Limit of Complex valued function :

We say that f(z) has a limit l at z = 𝑧0 if for given 𝜀 > 0 ,∋ 𝛿 > 0 such that |f(z)-l|< 𝜀
whenever |z- 𝑧0 |< 𝛿
Continuity :
A complex valued function f(z) is said to be continuous if lim f(z) = f(𝑧0 ) .
𝑧→𝑧0
f(z) = u+iv is continuous at 𝑧0 =𝑥0 + 𝑖𝑦0 if u and v are continuous at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0).
If f(z) is continuous on ℂ then f 𝑧ҧ , 𝑓 𝑧 , Re(z),Im(z), sin(f(z)), exp (f(z)) etc are all
continuous .
Differentiability : A complex valued function f(z) is said to be differentiable at z= 𝑧0 if
𝑓 𝑧 −𝑓 𝑧0
lim exists.
𝑧→𝑧0 𝑧−𝑧0
Note : Differentiability ⇒ Continuity but not conversely.
Necessary Condition : (C – R Equation )
Let f(z) = u+iv then C- R equation is 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 and 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥
Note : 1. f(z) is differentiable at 𝑧0 ⇒ f satisfy C – R Equation at 𝑧0
2. f is not satisfy C – R Equation at 𝑧0 ⇒ f is not differentiable at 𝑧0 .
Simplest form of C-R Equation :
𝜕𝑓
Let f(z) be a complex valued function then = 0 at 𝑧0 ⇒ C-R Equation satisfy at 𝑧0 .
𝜕𝑧ҧ
𝜕𝑓
≠ 0 at z = 𝑧0 ⇒ f is not differentiable 𝑧0 ⇒ f is not satiesfy C-R Equation satisfy at 𝑧0 .
𝜕 𝑧ҧ
𝜕𝑓
Examlple : f 𝑧 = 𝑧ҧ , then = 1 ≠ 0 ⇒ f is nowhere differentiable .
𝜕𝑧ҧ
Sufficient Condition :
Let f(z) = u+iv be a complex valued function defined on a nbd N of z = 𝑧0 s.t. 𝑢𝑥 , 𝑢𝑦 , 𝑣𝑥 , 𝑣𝑦
are exists in N and continuous at z = 𝑧0 and satisfied C-R equation ,then f is differentiable at
𝑧0 .
Example : f(z) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑖𝑦 2 ,
it satisfied the above condition and C-R Equation satisfy only at a line y=x so it is
differentiable only at line y=x .
Important on analytic or holomorphic function :
1) f(z) is analytic ⇔ it is differentiable at uncountable point .
2) f(z) is differentiable at countable point ⇒ it is nowhere analytic
E.g . f(z) = 𝑧 2 =𝑧𝑧ҧ differentiable only at 0 ⇒ it is nowhere analytic .
Note : Analytic in complex plane ℂ ⇒ Entire function.
Result : Let f(z) be a non constant analytic function , then
1) 𝑓 𝑧ҧ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 𝑧 never analytic.
2) If f(z) , 𝑓 𝑧ҧ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 𝑧 are all analytic then f(z) must be constant.
Some question on Constant function :
Let f(z) = u + iv be a Entire function . If u = 0 (complex valued ), v =0 (real valued ) , u =
constant , v = constant , |f| is entire , image of f lies on a st. line , all the above cases f is
aconstant function.
Harmonic Function :
𝜕2 𝑓 𝜕2 𝑓
f(z) =u+iv is said to be harmonic if + 2 = 0 ,where u ≡ u(x,y) and v ≡ v(x,y) .
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦
U and v are harmonic conjugate of each other .
Note : 1) u, v are harmonic ⇒ u + iv is analytic and u, v are harmonic conjugate .
2) u (or v) is not harmonic ⇒ f is not holomorphic .
3) if u , v are harmonic conjugate of each other then f is constant.
Example ( harmonic ) : f(z) = 𝑧 2 ⇒ f(x,y) = 𝑥 + i𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 2i𝑥𝑦 = u + iv ,
u = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 , v = 2i𝑥𝑦 ,, so 𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑦𝑦 = 0 ( for v also )
there fore f is harmonic function.
Example ( Note 2 ) : f = u+ iv ,let u = 3𝑥 2 𝑦, then 𝑢𝑥 = 6𝑥𝑦 = 𝑣𝑦 , 𝑢𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 = −𝑣𝑥 ,
f= u+iv = 3𝑥 2 𝑦 is analytic ⇒ u,v both analytic
but 𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢y𝑦 ≠ 0 ⇒ u is not harmonic ⇒ f= u+iv is not holomorphic.
To find conjugate of a harmonic function :
Method 1 : Let u be given
Step 1 : Find 𝑢𝑥 and 𝑢𝑦
Step 2 : 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 and v = ‫ 𝑥𝑢 ׬‬d𝑦 + 𝜑(𝑥)
Step 3 : use 𝑢𝑦 = - 𝑣𝑥 to find 𝜑(𝑥) and 𝜑′ 𝑥
Example : Let f = u + iv , and u = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 +𝑦 , find v .
𝑢𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 = 𝑣𝑦 , v = ‫ 𝑥𝑢 ׬‬d𝑦 + 𝜑(𝑥) =‫(׬‬3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 )d𝑦 + 𝜑(𝑥)
= 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3
Method 2 : To find f(z) = u + iv for given u,
𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 − 𝑖𝑣𝑦
⇒ f(z) = ධ 𝑢𝑥 z, 0 − i𝑢𝑦 z, 0 d𝑧 + c , and similarly for v given by
f(z) = ධ 𝑣𝑦 z, 0 + i𝑣𝑥 z, 0 d𝑧 + c
Example : Find the analytic function f(z) = u+ iv , where u = coshx siny .
𝑢𝑥 = sinhx siny and 𝑢𝑦 = - coshx cosy , so 𝑢𝑥 z, 0 = 0 and 𝑢𝑦 z, 0 = coshz
f(z) = ධ 𝑢𝑥 z, 0 − i𝑢𝑦 z, 0 d𝑧 + c = ‫ ׬‬0 − 𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑧 d𝑧 + 𝑐 = -i(sinhz) + c
Method 3 (Total Derivative ) :
Using C-R equation 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 and 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥 and the total derivative
dv = 𝑣𝑥 d𝑥 + 𝑣𝑦 d𝑦 = −𝑢𝑦 d𝑥 + 𝑢𝑥 d𝑦
⇒ v = ධ(−𝑢𝑦 d𝑥 + 𝑢𝑥 d𝑦 )
Example : 𝜑 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ,What will be the stream function 𝛹 with 𝛹 =0 at x=y=0 ?
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝛹 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝛹 𝜕𝛹
= 2𝑥 = and = −2y = − ⇒ = 2y
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
Now , d𝛹 = dx + dy = 2ydx + 2xdy =2 d(xy)
𝜕𝑋 𝜕𝑦
Integrating , 𝛹 = 2xy .
Singularity :
A complex valued function f = u + iv is singular at z = 𝑧0 if f is not analytic at 𝑧0 .
Note : f is nowhere analytic ⇒ ∌ a singular point of f .
𝜕𝛹
Example : 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧ҧ , f is n owhere analytic but f has no singular point .
𝜕𝑥
 f is analytic in some Singularity
deleted nbd of z = 𝑧0 . A Singularity which is
1 non isolated.
Ex : 𝑓 𝑧 = at z = 0
𝑧 EX : f(z) = log z ,at z = 0

Isolated Non-isolated

lim 𝑓 𝑧 exists
𝑧→𝑧0
finitely
Ex : f 𝑧 = Removable Essential
sin 𝑧
>𝑧≠0
ቐ 𝑧 , at Limit point of
0, 𝑧 = 0 lim 𝑓 𝑧 = ∞
𝑧→𝑧0
poles
z=0 Pole 1 1
Ex : 𝑓 z = at z = 2 Ex : 𝑓 𝑧 = 1
𝑧−2 cos
𝑧
1
lim 𝑓 𝑧 does at cos =0
𝑧→𝑧0 𝑧
not exist
1 Here f(z) be a complex valued
Ex : f(z) = 𝑒 at z =
𝑧 Essential function and z = 𝑧0 is the point of
0 Singularity of f(z)
Recall : 1) finitely many singularities ⇒ all isolated
2) non isolated singularities ⇒ there are infinite singular points
3) uncountable number of singularities ⇒ non isolated singularities
4) non isolated singularity is the limit point of isolated singularities ( Poles )
5) Limit points of zeros are essential singularities
Open Mapping Theorem :
Any non – constant entire function f : ℂ → ℂ maps open set to open set .
Recall : 1) If image of an open set is not open under analytic function then f is a
constant function.
2) We know that sin z , cos z , ⅇ 𝑧 , P(z) etc. are non constant entire function
⇒ image of open sets under these functions are open .
Liouville Theorem :
A non -constant entire function is unbounded .
Note : Entire + Bounded ⇒ Constant .
Recall : 1) ⅇ 𝑧 , sin z , cos z, ⅇ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 , ⅇ𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧 , P(z) are non constant entire function , so
unbounded.
2) Range of a non – contant entire function is either ℂ or ℂ / {𝛼}
Extended Liouville Theorem :
Let f be an entire function s.t. 𝑓 𝑧 ≤ 𝐴 + 𝐵 𝑧 𝑘 , A,B > 0 and 𝑘 ∈ ℕ ∪ {0} ,
then f is a ploynomial of degree at most k .
Note : Let f be an entire function s.t. 𝑓 𝑧 ≤𝐴+𝐵 𝑧 𝑝/𝑘 , then f(z) is a
𝑝
polynomial of degree at most ,
𝑘
Results : 1) Every non constant entire function has singularity at 𝑧 = ∞ .
2) Non constant entire function can not have Removable singularity at 𝑧 = ∞ .
3) Entire function has a pole of order m ⇔ f has a polynomial of degree m
Picard Theorem :
A non constant entire function can omit at most one point .
i.e. An entire function whose range omit 2 or more point must constant .
Recall : 1) Let f = u + iv , and 𝑓: ℂ → ℂ entire s.t.
u (or v) ≥ or ≤ or < or > a ⇒ f is constant .
2) u ≤ or ≥ or < or > v ⇒ f is constant .
3) { 𝑧 ≤ or ≥ or < or > or = r } ⇒ f is constant .
𝑈2 𝑉2
4) 𝑢2 + 𝑣2 = 𝑘2 , + = 1 , au +bv + c = 0 ⇒ f is constant .
𝑎2 𝑏2
Meromorphic Function : If each singularity of a function f in a doamin D are poles
then f is Meromorphic .
Cauchy Integral Theorem :
If f(z) is an analytic function of z and if 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 is continuous at apoint within and
on and on a closed contour C , then
‫ 𝑧 𝑓 𝑐׬‬d𝑧 = 0
ⅆ𝑧 1
Example : න , C is |z| = 3 , Here z = 5 lies outside C , |z| = 3 , so is analytic inside
𝑧−5 𝑧−5
𝑐
ⅆ𝑧
and on C , therefore by Cauchy integral Theorem , න =0.
𝑧−5
𝑐
Cauchy integral formula :
If f(z) is an analytic function within and a closed contour C and ‘a’ is any point
within C then
1 f(z) ⅆ𝑧
f(a) = න
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧−𝑎
𝑐
𝑛! 𝑓(z)
In general , 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎) = න dz
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧−𝑎 𝑛+1

ⅆ𝑧 2𝜋𝑖
Example : C : |z| = 2 , ර = 𝑓 2−1 1 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑥 0 = 0
𝑧−1 2 2−1 !
𝑐
Cauchy Residue Theorem :
If f(z) is analytic in a closed curved C except at a finite number of singular point
within C , then
‫ 𝑧 𝑓 𝑐׬‬d𝑧 = 2𝜋i 𝑋 Sum of the residues at singular points within C
i.e. If 𝑎1 , 𝑎2,… , 𝑎𝑛 are points of singularities then
‫ 𝑧 𝑓 𝑐׬‬d𝑧 = 2𝜋i 𝑋 { Rⅇ 𝑠 𝑓𝑎1 +Rⅇ 𝑠 𝑓𝑎2 +…+Rⅇ 𝑠 𝑓𝑎n }
Method of Finding Residues :
(1) If z = 𝑧0 is the removable singularity then 𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑓 𝑧 = 0 .
𝑧=𝑧0
(2) If f(z) has simple pole at z = a then Res [f(a)] = lim (z-a) f(z) .
𝑧→𝑧0
1 ⅆ𝑛−1 𝑛
(3) If f(z) has pole of order n at z = a then , Res [f(a)] = lim { [ 𝑧−𝑎 f(z) }
𝑛−1 ! 𝑧→𝑎 ⅆ𝑧 𝑛−1
𝜑 𝑧 𝜑 𝑧
(4) If f(z) is a rational function 𝑓 𝑧 = , then 𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑓 𝑧 = ′ 0
𝛹 𝑧 𝑧=𝑧0 𝛹 𝑧0
Residue at Essential Singularity :
To find the residue Essential singularity expand the series and collect the
1
coefficient of which is the residue .
𝑧
1
1 1 1
Example : 𝑓 𝑧 = ⅇ = 1 + +
𝑧 + . . .,, 𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑓 𝑧 = Coeff. Of =1
𝑧 𝑧 2 2! 𝑧=0 𝑧
Residue at 𝒛 = ∞ of f(z) :
1 1
𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑓 𝑧 = - 𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑓
𝑧=∞ 𝑧=0 𝑧 2 𝑧
1
Example : Residue of 𝑧ⅇ at 𝑧 = ∞ 𝑧
1
1 1 1 1 1 𝑧
Here , f(z) = 𝑧ⅇ , 𝑧 𝑓 = ⅇ 𝑧 ,, 2 𝑓 = ⅇ
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧3
1 1 1 ⅆ2 ⅇ𝑧 1
𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑓 = lim 3
{ 𝑧 ⋅ 3 } =
𝑧=0 𝑧 2 𝑧 2! 𝑧→0 ⅆ𝑧 2 𝑧 2
1 1 1
𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑓 𝑧 = - 𝑅𝑒𝑠 2 𝑓 = -
𝑧=∞ 𝑧=0 𝑧 𝑧 2

Zeros of a Function : A Complex function f(z) is said to have zeros at z = 𝑧0 of order m if

𝑓 𝑧0 = 𝑓 ′ 𝑧0 = 𝑓 ′′ 𝑧0 =. . . . . . = 𝑓 (m−1) 𝑧0 = 0 but 𝑓 m 𝑧0 ≠ 0
if m = 1 then z = 𝑧0 is a simple zero.
1
Recall : 1) if f has a zero of order m then has a pole of order m.
𝑓
𝑓 𝑧
2) ℎ 𝑧 = , if f(z ) and g(z) has zeros of order m and n respectively
𝑔 𝑧
then
a) m=n ⇒ Removable singularty
b) m>n ⇒ Zero of order m – n
c) m<n ⇒ Pole of order n - m
Identity Theorem / Uniqueness Theorem :
Let f : D→ C be an analytic function on D and S be the set of all zeros of f in D , and if limit
point of S contained in D then 𝑓 ≡ 0
Recall : If f(z) is analytic in a domain D and f(z) = 0 at countably many point of D , if limit
point of D lies in D then 𝑓 ≡ 0
1
Example : Let f : D→ C s.t. D = { z ∈ C : | z | < 1} and f =0
𝑛
1
Here S = { } then limit point of S is 𝑆 ′ = { 0 } ⊆ D
𝑛
By above theorem , 𝑓≡0

Schwarz Lemma :
ഥ be analytic having a zero of order n at z = 0 then
Let 𝑓: Δ → Δ
i) | f(z) | ≤ 𝑧 𝑛
ii) 𝑓 𝑛 0 ≤ 𝑛! , ∀𝑧 ∈ Δ
Pick Lemma : Let f be an analytic function on 𝛥 and
a) | f(z) | ≤ 1 and
b) f(a) = b for some a, b in 𝛥 , then
𝑛 1− 𝑓 𝑎 2
𝑓 0 ≤
1− 𝑎 2
Argument Principal :
Let f(z) be a non zero analytic function in a domain D ⊆ C except finitely many poles then
1 𝑓′ 𝑧
ර 𝑑𝑧 = N - P
2𝜋i 𝑓 𝑧
𝑐
Where N = total number of zeros of f(z) and
P = Total numbers of poles of f(z) ( Counted with Multiplicity )
Rouche’s Theorem :
Let C be a simple closed curve in D s.t.
a) f and g are two analytic function inside and onto C
b) 𝑓 𝑧 > 𝑔 𝑧 ∀𝑧 ∈ C , Then f and 𝑓 + 𝑔 have same number of zeros inside C with
multiplicity.
Recall : In general take f(z) as the term containing numerically largest coefficient of
polynomial in z .
Example : The number of zeros with multiplicity of the function inside |z| = 1 , the
polynomial 𝑧 6 − 5𝑧 4 + 𝑧 3 − 2𝑧
Take 𝑓 𝑧 = −5𝑧 4 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓. 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 𝑧 = 𝑧 6 + 𝑧 3 − 2𝑧
Now |𝑓 𝑧 | = 5 and |𝑔 𝑧 | ≤ |𝑧 6 | + 𝑧 3 + 2|𝑧| = 4 in |z| = 1
Here |𝑓 𝑧 | > |𝑔 𝑧 | , so by Rouche’s th. f and 𝑓 + 𝑔 have same number of zeros
Since f has 4 zeros so the given poly. Have 4 zeros.
Maximum Modulus Theorem :
If f(z) is analytic in a bounded domain D then |f| does not attain its maximum
value in D unless it is constant .
Minimum Modulus Theorem :
If f(z) is analytic in a bounded domain D s.t. f(z) ≠ 0 ∀𝑧 ∈ 𝐷 , then |f| does not attain its
minimum value in D unless it is constant .
Example : 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 D = {𝑧 ∈ 𝐶 ∶ 𝑧 < 1} , |𝑓 𝑧 | = |z| ≥ 0
Minimum Modulus Theorem does not work at z = 0.

Radius of Convergence : Radius of convergence of a power series σ𝑛 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑛 is the

distance between the point of expansion a and the nearest singularity 𝑧0 of f(z) , i.e. if
σ𝑛 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑛 is the power series representation of f(z) then,
R=d(a, 𝑧0 ) where 𝑧0 is the nearest singularity of f(z) from a∈ C
1
Example : The ROC f(z) = , about z=1
𝑧−2 𝑧−3
Here f(z) has two singularity at z=2 and z=3 respectively . But nearest singularity is
z =2. So , R = |1-2| = 1
Results : 1) if f(z) is entire function then is no singularity
⇒ The ROC of Taylor series of 𝑓 𝑧 = ∞
 2) If the power series σ 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 is convergent at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 then it is absolutely in
the disk 𝑧 < 𝑧0
3) σ 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 is divergent at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 then divergent for 𝑧 > 𝑧0
4) (-R,R) is interval of convergence
5) If the power series σ 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 has radius of convergence R then the R.O.C . Of
෌ 𝑝(𝑧)𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 is also R ( p(z) is apolynomial of degree d )
To find R.O.C : σ𝑛 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑛 is power series is
Convergent for |z - a| < R and divergent for |z - a| > R .
1
1 𝑎
= lim n+1 = lim 𝑎𝑛 𝑛 (𝑖𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠)
𝑅 𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛→∞
Recall on Laurent Series :
1) If f(z) has a isolated singularity at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 , then f(z) has Laurent series expansion .
2) f has removable singularity at 𝑧0 ⇔ principal part 𝑏𝑛 = 0
3) f(z) has essential singularity at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 ⇔ Laurent series of f(z) at 𝑧0 have infinite many
terms.
4) The Laurent series of f(z) around z = 0 has infinitely many +ve and –ve powers of z .
1
1 1
Example : ⅇ𝑧 = 1 + 𝑧 + 𝑧 2 2! + … .
Principal part is infinite ⇔ it has essential singularity at z = 0 .
Bilinear / Mobius Transformation :
𝑎𝑧+𝑏
A map of the form 𝑓 𝑧 = , ad – bc ≠ 0 ( for non constant ) is Bilinear
𝑐𝑧+𝑑
transformation .
Recall : 1) A B.T. maps circle or st. line onto circle or st. Line .
2) B.T. is one one and onto . , composition of B.T are also B.T.
Important Formula :

Transformation Condition Image

𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏 ad – bc > 0 𝑧 𝑤
𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 f

Upper half to
Upper half

𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏 ad – bc < 0 𝑧 𝑤
𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 f

Upper half to
Lower half
 𝜋 𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏 ad – bc > 0 𝑧 𝑤
−𝑖
𝑓 𝑧 =ⅇ 2
𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 f

Upper half to right

half

𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏
𝑖
𝜋 ad – bc > 0 𝑧 𝑤
𝑓 𝑧 =ⅇ 2
𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 f

Upper half to left

half

𝑧−𝛽 I𝑚 𝛽 > 0 𝑧 𝑤
𝑓 𝑧 = ⅇ𝑖𝜃
𝑧 − 𝛽ҧ f

Upper half to unit

disk
𝑧−𝛽 I𝑚 𝛽 < 0 𝑧 𝑤
𝑓 𝑧 = ⅇ𝑖𝜃
𝑧 − 𝛽ҧ f
 𝑧−𝛽 Rⅇ 𝛽 > 0 𝑧 𝑤
𝑓 𝑧 = ⅇ𝑖𝜃
𝑧 + 𝛽ҧ f

Right half to unit

disk

𝑧−𝛽 Rⅇ 𝛽 < 0
𝑓 𝑧 = ⅇ𝑖𝜃
𝑧 + 𝛽ҧ 𝑧 f 𝑤

Left half to unit

disk

𝑧 − 𝑧0 𝑧0 < 1 𝑧 𝑤
𝑓 𝑧 = ⅇ𝑖𝜃
1 − 𝑧ഥ0 𝑧 f

Unit disk to unit

disk