytes (B-cells) and T-lymphocytes (T-cells).
reduces in size and becomes very small size in puberty. a. B-lymphocytes: Produce antibodies. These are the
Immature T-lymphocytes from bone marrow is migrated proteins to fight the pathogens.
to thymus and matured. b. T-lymphocytes: Help B-cells to produce antibodies.
b. Secondary lymphoid organs Structure of an
- The organs, to which matured lymphocytes migrate from antibody molecule
primary lymphoid organs, interact with antigens and then An antibody has 4
proliferate to become effector cells. polypeptide chains:
E.g. Spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, Peyer’s patches, Mucosa- 2 light chains and 2
associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) & appendix. heavy chains (H2L2).

- Spleen: Bean-shaped organ. Contains lymphocytes and Types of antibodies:

phagocytes. It removes worn-out RBCs & microorganisms IgG, IgA, IgM, IgE & IgD.
from blood. It is a reservoir of erythrocytes in foetus.
- Lymph nodes: Found in lymphatic system. They trap Types of Acquired immune response
microorganisms or other antigens. Trapped antigens 1. Humoral immune response/ Antibody mediated
activate lymphocytes and cause immune response. immunity (AMI): It is the immune response mediated by
- MALT: Located within the lining of respiratory, digestive antibodies. Antibodies are found in blood plasma. So
& urinogenital tracts. It constitutes 50% of lymphoid tissue. called as Humoral immune response.

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2. Cell-mediated response / cell-mediated immunity (CMI): § Treatment: Drugs like anti-histamine, adrenaline and
It is the immune response mediated by T-lymphocytes (T- steroids quickly reduce the symptoms of allergy.
cells). The body can differentiate ‘self’ and ‘non-self’ and § Asthma is a respiratory disease due to allergy.
the CMI causes Graft rejection. § Modern-day life style and protected environment provided
Tissue matching & blood group matching are essential early in life result in low immunity and more sensitivity to
before undertaking any graft/ transplant. After this, the allergens. So, many children in metro cities suffer from
patient should take immuno-suppressants all his life. allergies and asthma.
Types of Acquired immunity Autoimmunity
Acquired immunity is 2 types: Active and passive. - In higher vertebrates, memory-based acquired immunity
1. Active immunity: It is the immunity in which antibodies evolved based on the ability to differentiate foreign
are produced in a host body when the host is exposed to organisms from self-cells.
antigens (e.g. living or dead microbes or other proteins). - Sometimes, due to genetic and other unknown reasons, the
It is a slow process. It is produced by 2 ways: body attacks self-cells resulting in damage to the body. It is
a. Natural Active Immunity: It is developed during called auto-immune disease. E.g. Rheumatoid arthritis.
natural infection by microbes. AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency
b. Artificial Active Immunity: It is developed by injecting Syndrome)
the microbes deliberately during immunization. § It is the deficiency of immune system.
2. Passive immunity: Here, readymade antibodies are § Syndrome means a group of symptoms.
directly given to the body. It is 2 types: § It is caused by HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus),
a. Natural Passive Immunity: E.g. a retrovirus having RNA genome.
§ Antibodies (IgG) from mother → Placenta → Foetus § AIDS was first reported in America (1981).
§ Antibodies (IgA) in colostrum → infants § In the last 25 years, it killed over 25 million persons.
b. Artificial Passive Immunity: E.g.
Transmission:
§ Anti-tetanus serum (ATS)
§ Sexual contact with infected person.
Immunization § Transfusion of contaminated blood & blood products.
This is based on ‘memory’ of the immune system. 2 types: § Sharing of infected needles.
1. Active Immunization (Vaccination) § From infected mother to her child through placenta.
§ In this, a preparation of vaccine (antigenic proteins of High risk people of getting HIV:
pathogen or inactivated pathogen) is introduced into the § Individuals with multiple sexual partners.
body. It results in the development of antibodies. § Drug addicts who take drugs intravenously.
§ During actual infection, the antibodies neutralize antigens. § Individuals who require repeated blood transfusion.
§ The vaccines also generate memory B and T-cells. They § Children born to an HIV infected mother.
recognize the pathogen quickly. HIV does not spread by touch or physical contact. It spreads
§ E.g. Polio vaccine, Hepatitis B vaccine, DPT vaccine etc. only through body fluids.
§ Vaccines are produced using DNA recombinant technology There is a time-lag (from few months to 5-10 years) between
(E.g. Hepatitis B vaccine produced from Yeast). the infection and appearance of symptoms.
2. Passive Immunization Replication of retrovirus:
§ It is the direct injection of pre-formed antibodies or
antitoxin. It is required for quick immune response.
§ E.g. Immunization against Tetanus, snake venom etc.
Allergies
§ It is the exaggerated response of the immune system to
certain antigens present in the environment.
§ Allergens: Substances causing allergy. E.g. mites in dust,
pollens, animal dander, fur etc.
§ Antibodies produced against the allergens are IgE type.
§ IgE binds on mast cells to release chemicals like histamine
and serotonin from them. It results in allergic reactions.
§ Symptoms: Sneezing, watery eyes, running nose, difficulty
in breathing, wheezing, skin rashes etc.
§ Determination of cause of allergy: The patient is exposed
to or injected with very small doses of possible allergens,
and the reactions studied.

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Life cycle of HIV: § Diagnosis: ELISAtest (Enzyme-linked immuno-sorbent Assay).
HIV enters body → To macrophages (acts as HIV factory) § Treatment: Anti-retroviral drugs are partially effective.
→ RNA genome replicates in presence of Reverse They can only prolong the life of the patient.
transcriptase to form viral DNA → Viral DNA Prevention of AIDS:
incorporates into host DNA→ Infected cells produce virus o Educate people about AIDS through organisations like
particles → HIV enters into helper T-cells (TH lymphocytes) National AIDS Control Organisation (NACO), non-
→ Replicates & produce progeny viruses → Attack other governmental organisations (NGOs), WHO etc.
TH cells → TH cells decrease → Weaken immunity. o Make blood (from blood banks) safe from HIV.
§ During this period, the person suffers from fever, diarrhoea o Use disposable needles and syringes.
and weight loss. o Advocate safe sex and free distribution of condoms.
§ Due to deficiency of TH cells, he may be infected with o Control drug abuse.
Mycobacterium, viruses, fungi & parasites like Toxoplasma. o Regular check-ups for HIV in susceptible population.

CANCER
• Cancer is an abnormal and uncontrolled multiplication of In case of leukemia: Biopsy & histopathological studies.
cells resulting in the formation of tumour (masses of cells). Blood & bone marrow tests for increased cell counts.
• Normal cells show a contact inhibition (contact with the o Imaging techniques:
other cells inhibits their uncontrolled growth). Cancer cells § Radiography: Use of X-rays.
do not have this property. § CT (Computerized tomography) scan: Uses X-rays to
Types of Tumours generate a 3D image of the internals of an object.
o Benign tumours: Confined to the place of its origin. They § MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging): Uses magnetic
do not spread to other parts. Cause little damage. fields and non-ionising radiations to detect pathological
o Malignant tumours: Mass of proliferating cells (neoplastic and physiological changes in the living tissue.
or tumour cells) that grow rapidly, invade and damage the o Use of Antibodies against cancer-specific antigens.
surrounding normal tissues. Due to active division and o Molecular biology technique: To detect cancer related
growth, they starve normal cells by competing for nutrients. genes. Such individuals should avoid carcinogens (e.g.
Cells sloughed from tumours reach other sites via blood tobacco smoke).
where they form a new tumour. This is called metastasis.
Treatment of cancer
Causes of cancer (Carcinogens)
o Radiotherapy: Tumour cells are irradiated lethally,
§ Physical agents: E.g. Ionizing radiations like X-rays and without damaging surrounding normal tissues.
gamma rays and non-ionizing radiations like UV. o Chemotherapy: Use of chemotherapeutic drugs. Many
§ Chemical agents: Tobacco smoke (major cause of lung drugs have side effects like hair loss, anaemia etc.
cancer), vinyl chloride, caffeine, nicotine, mustard gas etc. o Immunotherapy: The patients are given biological
§ Biological agents: E.g. oncogenic viruses, c-onc (cellular response modifiers (e.g. α- interferon) which activates
oncogenes or proto oncogenes) etc. When C-onc in their immune system and helps in destroying the tumour.
normal cells is activated, the cells become oncogenic. o Surgery.
Cancer detection and diagnosis Most cancers are treated by combination of surgery,
o Biopsy: A thin piece of the suspected tissue is stained and radiotherapy and chemotherapy.
examined under microscope (histopathological studies).

DRUGS, SMOKING AND ALCOHOL ABUSE

DRUGS (poppy plant). It is a sedative & painkiller. Used in surgery.
1. Opioids: - Heroin (smack or diacetylmorphine) is a white, odourless,
bitter crystalline compound. It is obtained by acetylation of
- They bind to specific opioid receptors in CNS and
gastrointestinal tract. E.g. morphine, heroin, brown sugar. morphine. It is taken by snorting and injection. Heroin is a
depressant and slows down body functions.
2. Cannabinoids:
- They interact with cannabinoid receptors in the brain.
- Generally taken by inhalation and oral ingestion.
- Natural cannabinoids are obtained from inflorescences of
Cannabis sativa (Hemp plant). Its flower tops, leaves &
resin are used to make marijuana, hashish, charas & ganja.
- They affect cardiovascular system.
- Morphine is extracted from latex of Papaver somniferum - Cannabinoids are abused by some sportspersons.

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 regular dose of drugs/alcohol is abruptly discontinued. This
results in anxiety, shakiness, nausea and sweating.
Dependence leads to social adjustment problems.
Effects of Drug/alcohol abuse
• Reckless behaviour, vandalism and violence.
• Coma and death due to respiratory failure, heart failure or
cerebral haemorrhage.
3. Coca alkaloid or cocaine (coke or crack): • Drugs mixed with alcohol may cause death.
- It is obtained from coca plant Erythroxylum coca. • Damage of nervous system and liver cirrhosis.
- It interferes with transport of neurotransmitter dopamine. • Mental and social distress to family and friends.
- Cocaine is usually snorted. • Social problems like stealing and spread of infectious
- It stimulates CNS producing euphoria & increased energy. diseases (e.g. AIDS, hepatitis B).
- Excessive dosage of cocaine causes hallucinations. • Use of drugs and alcohol by pregnant woman affect the
- Atropa belladona & Datura are also hallucinogenic plants. foetus (Foetal alcohol syndrome or FAS).
Drugs like barbiturates, amphetamines, benzodiazepines, • Loss of sexual drive and necrospermia.
etc. are used as medicines to treat mental illnesses like • Misuse of drugs by athletes (e.g. narcotic analgesics,
depression & insomnia. But their abuse causes impairment anabolic steroids, diuretics & certain hormones to increase
of physical, physiological or psychological functions. muscle strength and bulk and to promote aggressiveness).
SMOKING Warning signs of drug/alcohol abuse in
• Tobacco has been used by human beings for over 400 years. Adolescence period
• It is smoked, chewed or used as a snuff. • Drop in academic performance and absence from school.
• It contains many chemical substances like nicotine (an • Lack of interest in personal hygiene.
alkaloid). It stimulates adrenal gland to release adrenaline • Withdrawal and isolation.
and nor-adrenaline, causing high BP and heart rate. • Depression, fatigue, aggressive and rebellious behaviour.
• Smoking causes cancers of lung, urinary bladder and throat, • Change in sleeping and eating habits.
bronchitis, emphysema, coronary heart disease, gastric • Fluctuations in weight, appetite etc.
ulcer etc. Tobacco chewing causes oral cancer. • Loss of interest in hobbies.
• Smoking increases CO content in blood and reduces • Deteriorating relationships with family and friends.
oxyhaemoglobin. This causes O2 deficiency in the body. Side effects of anabolic steroid abuse
ADOLESCENCE & DRUG/ALCOHOL ABUSE In males:
- Adolescence is ‘a period’ and ‘a process’ during which a § Acne. § Mood swings & depression.
child becomes mature in terms of his/her attitudes and § Increased aggressiveness. § Reduced testicles.
beliefs for effective participation in society. § Decreased sperm. § Kidney & liver dysfunction.
- Adolescence is a bridge linking childhood and adulthood § Breast enlargement. § Premature baldness
(period of 12-18 years of age). It is very vulnerable phase
§ Enlargement of prostate gland.
of mental and psychological development.
In females:
Causes of drug/alcohol use in Adolescence § Masculinisation § Mood swings & depression
- Curiosity and Experimentation. § Increased aggressiveness § Excessive hair growth
- Need for adventure and excitement. § Abnormal menstrual cycle § Deepening of voice
- To escape facing problems.
§ Enlargement of clitoris
- Stress from pressure to excel in academics or examination.
- Television, movies, newspapers, internet etc. In adolescent male & female: Severe facial and body acne,
- Unstable or unsupportive family structures & peer pressure. premature closure of the growth centres of the long bones
resulting in stunted growth.
Addiction and Dependence
• Addiction: It is a psychological attachment (euphoria and Prevention and control
a temporary feeling of wellbeing) with drugs and alcohol. 1. Avoid undue peer pressure.
With repeated use of drugs, the tolerance level of the 2. Education and counselling.
receptors increases. Thus the receptors respond only to 3. Seeking help from parents and peers.
higher doses leading to greater intake and addiction. 4. Looking for danger signs.
• Dependence: It is the tendency of the body to manifest a 5. Seeking professional and medical help.
characteristic and unpleasant withdrawal syndrome if a. Psychologists and psychiatrists.
b. De-addiction and rehabilitation programs.

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 MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Match the following
A B C
Malaria Haemophilus influenza Worms
Pneumonia Plasmodium vivax Bacteria
Filariasis Microsporum Protozoan
Ringworm Wuchereria bancrofti Fungus
2. Analyze the relationship between first two words and fill the fourth place.
a. Ascariasis: Ascaris Cold: ……………. b. AIDS: ELISA Typhoid: …………….
3. Odd man out. Justify your answer.
a. Spleen, lymph nodes, thymus, Peyer’s patches b. Gastric HCl, PMNL, saliva, tear
c. Cocaine, Morphine, Brown sugar, Heroine
4. Expand the following abbreviations.
a. MALT b. CMI c. AIDS d. HIV e. NACO
5. Gopal was playing with his pet dog in the courtyard. Suddenly he developed sneezing, running nose and skin rashes.
a. With which conditions are the above symptoms related?
b. Explain the mechanism of reaction.
6. “The soldiers of a country kill their own king”. In your body, similar situation take place. Find out that process.
7. Changes occurring in the number of antibodies in an individual injected with same antigen on two separate occasions are
given in the bar diagram. Analyse the graph and answer the following questions.

a. In which injection, the number of antibodies is increased?

b. Why the injections in two separate occasions with the same
antigen cause different results?

8. Select the false statement:

a. Peer pressure is a cause of alcoholism.
b. Discontinuing of drug abuse causes withdrawal syndrome.
c. Adolescence is the physical change of an individual.
d. AIDS, Hepatitis B etc. may be spread due to drugs & alcoholism.
9. As a part of adolescence health education Programme, prepare a pamphlet showing common problems of adolescence
with special regard to mental problems.
10. Prepare a table showing the adverse effects of alcoholism, drug addiction and smoking. Give suitable titles.