Complex Analysis Notes

Falguni Mahata

December 2024

1 Preliminaries
Entire Functions: A function that is differentiable in the entire complex plane is called an entire
function.
Theorem 1.1. A real-valued function of a complex variable either has a derivative zero or the deriva-
tive does not exist.
Definition 1 (Analytic). A function f is said to be analytic, or holomorphic, at a point z0 ∈ C if it
is differentiable at every point of some neighborhood of z0 .
DeMoivre’s Law
cos nθ + i sin nθ = (cos θ + i sin θ)n
Theorem 1.2. A necessary condition for a complex-valued function f = u + iv to be differentiable at
z0 is that fz (z0 ) = 0.
Theorem 1.3. Suppose that f is analytic in a domain D. we have
(i) if f ′ (z) = 0 in D, then f is constant.

(ii) if one of |f |, Re f, Im f, Arg f is constant in D, then f is constant.

Definition 2 (Harmonic). A function u is harmonic if it satisfies uxx + uyy = 0.
Theorem 1.4. The real and imaginary parts of an analytic function are harmonic.
Theorem 1.5. If u and v are harmonic conjugates to each other in some domain, then u and v must
be constant there.
The analytic function f = u + iv associated with the harmonic function u(x, y) is given by
 
z + z 0 z − z0
f (z) = 2u , − u(x0 , y0 ) + ik,
2 2i
where k is a real constant.
Theorem 1.6 (Cauchy’s Integral Formula for Derivatives). Let f be holomorphic in a region Ω. Then
f has derivatives of all order in Ω. Moreover, if C is a circle in Ω and z is a point inside the circle
C, then for all integers n ≥ 0, we have
Z
n! f (ζ)
f (n) (z) = dζ.
2πi (ζ − z)(n+1)
C

Theorem 1.7 (Cauchy’s Estimate). If f is holomorphic in an open set containing the closure of the
disc Br (z) and let Mr = sup{|f (ζ)| : |ζ − z| = r}. Then for all n ≥ 1 we have,
n!Mr
|f (n) (z)| ≤ .
rn

1
Theorem 1.8 (Riemann’s Removability Theorem). Suppose that f is continuous on a domain D and
analytic on D\{z0 } for some z0 ∈ D. Then f is analytic on D.
Theorem 1.9 (Liouville). A bounded entire function is a constant.
Definition 3 (Zeros). A function f analytic at a has a zero of order m at a iff f (z) = (z − a)m g(z),
where g is analytic at a and g(a) ̸= 0.
A zero of an analytic function f is said to be isolated if it has a neighborhood in which there is no
other zero of f .
Theorem 1.10. Every zero of an analytic function f (̸≡ 0) is isolated.
Theorem 1.11 (Identity/Uniqueness Theorem). Suppose that f is analytic in a domain D. If S, the
set of zeros of f in D, has a limit point z ∗ in D. Then f ≡ 0 in D.

2 Chapter 2
Under the function w = z1 , we have
(i) The image of a line through the origin is a line through the origin

(ii) The image of a line not through the origin is a circle through the origin

(iii) The image of a circle through the origin is a line not through the origin

(iv) The image of a circle not through the origin is a circle not through the origin.
Theorem 2.1. If {z1 , z2 , z3 } and {w1 , w2 , w3 } are two sets of triplets of distinct ponts in C∞ , then
there exists a unique Mobius transformation taking zi to wj (j = 1, 2, 3) and it is given by

(w − w1 )(w2 − w3 ) (z − z1 )(z2 − z3 )
= .
(w1 − w2 )(w3 − w) (z1 − z2 )(z3 − z)

Upper Half to Unit Disk Suppose that θ ∈ R and β ∈ C are fixed numbers such that Imβ > 0.
Then the map  
iθ z − β
w = f (z) = e ,
z−β
maps H+ onto ∆ and R∞ onto ∂∆.

Lower Half to Unit Disk Suppose that θ ∈ R and β ∈ C are fixed numbers such that Imβ < 0.
Then the map  
iθ z−β
w = f (z) = e ,
z−β
maps H− onto ∆ and R∞ onto ∂∆.

Automorphisms of the Unit Disk Let θ ∈ R, z0 ∈ ∆ be fixed and ϕ be given by

 
iθ z − z0
ϕ(z) = e .
1 − z0z

3 Chapter 3
Theorem 3.1 (Maximum Modulus Theorem). Suppose that f is analytic in a bounded domain D and
continuous on D. Then |f (z)| attains its maximum at some points on the boundary ∂D of D.
Theorem 3.2 (Minimum Modulus Theorem). Suppose that f is a non-constant analytic function in
a bounded domain D and f (z) ̸= 0 on D. Then |f (z)| cannot attain its minimum in D.

2
Lemma 3.3 (Scwarz’ Lemma). Let f : ∆ → ∆ be analytic, having a zero of order n at the origin.
Then

(i) |f (z)| ≤ |z|n , ∀z ∈ ∆,

(ii) |f (n) (0)| ≤ n!

and the equality holds either in (i) for some point 0 ̸= z0 ∈ ∆ or in (ii) occurs ii f (z) = ϵz n with
|ϵ| = 1.

Lemma 3.4 (Scwarz-Pick Lemma). Suppose that f is analytic on the unit disk ∆ and satisfies the
following two conditions:

(i) |f (z)| ≤ 1, ∀z ∈ ∆

(ii) f (a) = b for some a, b ∈ ∆.

Then
1 − |f (a)|2
|f ′ (a)| ≤ .
1 − |a|2
Moreover for a pair of elements a, a′ ∈ ∆, the following inequality holds

|f (a) − f (a′ )| |a − a′ |
≤
|1 − f (a)f (a′ )| |1 − aa′ |

Example : Suppose that f : ∆ → ∆ be analytic such that f (a) = 0 and f (a − 1) = b for some
a ∈ (0, 1) and b ∈ ∆. Then
1
|b| ≤ .
1 + a − a2
Theorem 3.5 (Generalized Version of Liouville’s Theorem). An entire function f , which satisfies the
inequality |f (z)| ≤ M |z|α for some α ≥ 0, M > 0 and all sufficienty large |z|, reduces to a polynomial
of degree n, where n is the largest integer such that n ≤ α.

4 Chapter 4
Regular Point :
A point z = a is called a regular point for a complex-valued function f if it is analytic at a.

Singular Point :
A point z = a is said to be a singular point or a singularity of f if f is not analytic at a but every
neighbourhood of z = a contains at least one point at which f is analytic.

Isolated Singularity :
A singular point a is said to be an isolated singular point or an isolated singularity of f if f is analytic
in some deleted neighborhood of a.

Non-Isolated Point :
A point a is a non-isolated singularity of f iff a is a singularity and every deleted neighbourhood of a
contains at least one singularity of f .
For example, sin1πz has isolated singularities at every integer point n, n ∈ Z. On the other hand,
every point on the negative real axis (including the point z = 0) is a non-isolated singularity of Log z,
the principal branch of the logarithm function.

3
4.1 Classification of Singularities
(i) Removable singularity, which upon closer examination reveals that this is not actually con-
sidered to be a singular point at all. More precisely, an isolated singularity z = a of f is said to
be a removable singularity for f if lim f (z) exists in C.
z→a

(ii) Pole, arises from the reciprocal of an analytic function with zero. More precisely, an isolated
singularity z = a of f is said to be a pole for f if lim f (z) = ∞. (Note that f (z) is defined if z
z→a
is near enough to a and z ̸= a.)

(iii) Essential singularity, which is neither a removable singularity nor a pole. More precisely, an
isolated singularity z = a of f is said to be an essential singularity for f if lim f (z) does not
z→a
exists in C∞ .

Theorem 4.1. If f (z) has an isolated singularity at z0 , then f (z) has a pole at z0 if and only if
lim f (z) = ∞.
z→z0

Theorem 4.2. If f has an isolated singularity at z0 , then f (z) has an essential singularity at z0 iff
lim f (z) fails to exist either as a finite value or as an infinite limit.
z→z0

Singularity of an Entire Function f (z) at z = ∞

(i) An entire function f : C → C has a removable singularity at z = ∞ iff f (z) is constant.

(ii) An entire function f : C → C has a pole at z = ∞ (of order k) iff f (z) is a nonconstant
polynomial (of degree k).

(iii) An entire function f : C → C has a removable singularity at z = ∞ iff f (z) is a transdental

entire function.

Meromorphic Functions: A function analytic in a domain D ⊆ C except possibly for poles is called
meromorphic in D.

Theorem 4.3 (Picard’s Little Theorem). If an entire function omits two values, then it is constant.

Theorem 4.4 (Picard’s Great Theorem). Suppose that f is analytic in ∆(z0 ; r)\{z0 } and z = z0 is
an essential singularity of f . Then C\f (∆(z0 ; r)\{z0 } is a singleton set.

Theorem 4.5 (Casorati-Weierstrass Theorem). If f has an essential singularity at z0 and if w0 is a

given finite complex number, then there exists a sequence {zn } with zn → z0 such that f (zn ) → w0 .
In other words, f takes values arbitrarily close to every complex number in every neighborhood of an
essential singularity.

Theorem 4.6. An entire function f (z) is univalent in C iff f (z) = a0 + a1 z, where a0 , a1 are
constants with a1 ̸= 0.

5 Chapter 5
If f has an isolated singularity at z0 , then the residue of f (z) at z0 is
Z
1
Res [f (z); z0 ] := a−1 = f (z) dz,
2πi
C

where C is any circle centered at z0 and lying inside a disk about z0 .

Theorem 5.1. If f has a removable singularity at z0 , then we have Res [f (z); z0 ] = 0.

4
Theorem 5.2. If f has an isolated singularity at z0 and if f is even in z − z0 , i.e. f (z − z0 ) =
f (−(z − z0 )), then Res [f (z); z0 ] = 0.
Theorem 5.3. If f has a simple pole at z = z0 and if h is analytic at z0 with h(z0 ) ̸= 0 then
Res [f (z)h(z); z0 ] = h(z0 )Res [f (z); z0 ].
Theorem 5.4. If f has a pole of order n at z0 , then
1 dn−1
Res [f (z); z0 ] = lim ((z − z0 )n f (z)) .
z→z0 (n − 1)! dz n−1
Theorem
h i Suppose ϕ is analytic at z0 with ϕ(z0 ) ̸= 0 and g has a simple zero at z0 . Then
5.5.
Res g(z) ; z0 = gϕ(z
ϕ(z) 0)
′ (z ) .
0

Residue at the point at Infinity

   
1 1
Res [f (z); ∞] = −Res f ; 0 .
z2 z
Theorem 5.6 (Cauchy’s Residue Theorem). If f is analytic in a domain D except for isolated sin-
gularities at a1 , a2 , · · · , ak , then for any closed contour γ in D on which none of the points ak lie, we
have Z Xn
f (z) dz = 2πi n(γ; ak )Res [f (z); ak ].
γ k=1

Theorem 5.7. Let f be analytic in C except for isolated singularities at a1 , a2 , · · · , an . Then we have
(i) the sum of all residues ( including the residue at infinity) of f is zero.
    X n
1 1
Res f ; 0 = Res [f (z); ak ]
z2 z
k=1

(ii) if γ is a simple closed contour in C such that all ak ’s are interior to γ, then
Z    
1 1
f (z) dz = 2πiRes f ; 0 .
z2 z
C

6 Chapter 6
Theorem 6.1. f be meromorphic in a domain D ⊆ C and have only finitely many zeros and poles in
D. If C is a simple closed contour in D such that no zeros or poles of f lie on C, then
Z ′
1 f (z)
dz = N − P,
2πi f (z)
C

where N and P denote, respectively, the number of zeros and poles of f inside C, each counted
according to their order. If, in addition, ϕ is analytic on D, then
f ′ (z)
Z
1 X X
ϕ(z) dz = nj ϕ(aj ) − pk ϕ(bk ),
2πi f (z)
C j k

where aj and bk are the zeros of order nj and the poles of order pk for f respectively.
Theorem 6.2 (Rouches Theorem). Let f and g be meromorphic in a domain D ⊆ C and have only
finitely many zeros and poles in D. Suppose that C is a simple closed contour in D such that no zeros
or poles of f or g lie on C, and, in addition, a
|g(z)| < |f (z)| on C.
the difference between the number of zeros and number of poles is the same for f and f + g.

5
7 Extra Points
• The zeros of the analytic function are isolated, and the isolated set is countable.

• Let f be entire function, non-constant and f n (z) is non-constant ∀n ∈ N, then the following are
countable
A0 = {z ∈ C : f (z) = 0} ,
A1 = z ∈ C : f ′ (z) = 0 ,


························
n o
An = z ∈ C : f (n) (z) = 0 .
S
Hence A = An is countable.
n∈N∪{0}

• If f is a non-constant entire function such that A is uncountable. Then f is a polynomial.

• For each a ∈ R, ∃cn in cn (z − a)n such that cn = 0, i.e., f n (a) = 0. Then f is polynomial.
P

Proof. Suppose f n (z) is non-constant entire function ∀n ∈ N.

Then A is countable, but R ⊆ A - contradiction !

• M= Meromorphic, P=Polynomial, R=Rational, E=Entire. Then R ∩ E = P, R ∪ E = M.