IFR FLIGHT NAVIGATION

Edition 01 10/06/2020

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Contents
FLIGHT PLANNING 2020 ................................................................................ 3
PREFACE ....................................................................................................... 3
NZCAA PUBLICATIONS REQUIRED TO PREPARE A FLIGHT PLAN ..................... 5
JEPPESEN ...................................................................................................... 6
CHECK OF ITEMS FOR DESTINATION AIRFIELD ............................................... 6
FLIGHT PLANNING ....................................................................................... 10
ACCURACY REQUIREMENTS ........................................................................ 11
COLUMNS OF AN IFR PLAN ......................................................................... 11
DETAILS OF PLAN ........................................................................................ 12
ROUTES ....................................................................................................... 12
PUTTING TOGETHER THE PLAN ................................................................... 17
THE CLIMB .................................................................................................. 17
CRUISE ........................................................................................................ 22
DESCENT ..................................................................................................... 22
LEVEL CRUISE .............................................................................................. 25
FUEL CALCULATIONS ................................................................................... 26
PRACTICE FULL FLIGHT PLAN ....................................................................... 27
DIVERSION .................................................................................................. 38
SPLIT CLIMBS AND DESCENTS...................................................................... 43
THE CLIMB .................................................................................................. 43
THE DESCENT .............................................................................................. 45
WIND COMPONENTS .................................................................................. 46
PLOTTING FOR IFR NAVIGATION ................................................................. 46
THE HSI ....................................................................................................... 48
POSITION LINES ON YOUR CHART ............................................................... 79
POSITION LINES OBTAINED NON-SIMULTANEOUSLY ................................... 81
PRACTICE MAKES PERFECT .......................................................................... 85
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 MORE PRACTICE TO MAKE PERFECT ............................................................ 87
TRANSFERRING MORE POSITION LINES ....................................................... 87
WORK THROUGH ........................................................................................ 88
ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ABOVE ............................................................... 89
PRACTICE EXAMS FOR IFR PLANNING.......................................................... 92
1.0 IFR EXAMPLE FLIGHT PLAN .................................................................... 95
1.2 IFR EXAMPLE FLIGHT PLAN .................................................................... 98
1.3 IFR EXAMPLE FLIGHT PLAN .................................................................. 100
ANSWERS TO PRACTICE EXAMS ................................................................ 107
PRACTICE EXAM 1.0 .................................................................................. 108
PRACTICE EXAM 1.2 .................................................................................. 112
PRACTICE EXAM 1.3 .................................................................................. 114

FLIGHT PLANNING 2020

PREFACE
Prior to beginning any flight, you must know your fuel requirements and have a plan of action that will enable you
to make accurate and rapid decisions in the event weather conditions change. Because flight planning is a part of
every flight, you will use the material reviewed in this manual extensively both during training and in the fleet that
the NZICPA operates. As you know, a primary ingredient in a successful flight is thorough prefight planning. To
ensure a safe and successful flight, you must understand the flight planning process along with the associated
documents needed to manage a cross-country flight. Filling out a flight plan correctly serves as a checklist,
ensuring that you have a plan to follow based on aircraft performance, weather, NAVAIDs, and applicable CAA NZ
regulations.

Stressing prefight preparation, this MANUAL AND ITS ASSOCIATED CHAPTERS reviews the related procedures,
requirements, and criteria used to prepare for cross-country flight. Your thorough preparation will take most of the
uncertainties out of your flight.

In the operational airline environment STANDARD flight plans are normally provided by the Company for most
routes flown on their respective schedules. However, for training purposes it is desirable that you all have an
intricate knowledge of the workings of a flight plan. It is important the detail is accurate and precise because the
SAFETY and efficiency of the IFR network in New Zealand depends on you being able to assimilate and use the
information concerned for the successful outcomes of all concerned.

While thorough preparation is a pre-requisite for any professionally executed air exercise, physical and mental
organisation for a single pilot IFR sortie is of equal importance.

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In any cockpit a plethora of loose documents is at best distracting and at worst a flight SAFETY hazard. Therefore,
only take with you those publications you are likely to require. At any given time, have before you only those
documents you immediately require. All others should be systematically filed within a NAV bag which itself should
be stowed out of the way yet within reach.

“Organisation” in this context could be defined as: “The systematic implementation of preparation”

When faced with a wide range of tasks to perform to reach a specific objective, a logical and methodical approach
to the task is infinitely preferable to one approached in a random, hap-hazard way. The following paragraphs will
address the NZICPA’s organisation for our IFR flight from pre-flight to the missed approach.

The secret of predictable, sustainable acceptable performance in an IFR/IMC environment is to be systematic in

everything you do, no matter how trivial the task may seem. In flight plan to use the autopilot as much as possible
to reduce the workload and leave you with supervisory duties only. Remember to observe any limitations on the
in-flight use of the autopilot and test it fully before your flight. (before leaving the ground).

Before flight – Always plan well in advance so that you are not pressed for time and thus prone to make
mistakes. Secure to your clipboard the flight plan, weather etc and the individual DAP (departure and approach
plates) you will require in chronological order. Do not leave any loose sheets of paper in the cockpit.

Before Take-Off – Whilst the printed checklist will provide you with a high degree of standardisation, always
ensure you adopt a set standard whenever the checklist is not specific in minute detail. For example, when
checking the Nav-aids, work systematically left to right across the audio panel vis: NAV1, NAV 2, DME, ADF 1, ADF
2, GPS, etc. Have a pencil ready to copy in cryptic format, the ATIS. Stow the pencil when not in use.

Departure – Review the departure upon line up, then stow the clipboard until stabilized in the climb. Note
departure time when abeam the airfield and jot it down. Check and reset the MAP (Manifold Pressure) every 500’.

Cruise - After the cruise check, complete the CLEAROF checks (Compass, Log, Engine, Altimeter, Radio, Oxygen,
Fuel). The BARS checks should be done prior to any major heading change and prior to TOD (Top of Descent).

Nav-aids – Always set the NAVAIDS such that System 1 is interrogating where you are going to, while System 2
shows where you are coming from. This will help avoid confusion as to which needle is pointing where.

Pre-Descent – While still in the cruise, the forecast weather at the destination should be reviewed. This will give
you an expectation of the requirement, or otherwise, for an IFR approach, the preferred approach if a choice is
available and an expectation of when visual flight will be achieved. Nav-aids are tuned in and an appropriate
descent point determined. The major aspects of the approach are reviewed. Finally, where necessary, aircraft
systems are prepared for the descent, fuel tank selections, cabin pressurisation, etc. These tasks are grouped
together as the Initial Approach Checks.

Pre-Approach – Before committing to a published approach, that is, before leaving the initial approach fix, the
aircraft should be prepared for the forthcoming landing, although landing gear and flap may be delayed to a later
stage. These checks are obviously the Before Landing Checks and, if a holding pattern is included are best carried
out on the outbound leg of the pattern, otherwise the outbound leg of the sector entry.

Finals – At the descent point for the Final approach Segment, initiate descent by selection of the landing gear and
first stage of flap. On late finals (at least 300 ft above the MDA or DA) the aircraft should be prepared for the

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possibility, remote or otherwise, of a missed approach. These incorporate PITCH FINE, confirm GEAR DOWN, FLAPS
set as required (usually leave the approach setting until visual) and cowl flaps half to fully open depending on the
aircraft you are flying at the time).

Visual Transition – If you are planning an arrival in bad weather at a location you are not familiar with, you
should review the final approach segment while referring to a topographical chart. Doing so will assist you in
identifying lead features which in turn will assist in the detection of the runway environment. Also note where the
major obstructions are and any restrictions on circling.

Configuration – You should always aim to be consistent in the management of the aircrafts speed and
configuration. At the NZICPA the policy is to maintain a clean configuration until the final descents point./ Never
the less when initially levelling at the initial approach altitude, the aircraft is slowed down to low speed cruise, i.e.
below LG and Flap Limiting speed, so that selection of these services may be initiated without delay when
required.

So, in summing up. When adequate and timely preparation is a prerequisite for professional flight, unless a similar
effort is devoted to the implementation of this preparation through planned and systematic organisation, there is
a high probability that; ‘Things may Come Unstuck’ when the workload increases. As it inevitably does in the world
of Single pilot IFR.

In this course (of IFR Flight Planning and Navigation) we will be studying:

1. NZCAA publications required to prepare a flight plan

2. Check-items for the destination airfield
3. Weather minimums for instrument flight
4. Departure point minimums for take-off
5. Selecting alternate routes/airfields
6. Planning route of flight
7. Plotting
8. Transposition of position lines
9. 7. Fuel requirements for route of flight
10. 8. Preparing Multi-Engine Flight log
11. 9. Preparing and Lodging an IFR Flight Plan
12. 10. Criteria determining type of approach
13. 11. Additional Airways Navigation review topics (PBN)

NZCAA PUBLICATIONS REQUIRED TO PREPARE A FLIGHT PLAN

The set of publications needed for this part of the syllabus will be your Volumes 1 and 4 of the AIPNZ (Aeronautical
Information Publication New Zealand). This along with The Advisory Circulars as follows. You will need to have a

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working knowledge of the publications. Whilst the AC’S do not need to be in print form it is advisable to have
access to these throughout your training for reference purposes.

AC’s: AC6-5, AC61-17, AC91-2, AC91-3, AC91-4, AC91-5, AC91-6, AC91-7, AC91-11, AC91-21, AC91-24, AC173-1.

The current set of IFR charts as forms part of your NZAIP subscription.

JEPPESEN
Some students will already be familiar with the Jeppesen format and whilst that is okay to use throughout the
flight training Phase of this rating, the examinations will be based on the NZAIP format of documents.

It is assumed that at this stage of your training having completed the Private and Commercial subjects and that
there is a level of underpinning knowledge here that can now be built upon as we move through this subject of IFR
Navigation.

CHECK OF ITEMS FOR DESTINATION AIRFIELD

All flights will be of an A to B nature. Whilst a landing may not necessarily be made at each location the Published
Instrument Approach will be flown and in most cases to at least the MINIMA.

So as with the Departure end of the equation we need to first check on a few basic items then some of the more
detailed stuff. So here goes.

RUNWAY LENGTH
Generally speaking, Air operators must have in place an approved method of complying with Parts 91,141, 121 and
135 (Airplane Performance Operating Limitations), thereby proving the airplane’s performance capability for every
flight that it intends to make. Flight crews must have an approved method of complying with the approach and
landing performance criteria in the applicable regulations prior to departing for their intended destination. The
primary source of information for performance calculations for all operators, including Part 91, is the approved
Aircraft Flight Manual (AFM) or Pilot’s Operating Handbook (POH) for the make and model of aircraft that is being
operated. It is required to contain the manufacturer determined performance capabilities of the aircraft at each
weight, altitude, and ambient temperature that are within the airplane’s listed limitations. Typically, the AFM for a
large turbine powered aircraft should contain information that allows flight crews to determine that the aircraft
will be capable of performing the following actions, considering the landing weight

Land within the distance required by the regulations.

Climb from the missed approach point (MAP) and maintain a specified climb gradient with one engine inoperative.

Perform a go-around from the final stage of landing and maintain a specified climb gradient with all engines
operating and the aircraft in the landing configuration.

Many airplanes have more than one allowable flap configuration for normal landing. Often, a reduced flap setting
for landing allows the airplane to operate at a higher landing weight into a field that has restrictive obstacles in the
missed approach or rejected landing climb path. On these occasions, the full-flap landing speed may not allow the
airplane enough energy to successfully complete a go-around and avoid any high terrain and/or obstacles that
might exist on the climb out. Therefore, all-engine, and engine-out missed approaches, as well as rejected
landings, must be taken into consideration in compliance with the regulations.

Aircraft approach category means a grouping of aircraft based on a reference landing speed (VREF), if specified, or
if VREF is not specified, 1.3 VSO at the maximum certified landing weight. VREF, VSO, and the maximum certified
landing weight are those values as established for the aircraft by the certification authority of the country of

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registry. A pilot must use the minima corresponding to the category determined during certification or higher.
Helicopters may use Category A minima. If it is necessary to operate at a speed more than the upper limit of the
speed range for an aircraft’s category, the minimums for the higher category must be used. For example, an
airplane that fits into Category B, but is circling to land at a speed of 145 knots, must use the approach Category D
minimums. As an additional example, a Category A aircraft that is operating at 130 knots on a straight-in approach
must use the approach Category C minimums. See the following category limits noting that the airspeeds depicted
are indicated airspeeds (IAS):

Category A: Speed less than 91 knots.

Category B: Speed 91 knots or more but less than 121 knots.

Category C: Speed 121 knots or more but less than 141 knots.

Category D: Speed 141 knots or more but less than 166 knots.

Category E: Speed 166 knots or more.

RUNWAY ORIENTATION
Another important piece of a thorough approach briefing is the discussion of the airport and runway environment.
A detailed examination of the runway length (this must include the AERODROME section of the NZAIP for the
landing distance available), the intended turnoff taxiway, and the route of taxi to the parking area, are all
important briefing items. In addition, runway conditions should be discussed. The effect on the aircraft’s
performance must be considered if the runway is contaminated. NZCAA approach charts include a runway sketch
on each approach chart to make important airport information easily accessible to pilots. In addition, at airports
that have complex runway/taxiway configurations, a separate full-page airport diagram is published.

The airport diagram also includes the latitude/longitude information required for initial programming of FMS/GPS
equipment. The included latitude/longitude grid shows the specific location of each parking area on the airport
surface for use in initializing FMS/GPS. Pilots making approaches to airports that have this type of complex runway
and taxiway configuration must ensure that they are familiar with the airport diagram prior to initiating an
instrument approach. A combination of poor weather, high traffic volume, and high ground controller workload
makes the pilot’s job on the ground every bit as critical as the one just performed in the air.

A thorough instrument approach briefing greatly increases the likelihood of a successful instrument approach.
Most Part 121, 125, and 135 operators designate specific items to be included in an IAP briefing, as well as the
order in which those items are briefed. (Usually by way of the company SOP Manual suite).

Before an IAP briefing can begin, flight crews must decide which procedure is most likely to be flown from the
information that is available to them. Most often, when the flight is being conducted into an airport that has ATIS
information, the ATIS provides the pilots with the approaches that are in use. If more than one approach is in use,
the flight crew may have to make an educated guess as to which approach will be issued to them based on the
weather, direction of their arrival into the area, any published airport NOTAMs, and previous contact with the
approach control facility. Aircrews can query ATC as to which approach is to be expected from the controller. Pilots
may request specific approaches to meet the individual needs of their equipment or regulatory restrictions at any
time and ATC will, in most cases, be able to accommodate those requests, providing that workload and traffic
permit.

If the flight is operating into an airport without a control tower, the flight crew is occasionally given the choice of
any available instrument approach at the field. In these cases, the flight crew must choose an appropriate
approach based on the expected weather, aircraft performance, direction of arrival, airport NOTAMs, and previous
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experience at the airport. (Such as an approach into NZWU on return from a training sortie). Once the anticipated
approach and runway have been selected, each crewmember sets up their side of the flight deck. The pilots use
information gathered from ATIS, dispatch (if available), ATC, the specific approach chart for the approach selected,
and any other sources that are available. Company regulations (SOP’s) dictate how certain things are set up and
others are left up to pilot technique. In general, the techniques used at most companies are similar. The following
addresses two-pilot operations. During single-pilot IFR flights, the same items must be set up and the pilot should
still do an approach briefing to verify that everything is set up correctly. The number of items that can be set up
ahead of time depends on the level of automation of the aircraft and the avionics available. In a conventional flight
deck, the only things that can be set up, in general, are the airspeed bugs (based on performance calculations),
altimeter bug (to DA, DH, or MDA), go around thrust/power setting, the radio altimeter bug (if installed and
needed for the approach), and the navigation/communication radios (if a standby frequency selector is available).
The standby side of the PF (Pilot Flying) navigation radio should be set to the primary NAVAID for the approach and
the PM (Pilot Monitoring) navigation radio standby selector should be set to any other NAVAIDs that are required
or available, and as dictated by company procedures (SOP’s), to add to the overall situational awareness of the
crew. The ADF should also be tuned to an appropriate frequency as required by the approach, or as selected by the
crew. Aircrews should, as much as possible, set up the instruments for best success in the event of a vacuum or
electrical failure. For example, if the aircraft will only display Nav 1 on battery or emergency power, aircrews
should ensure that Nav 1 is configured to the primary NAVAID for the final approach to be flown.

RUNWAY LIGHTING
All runways licensed for night use must have lighting which at least defines the extent of the runway. This is
referred to as Edge Lighting, Threshold Lighting and Runway End Lighting. Other types of lighting may also be
provided.

I.C.A.O guidance requires that runway lighting shall not be operated if a runway is not in use for landing, take-
off or taxiing purposes, unless such operation is required for runway inspection or maintenance purposes. ATC are
required to use whatever means are available to them to ensure that they are aware of any lighting system
unserviceability so that appropriate notification action can be taken. (At times this will rely on PIREP’s) Pilot
Reports.

Minimum Runway Lighting

Runway Edge Lights are omni-directional and are located along or just beyond the edges of the area declared
for use as the runway as defined by edge markings and are white subject to certain specific exceptions. The
area defined may not necessarily be the maximum width of the paved runway surface. The lights may be either
elevated or embedded in the surface. If a landing threshold is displaced, but the pre-landing threshold area is
available for take-off, then the edge lights between the beginning of the runway surface and the displaced
threshold will be split so as to show red up to the landing threshold whilst still showing white after that point. If
a runway ‘starter extension’ is provided which is narrower than its associated runway, then blue edge lighting
may be used to mark its edges.
Runway Threshold Lights are provided in a line along the landing threshold at the touchdown end of a runway
and define the beginning of the declared Landing Distances. They are GREEN and can only be seen from the
approach.
Runway End Lights are provided in a line along the end of the runway available for use. They are RED and can
only be seen in the direction of runway use.

Supplementary Runway Lighting

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Various other forms of runway lighting may also be provided, especially if the runway is used for aircraft
movements in less than ILS Cat 1 conditions, which require both Low Visibility Procedures (LVP) and, in most cases,
specific forms of additional lighting.

Runway Exit taxiways may be indicated by substitution of one or two of the white runway edge lights with blue
ones.
Stop way Lighting may be used to show the extent of a stop way beyond the designated end of a runway. Red
unidirectional edge lights visible only in the direction of runway use are provided at intervals until a further
transverse line which marks` the end of the stop way.
Runway Centerline Lighting may be provided in which case it will extend for the full length of the runway, It will
be white except in the event that colour coding is provided in order to indicate the approaching end of the
runway. Such colour coded centerline lighting consists of alternating red and white lights beginning at 900
meters from the runway end and these change to continuous red lights for the last 300 meters of the runway.
Touchdown Zone (TDZ) Lighting must be provided on runways available for use in low visibility conditions so as
to provide enhanced identification of the touchdown area. The method of provision is specified in ICAO
Annex14 Volume 1 ‘Aerodrome Design and Operations’ and the lighting must extend from the landing
threshold for either 900 meters or to the midpoint of the runway, whichever is the least.
Rapid Exit Taxiway Indicator Lights (RETILs) may be provided to indicate the distance to go to the nearest rapid
exit taxiway. In low visibility conditions, RETILs provide useful situational awareness cues to assist in
appropriate rates of deceleration and to allow flight crew to concentrate on keeping the aircraft on the runway
center line during the landing roll. They usually consist of six yellow lights adjacent to the runway centerline,
configured as a three - two - one sequence spaced 100 meters apart with the single light positioned at 100
meters from the start of the turn for the rapid exit taxiway.
Caution Zone Lighting may be provided on ILS-equipped runways which do not have centerline lighting. It is
provided by replacing the usual white edge lights with yellow` ones for the lesser of the last 600 meters or last
one third of the lighted runway length available to provide a visual warning the approaching runway end.
Landing Threshold Wing Bars, which are green but may take various detail forms, are sometimes provided if it
is considered that the threshold needs accentuating.

Lighting Intensity
It must be possible to adjust the intensity of runway lighting so as to be suitable for the full range of horizontal
visibility and ambient light in which use of the runway is intended. It must also be compatible with the intensity set
for the nearest section of the approach lighting system, when such a system is also provided. Flight crew can be
expected to request ATC to adjust runway lighting intensity in order to ensure that, for their particular case, it is of
sufficient intensity to be useful but not so bright as to hinder overall visual clarity.(Some New Zealand runways
have the capability for Pilot manipulation of intensity BY KEYING THE PTT in a certain sequence-Refer AIPNZ)
Whilst automatic or careful manual control of lighting intensity based upon the degree of available natural light
will produce a generally acceptable lighting intensity, the intensity preferred by a particular crew may differ
because of variation in pilot eye height above the runway surface (broadly proportional to aircraft size) or because
of the effect of the reflective properties of moisture particles when forward visibility is restricted.

Information on Runway Lighting at an Airport

A detailed description of the runway lighting system at each licensed airport is provided in the NZAIP. It includes
details, including colour, intensity and extent, of:

• the runway threshold lights and any wing bars

• the runway edge lights
• the runway end lights and any wing bars
• any runway touchdown zone lights
• any runway center line lights
• any stop way lights
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Equivalent information will be found on aerodrome approach charts in or ‘Flight Guides’ provided by aircraft
operators for flight deck use. NZICPA uses the NZCAA derived approach plates for operation).

RUNWAY GROUP RATING NUMBER

A method for compliance with the Civil Aviation Regulations performance requirements is the group rating system.

The performance group rating system has been in use for a number of years as a simple method for operators of
aeroplanes with a MCTOW of 2270 kg or less to determine the adequacy of the runway length for their particular
aeroplane type. Each aircraft type with a MCTOW of 2270 kg or below was given a group rating number in the
aircraft flight manual. The number for a particular aircraft type is determined on the basis of its take-off and
landing performance. Each runway is given a group number, and, in practice, a pilot may use any runway that has a
group number equal to or greater than the aeroplane group rating for the aeroplane type. If the aircraft you
operate is given a group rating number in the aircraft flight manual, you may continue to use that group rating
number for compliance with the performance requirements and the Runway accelerate stop distance available.

RUNWAY CIRCLE TO LAND OBSTACLE CLEARANCE ALTITUDE

Circling approaches are one of the most challenging flight manoeuvres conducted in the NAS, especially for pilots of
CAT C and CAT D turbine-powered, transport category airplanes. These manoeuvres are conducted at low altitude,
day and night, and often with precipitation present affecting visibility, depth perception, and the ability to
adequately assess the descent profile to the landing runway. Most often, circling approaches are conducted to
runways without the benefit of electronic navigation aids to support the descent from the Circling Minimums
Decision Altitude (CMDA) to the runway.

Circling approaches conducted at faster-than-normal, straight-in approach speeds also require a pilot to consider
the larger circling approach area, since published circling minimums provide obstacle clearance only within the
appropriate area of protection and is based on the approach category speed. The circling approach area is the
obstacle clearance area for aircraft manoeuvring to land on a runway that does not meet the criteria for a straight-
in approach. The size of the circling area varies with the approach category of the aircraft, as shown in the diagram
at right with R being the radius FROM then threshold end of EACH runway. NOTE: Your GPS distance is predicated
on either the AID being used or the Runway Reference Point so the distance readout will have some error in it. It
follows then that this becomes Pilot calculation.

The radii are:

(a) Category A — 1.68 NM (3111 m);
(b) Category B — 2.66 NM (4926 m);
(c) Category C — 4.2 NM (7778 m);
(d) Category D — 5.28 NM (9779 m).

FLIGHT PLANNING

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This part of the manual will deal with the preparation of a Flight Plan

Prior to this part of our training you will require

• Clean and unmarked up to date enroute charts both national, regional and area charts for NZ
• A good set of soft pencils (4 at least with sharp points)
• A square protractor
• A good pair of dividers (usually purchased as part of a school maths set at the local stationers)
• A navigation computer. (accuracy is important here so don’t bring a long worn-out model to the class or
exam)
• A folder of Flight Plan forms (These will be available at the front of the class each day so please help
yourself and keep in an easily accessible folder that you can refer to for study purposes.
• AIP Vols 1,2 and 3.
Now for exam purposes you will be supplied the details at the front end of the paper usually (covering things such
as operational detail of the flight you intend to carry out, the route, destination, alternates if needed, TAS, cruise
Altitudes, fuel requirements, weather data and a list of other extraneous detail). The exam writers are good at
giving you an excess of information to try and over load you BUT stay calm and methodically read through and pick
out the details you think you may need and bullet point these on the spare paper allowed with the exam.

ACCURACY REQUIREMENTS
In these exams there is a high degree of accuracy required so best we get used to this regimen now.

• Temperatures during climbs, descents and cruise flight the nearest whole °C and the nearest thousand or
500’ of altitude. (e.g. 1000, 1500, 2000 etc etc).
• Mean altitudes in climbs and descents to the nearest 500’
• Knots to the nearest whole knot
• Direction to the nearest whole degree
• Distances to the whole or half nautical mile
• Time to the nearest whole or half minute
• Fuel to the nearest whole litre or pound or half kilogram and half gallon

COLUMNS OF AN IFR PLAN

Remember this, there are 17 columns to a standard flight plan.

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DETAILS OF PLAN
Points to note here are;

• that the flight plan contains a number of columns.

• All the directions are in DEGREES MAGNETIC including the wind.
• Bear in mind the Met-service will give Wind in degrees TRUE so you will have to deduct the variation from
the true direction to GET MAGNETIC
• Tracks on the ENROUTE series of CHARTS are in degrees MAGNETIC
• Route detail will include Departure point and turning points if necessary
• Climb details
• Cruise details descent
• Enroute climb detail if required
• Descent detail
• Diversion to Alternate detail
• Fuel logs for climb, cruise, hold, descent (as required) plus legal reserves.

ROUTES
Routes in New Zealand are usually flown along published MAGNETIC tracks shown on your CHARTS (this will always
apply to your IR Nav exam)

Chart Information explained in the CHART LEGEND is explained in the AIPNZ Vols 2&3.

Enroute and Area charts are published by the Airways Corporation

and are of the Lambert Conformal Conic Projection type.
Enroute charts come in three versions:
• National enroute charts, 1:1,500,000
• North and South enroute charts, 1:1,000,000
• Area charts which show larger scale information, 1:540,000

Magnetic tracks

Tracks to/from NDBs are thick red/rust coloured lines

The example at right is the NZWU NDB frequency 282.

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Tracks to/from VORs are thin black lines

• The direction in MAGNETIC is published near the beginning of each track

Minimum Enroute Altitude (MEA)

• NDB tracks
• The lowest altitude which a reliable signal can be expected from the appropriate NDB
Minimum Reception Altitude (MRA)
• VOR tracks
• The lowest altitude at which reliable VHF reception can be expected from the VOR
Minimum Safe Altitude (MSA)
• All tracks
• The lowest altitude which provides the terrain clearance required by CAR Part 91.
Minimum Flight Altitude (MFA)
• The lowest level at or above MSA/MRA/MEA or upper limit of a VHA/Danger area/Restricted area.

Route Operating limitations (ROL)

• Some tracks have operational limitations. It follows then that from either FROM TM or WU this route has
a minimum Route operating limitation of 6000’.

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Compulsory reporting points

NDB Tracks

NDB Tracks

Non-Compulsory reporting points

VOR Tracks

VOR Tracks

Distances
Distance are shown for all legs and a total distance in a box above the route

Enroute Chart Information

DME Distance Step

VOR Change Over Point (COPs)

14 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
Note the difference between filled in triangles
and non-filled in triangles for reporting point
designators

ENROUTE CHART INFORMATION

15 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
Standard Routes
• IFR flights between most aerodromes are based on Standard Route Clearances published in the
AIPNZ.
• The routes are via specific reporting points and have been designed to enhance traffic
management
• The SRC system constitutes the ATS preferred routes between ADEP and ADES.

• Priority will be forwarded to the flight following SRCs .

•
AIRSPACE
• The various classes and types of airspace on enroute and area charts are identified in two
manners:
• In the vicinity of aerodromes surrounded by CTRs and CTAs
• In small blocks of text for CTA airspace.
• -These blocks of text are numbered in dark backgrounded circles and
are duplicated elsewhere on the chart that this particular number
reference applies to.
• For example, number refers to one of the DME step
distances on the way into NZNS 66 from the south.
• Of note in the text box is that this airspace has a
lower limit of 3000’ and an upper limit of 9500’.
• DME frequencies can be either CO-LOCATED (i.e. together with
another aid in the same location) or STAND ALONE. (as pictured)
• It is a common exam question to ask where this information can be
found? Well its on the ENROUTE series of chart along with NZAIP
APPROACH type charts, VORSEC charts and VNC charts and NZAIP
VOL4 AD section.
• Note the frequencies for the SYTAND ALONE DME is equal to or just
above the frequency range for Co-Located units.
• Other text boxes serve to give us information on ROUTE OPERATING
LIMITATIONS and associated altitudes.

16 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 Figure 1VORSEC CHARTS

These Sector Charts give important

arrival and departure information to
the pilot approaching a destination
from Altitude or leaving a
destination to climb to Altitude and
indeed may be an ATC requirement
to follow the stepdown/up
procedures depicted in order to
maintain safe terrain clearance and
traffic separation whilst in the
vicinity of an aerodrome.
In most cases the IFR DEPARTURE
will be from the Beacon associated
with the Departure aerodrome.
Flight planning normally commences
from a stipulated altitude above the
nearest beacon. So, with this in mind
if we used NZQN (Queenstown) as an
example the departure could
commence from the NZQN or QN
VOR conducted visually to a given
minimum altitude then join the IFR
published route.
In exam world there is normally no need to plan for this visual piece of tracking BUT you must allow fuel for it in the
FUEL LOG.

PUTTING TOGETHER THE PLAN

THE CLIMB
Take a bit of time in working out your departure altitude because in the exam it may be stated as a height above
aerodrome level. E.g. NZAP (Taupo) which is already 1335’ ASL.
The equation then becomes 1335 + 1500 = 2835’ASL. (You should round this off to 3000’).
Staying with the Departure and climb for the meantime it is important to note there are a number of aerodromes
where a SID (Standard Instrument Departure) is available. (Mostly from controlled aerodromes).
For your exams these may be largely ignored but in real life you should be thoroughly familiar with the procedure
before using it. Again, allow for this IN YOUR FUEL LOG from runway departure to where the SID ends. (Usually a
Prescribed height above sea level)

On the FLIGHT PLAN FORM in the “From Column fill in the Ident letters of the departure aerodrome beacon. E.g. WU
for Whanganui NDB.
In the TO column fill in TOC (assuming there is no turning point or compulsory reporting point)
In the ALTITUDE BOX draw a diagonal arrow up (as pictured below)

This now shows you have come out of 1500’ and are going to FL260 or 26000’ (A climb
26000 of 24500 feet remember this) You could choose to write this as FL260 or 26K etc.
1500

1500
17 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
In the TRACK column all you have to do is fill in the climb track listed on the chart.

Just like coming out of NZWU on the 046° Track to RUGVI. Note this track emanates out of the WU NDB (The
Beacon associated with this field). Also NOTE again the track on this map are in degrees magnetic so can be just
transferred straight to your FLIGHT PLAN FORM.

Your flight plan form should be starting to look like this now.

FROM TO CAS TEMP °C ALT/FL TAS TRACK °M WIND °M

WU TOC 130 FL260 046

1500

Flight Plan Figure 1

You can see now we have the Track column filed with 046° AND this is the Magnetic track taken straight off of the
chart.

Ordinarily the Aircraft Flight Manual will give you the figures like, the normal climb CAS, the rate of Climb to be
expected for various given all-up weights and the fuel consumption to go with this.

18 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
However, in exam world this information will be given to you by way of a Company statement about the aircraft
you are flying and the various performance factors you may use. Take time to jot these down accurately on some
spare paper before you launch into building a plan. Remember, be methodical each time. With practice you will
become quite quick at this.

So, where does this leave us now? Well we need to find and use the winds for the climb and cruise etc. Because we
are now flying more advanced aircraft and going to higher altitudes and even into the Flight Levels then we cannot
simply just take the surface wind because as we climb for a sustained period into the flight levels and in turn cover
quite a large distance over the ground then it follows that we must take an average of the wind that is likely to
affect us.

The MEAN climb temperature and the MEAN climb wind are normally taken at the TWO THIRDS point on the way
up our climb path. There are very good reasons why we do this;

• The Rate of Climb is generally less at altitude and it follows more time is spent climbing at the higher
altitudes (time to climb to the two thirds point is roughly the same time as it will take to climb the last one
third :)
• The winds are often quite a bit stronger at altitude and it follows that this will shift the average for the
entire climb to the values you will experience at the higher altitudes.

Therefore, the TWO THIRDS up attitude point can easily be calculated by finding the difference between the
commencement altitude and your planned cruise altitude and divide by three.

So, in your part plan above (Flight Plan Figure 1) you will see that we have planned and actually written in each
side of the up arrow the commencement altitude of 1500’ and the planned cruise altitude of FL260 (26000’). It
follows then that is a quick calculation the difference between 1500 and 26000 is 24500. Are you with me?

So 24500/3=8166.666 recurring. (This is the ONE THIRD altitude). It follows then if we multiply this by a factor of
two then we will have our TWO THIRDS altitude point, which just happens to be 16333.333 recurring. Now
remember, under the heading of ACCURACY REQUIREMENTS earlier on in this book we said for climbs we round up
to the nearest 100 feet of altitude. It follows then that in this instance we will be using the wind at FL170 (or an
interpolation of this, practice of which you have had plenty of during the CPLA examination phase).

So, from your weather forecast you can determine the MEAN climb Temperature and Climb attitude. So, for
practice purposes let’s assume the Temperature was 0°C at 9000’

based on the average lapse rate of 2°C per 1000’ the 17000’ mean climb temperature would be; 9-17 = -8 x 2= -
16°C. The 17 is the TWO THIRDS point we have just calculated.

It follows then based on those figures at FL170 today the temp will be -16°C.

In the Temp column draw the diagonal arrow again as we did for the Alt column. Above the arrow write the mean
climb alt and below the arrow pop in the temperature. See figure 2 below.

FROM TO CAS TEMP °C ALT/FL TAS TRACK °M WIND °M

WU TOC 130 FL170 FL260 046

-16 1500

19 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
Flight plan Figure 2

NOTE the met forecast given wind velocities are in Degrees TRUE for the various altitudes. For our planning
purposes it is quite okay to use the 20°E Variation factor for domestic flight within New Zealand. So, variation East
Magnetic Least, so deduct the 20 degrees from the forecast wind to get the magnetic wind to add to your flight
plan. (It’s starting to build quite nicely now.)

If your mean climb is not one of the Altitudes listed, then you are going to have to interpolate.

Now knowing the mean climb temperature and the CAS (in this case 130KTS), you can determine the TAS using
the WHIZZY (Navigation Computer). Therefore, once you know the climb wind, TAS and the required track then
you can calculate the heading (HDG) in degrees Magnetic and the Ground Speed (GS).

Here is a bit of practice for you. Use your WHIZZY to work through these examples.

(worked answers at back of book)

ALT TEMP CAS TAS

FL170 -16 130 ?
FL150 -9 160 ?
FL180 -15 130 ?
FL200 -18 130 ?
FL140 -7 160 ?
CAS TAS CALC Figure 3

172ish knots TAS for

130 CAS

-16 @ FL170

20 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
Above the first one is done for you.

Below the very same answer on a Jeppesen CR6 Whizzy. So, no matter what Whizz wheel you are using it’s just a
matter of you getting used to your particular whizz wheel and it functions. If you are short of the instruction books,
then I am sure Dr Google will help out.

172ish knots TAS

for 130 CAS

-16 @FL 170

In the time column you would have entered the total time for the climb based on the total height to be gained at a
given rate of climb. When you have the GS and a time you can by using the WHIZZY calculate the distance required
for the climb. The end on the distance it follows, will be the Top of Climb (TOC). You should plot this point on your
chart.

21 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
CRUISE
The level portion of the flight to the first reporting point (in this case RUGVI) can now be calculated by simply
deducting the climb distance from the start point and RUGVI. So it would be fair to say now the first level cruise leg
will be from the TOC to the first turning point.

NOTE: If there is a turning point between the departure aid and the TOC then DONOT make the classic mistake of
measuring the total distance between the start and the TOC via the turning point. For sure the GS will almost be
different between the turning point and TOC.

So, if this is the case you must work the first part to the turning point and then the second part to the TOC over
two lines in the plan. The elapsed times will be different for each part of this climb as the turning point will affect
the GS.

Staying with the cruise for now, unless there is a substantial change in track direction at the turning point it would
be quite acceptable to use one TAS and one mean climb speed and wind of which you have worked out previously.
So, your climb workings so far have involved the charted track from the beacon at NZWU and onward to RUGVI.
Somewhere along this track we will have to think about coming down toward NZPM (Palmerston North)

DESCENT
From a flight planning and plotting point of view the case is often found whereby the leg from the last turning
point to the TOC is not long enough to accommodate the whole descent distance. It follows then that it is best to
deal with the descent leg first before finishing the last part of the cruise.

22 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
The same as for the climb you will be familiar and armed with the descent CAS but in exam world, they will give
you the CAS and even the ROD.

So, let’s go. First off, we must calculate the total decent altitude we are going to descend to. In most cases this will
be to the minimum initial approach altitude gleaned off of your approach plate and usually to the beacon. This
initial altitude may be
the route or DME
stepdown MSA such as
would be used going
into Nelson. Anyway,
use the minimum initial
procedure altitude or
the route or DME
Stepdown whichever is
the higher.

A good trick is to use

the bottom line of the
flight plan form to work
out the descent details
before transferring it to
the line below the last
cruise leg later on. Be
careful of transposing
errors here though.

In the FROM column

write TOD and in the TO
column write the
destination NAVAID. In
this instance PM
(meaning the NZPM
VOR).

NOW as for the climb

we need to take an
average point to sample
THE WIND FOR
DESCENT. It is easier
this time as we take the HALFWAY point down the slope to our destination. To calculate this, take our cruise
Altitude of FL260 and the Initial approach altitude at PM for, say the RWY 25 VOR (plate shown below)

We can see above that that 5700’ is the altitude the procedure starts at overhead the aid.

So, take our cruise altitude of 26000 plus add the 5700’ initial procedure alt which gives us 31700’. Now divide this
by 2 and we get 15850’. (Remember round up to the nearest 1000’).

It follows then that FL160 is the point HALFWAY down our descent and from the forecast that is the wind that we
will use.

So, on the flight plan in the ALT column draw the diagonal arrow down this time. Again, show the altitude you are
coming from and the altitude you are going to.

23 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
Also, the track MAGNETIC can be taken directly from the published track on the Chart.

In the TEMP column draw the diagonal arrow down again and above this arrow write the altitude and the
temperature below it.

FROM TO CAS TEMP °C ALT/FL TAS TRACK °M WIND °M

WU TOC 130 FL170 FL260 135

-16 1500

TOD PM 130 FL160 Fl260

-14 Fl160

Figure 5

So, things should be looking something like this above (Figure 5)

It follows now that you will be able to work out the TAS for the descent using the same method learned previously.

Using the Whizzy calculate your heading (HDG) in degrees Magnetic and of course the Ground Speed (GS). Using
the rate of Descent (ROD) given to you calculate the descent time. (Remember you will be given the
performance stats for the company aircraft you will be using in the exam).

20300/1500

13.5 minutes

Example. Let us say we were given a ROD of 1500ft/min.

It follows then that the descent time is 26,000 – 5700 = 20, 300/1500 = 13.5 minutes at whatever ground speed
you have worked out. (Refer above for the division done on your Whizz wheel)

Remember, the Whizzy is not just a Nav Computer but a Circular Slide rule as well so most mathematical functions
can be performed on it as well. With the Jeppesen CR6 you also have the Sine and Cosine functions as well).

24 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
So, once you know the distance all you need to do now is check your chart track and establish where the Top of
Descent is and mark this accordingly. If there is no compulsory turning point between TOD and your destination
Nav-aid, then a simple subtraction of the descent distance from the track distance and you have your last level
cruise distance leg. Apply this to the plan.

NOTE: If there was a turning point between your TOD and the bottom of descent then simply apply the same
technique as previously explained for the climb. Using one TAS and one average descent wind you can then
determine the heading and groundspeed for the final leg in towards the Aid.

Remember, before we finish with the descent, we never plan for an instrument approach. As an example, if you
plan to arrive at a waypoint for an RNAV then your descent finishes at the approach altitude overhead that
waypoint.

LEVEL CRUISE
Unless otherwise instructed, it is standard practice to cruise at altitudes in line with the Magnetic Track altitude
tables (found in the legend area of your enroute NATIONAL chart).

However, in the real-world ATC due to traffic separation and/or busy traffic lanes may change you to a
nonstandard altitude of flight level or you may and probably should is meteorological conditions ahead dictate that
you be somewhere else. (not at this level).

So, on the flight plan form fill in the To and From columns reporting point to reporting point until you come to the
last leg which now contains the descent. The go ahead and fill in the other columns such as CAS, cruise Altitudes,

25 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
temperatures etc., not forgetting to check the forecast for possible changes in the wind velocity and temperature
over the different route sectors.

Good exam technique will see you complete all columns vertically except climb and descent and then attend to
one task at a time. As an example, calculate the TAS values for all legs. When you come to filling in the wind
velocities use a TICK as you go down the columns in cases where there is no change in the wind velocity. This will
make it quicker in your Whizzy work because briefly you can see there is no change for another leg so the same
ground speed may be able to be applied. (As long as there is no heading change though).

Now for exam purposes once you have entered the estimated elapsed time (EET) for each leg, you can insert the
estimated time of arrival (ETA) at each reporting point and at the destination based on your estimated time of
departure.

NOTE In the examination be very careful to check on the departure time FROM the beacon as distinct from takeoff
at the aerodrome. In the real world you would calculate the ETA at the various reporting points after you had
noted the actual departure time on your flight log (ATD). This is a job you can do in the stabilized portion of the
climb out whilst the Auto Pilot gives you some assistance for example. As a double check of your accuracy, deduct
the ETD from the ETA (at destination), The answer should equal the sum of the EET’s.

FUEL CALCULATIONS
Looking at the flight plan form there is a column for the fuel consumption rate (fuel burn/hr), another for the fuel
used per leg and third for fuel total used (in progressive totals).

NOTE: Be careful checking the different consumption rated during the climb portion as against the descent portion.
In the real-world consumption rates can vary as speed is adjusted.

Now, the fuel reserves you must allow for will depend on the MET forecast and the need to carry an alternate
(extra fuel to get to an alternate) and fuel contingency depending on what the company requirements are. With
this part of the exercise it is wise to at first use a bit of scrap paper and itemize the various fuel requirements for
each phase of the intended flight right from the time the engines are started.

Part 91.43 of the Rules requires all non-turbine engine aero planes to allow under the IFR a minimum of 45 minutes
reserve while turbine aero planes can plan with 30 minutes reserves.

Contingency fuel requirements are normally a percentage of the FLIGHT FUEL (Fuel from climb, cruise and
descent). If a diversion is required, then the same criteria applies.

It follows then that taxi, approach to land, climb from take-off to the beacon and missed approach and holding fuel
are not normally taken into account for contingency purposes or calculation.

26 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
You will become very familiar with the fuel calculations and re-calculations in flight in the course of your training
with the NZICPA.

A double check based on common sense is also very important. So, take the total flight time and set that on your
Whizzy against the average fuel consumption. The answer should be close to the fuel you have just calculated for
the in-flight phase of your plan. If there is a large discrepancy, then you have probably made a goof up somewhere
and it will be vital that you rework this and find the mistake. Another useful check is to add all the distances and
compute the total distance against an average groundspeed which should agree roughly with the total time. This is
a good check to use against the GPS to see that distance totals of the flight plan and the GPS agree. If they do not,
then investigate and fix.

NOTE; With the requirement for an ALTERNATE then you should allow fuel for TWO approaches. One at the
destination and one at the alternate.

PRACTICE FULL FLIGHT PLAN

We are now going to have a look at putting together a full flight plan in the same format you will use in the
planning exam.

USE the following information to complete and IDR flight plan for a flight between Palmerston North (NZPM) to
Napier (via H429) with Gisborne (NZGS) as the alternate. Refer to the appropriate information in the AIPNZ
Volumes 2 and 3 as required.

27 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
Operational Information; The aircraft for this flight is a pressurized twin turboprop aeroplane equipped with dual
VOR and ADF, DME, ILS, RMI, and HSI. It is also fitted with a GTN650 and GTN750 gps navigation suite.

Plan the flight from the Palmerston North VOR via SELDU (S395013E1760743) and NOSAM (S394035 E1761723),
NR VOR (S392715 E1765208).

Climb; Follow departure RWY 25 GOLF ONE DEPARTURE (GOLF1) to APITI, RUAHI, NOSAM. Intercept radial R250
climb to MNM 2700ft, Turn LEFT, intercept track. For flight planning purposes assume the climb starts from take-
off to FL200 (you can ignore the small time and distance involved in the departure process. CAS 130kts and ROC
1800 ft/min, fuel consumption 550 kg/hr.

Cruise; Cruise at FL200, (NON-STANDARD) CAS 190kts. Fuel consumption 450kg/hr Note; We are going to cruise at
a non-standard altitude for this exercise because of ATC requirements on this day FOR THIS ROUTE).

Descent; Descend on track to arrive overhead NR at minimum initial approach altitude for NV VOR RWY 34. CAS
150kts, mean rate of descent 1500 ft/min, fuel consumption rate 300 kg/hr.

Diversion; Following missed approach Turn RIGHT track 070° FROM nr VOR TO 1500, TURN left direct to NR VOR
and depart to NZGS via DOMON (S391337 E1771103) to GOTNO (S390341 E1772445), HAWKE (S385306
E1773944) GS VOR. Plan to arrive overhead GS VOR at minimum initial approach altitude for VOR DME RWY32.

Forecast winds;

PM NR NR GS
5000 280/25 270/20
10000 260/35 280/30
15000 230/45 220/45
20000 220/50 200/50
FZG LVL 9000 ft 8000 ft

ETD; 2220 Zulu

For details on the approaches at NR and GS refer to the approach charts below.

Fuel Requirements; Sufficient fuel is to be carried to enable the aircraft to fly from PM to NR and GS allowing for a
30-minute reserve and carry a contingency of 10% of fuel consumed from take-off to overhead GS VOR at the
initial approach altitude.

• Fuel for takeoff 70kg

• Fuel for each instrument approach 50 kg
• Fuel for missed approach 75 kg
• Holding consumption rate 400 kg/hr.

The approach plates sample will appear below, and these can be used for this example.

28 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
Departure instructions out of NZPM.

29 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 Note the initial approach altitude of 3000
overhead the NR VOR for this approach.

Note the initial approach altitude overhead

the GS VOR for this VOR/DME RWY 32
approach is 3000

The completed flight plan will appear later in

this exercise. For now, though we need to
get some of the initial route information on
the plan first.

30 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 Track To
overhead NR
VOR

Initial tracking
instruction straight to
NOSAM

Initial tracking instruction

ignores SELDU. Why have an
extra line in our plan when
we do not need it.

FROM TO CAS TEMP ALT/FL TAS TRACK WIND HDG GS

kts °C Ft /FL kts M° Kts M° M° kts
PM TOC 130 016
TOC NOSAM 190 016
NOSAM TOD 190 042
TOD NR 150 042

31 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
Without even calculating anything at this stage we can get a lot of information in the plan off of our charts.
Remember to use one of the last lines in the plan initially to work out the descent. The above diagram is for
example purposes only.

For the climb since we are going to 20,000’ then the

computation is simple in that we divide 20,000’ by 3 to find the
altitude for the wind. (remember we were told to ignore the
departure tracking and start from take-off at NZPM).

It follows then that 20,000/3 = 7000 (near enough), s, if you

deduct 7000’ from 20,000’ then our mean climb altitude will be
13,000’ (FL130). (see below the interpolation)

If the wind at FL150 was 230° and the wind at 10,000’ was 260 Initial
then the difference here is 30 kts. So, divide the 30 by the 5000’ procedure
spread and we get 6 kts. Rule of interpolation is to add the 2x6 alt 3000’
= 12 to the FL150 altitude. It follows then that 230 = 12 = 242°T
(Minus the variation of 20° E and we get 220° [rounded]).

The same for the wind speed, 45 -35 = 10 kts of interpolation.

10/5 = 2. Rule of interpolation is to take 4 kts from the FL150
figure. (because we are continuing to climb, we take this off of
the upper figure)

Forecast winds PM NR NR GS
5000 280/25 270/20
10000 260/35 280/30
15000 230/45 220/45
20000 220/50 200/50
FZG LVL 9000 ft 8000 ft

FROM TO CAS TEMP ALT/FL TAS TRACK WIND HDG GS

kts °C Ft /FL kts M° M° kts M° kts
PM TOC 130 -8 016 220 41
TOC NOSAM 190 016
NOSAM TOD 190 042
TOD NR 150 042

32 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
The descent wind can be worked now. We are coming out of FL200 to 2400 ft, a total descent of 20,000 + 2400 =
22,400 ft.

It follows then that 22400/2 = 11,200 ft. (This is the halfway down point). It also follows, that we can use the very
same type of interpolation between 10,000’ and FL 150 off of the forecast above. Between 260° and 230° is a total
difference of 30 degrees. We are looking for a (rounded altitude) of 11,000 ft. 6° per 1000’. So, we can either
deduct 6° from 260 (254° T) or add 24° to 230 (254° T). Now apply the variation of 20° E and out wind becomes
234°M (Now rounded to the nearest ten degrees = 230°M).

The wind speed difference is 10 kts so this equals 2 kts per thousand feet. By adding 2 kts to the 10000 ft wind we
get 37 kts

the mean descent wind is 230°M/37 (Apply this to the plan)

NOTE; Freezing level was forecast as 9000’ so at 11,000’ the temperature will be -4 degrees (apply this to the plan).

FROM TO CAS TEMP ALT/FL TAS TRACK WIND HDG GS

kts °C Ft /FL kts M° M° kts M° kts
PM TOC 130 -8 016 220 41
TOC NOSAM 190 016
NOSAM TOD 190 042
TOD NR 150 -4 042 230 37

In the temperature column, the temperature at the mean climb altitude of FL130 is -8° C bearing in mind the
freezing level is 9000 feet. So, apply this to the plan (as above).

The altitude at the completion of the descent into NR (minimum initial approach altitude) is 2400 feet. This was
obtained from the ENROUTE CHART which allows the descent to 2400’ within 9 DME NR.

NOTE Do not confuse the minimum initial approach altitude with the 3000 ft over the NR VOR as this altitude
applies to holding aircraft starting over the NR VOR.

The altitude/FL for the cruising legs is FL200. On the flight plan this level is ticked under 20K. The same tick
technique can be used for the temperature column but be careful of temperature change over longer routes
where more than one forecast may apply. In our example forecast note the temperature change after NR where
the freezing level lowers to 8000 feet.

Tracks and distances. When determining track values from the enroute chart then combine this with measuring
and recording the distances at the same time. (This will save valuable time). Be careful when reading the leg out of
PM, the PM to NR leg is a total of 49 nautical miles. This being the sum of the leg to SELDU and on to NOSUM. We
did not use SELDU as no track change was evident. (another time saver).

NOTE; There is a TRAP with non-compulsory reporting points. There are no non-compulsory reporting points in this
plan but, they must be noted for track distances. The main problem here is that it will become more acute when
there are two or more no-compulsory reporting points in any given track. If in doubt about the length of a track
the use the dividers against the distance scale on the SIDE OF THE CHART.

33 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
TAS We use the Whizzy to calculate the TAS from each CAS and temperature at each and every altitude. Wherever
possible use the ‘tick’ technique in the column to facilitate quick referencing. Compressibility is not a thing for us at
these lower speeds but may become a factor as the CAS reaches >200 kts. Your standard Whizzy has no facility to
allow for this but the Jeppesen CR6 which you may use for ATPL exams later certainly does.

Heading and Ground Speeds Now you have worked out the wind velocity, TAS and track, calculate headings in
degrees magnetic and the ground speed (GS) using the whizzy.

Distances and times (Refer to the extract from our operational information below)

Climb; Follow departure RWY 25 GOLF ONE DEPARTURE (GOLF1) to APITI, RUAHI, NOSAM. Intercept radial R250
climb to MNM 2700ft, Turn LEFT, intercept track. For flight planning purposes assume the climb starts from take-
off to FL200 (you can ignore the small time and distance involved in the departure process. CAS 130kts and ROC
1800 ft/min, fuel consumption 550 kg/hr.

Cruise; Cruise at FL200, CAS 190kts. Fuel consumption 450kg/hr

Descent; Descend on track to arrive overhead NR at minimum initial approach altitude for NV VOR RWY 34. CAS
150kts, mean rate of descent 1500 ft/min, fuel consumption rate 300 kg/hr.

34 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 For the climb and descent well need to use the
Whizzy to calculate the elapsed time for each as a
first step. A rate of climb of 1800’/minute and a total
climb of 20,000 feet would look like this;

20,000/1800 = 11 ish minutes (rounded). The

accuracy of these simple type Jeppesen Whizzie’s will
vary and it is not until you step up to the larger CR6
that you get pinpoint accuracy.

Using the same process, we can see that our descent

will be 20,000-2400 = 17600 feet of descent at a rate
of 1500 ft/minute.

17600/1500 =

1500’/min over 17600 ft = 7 minutes (rounded)

So now that we are at this stage of the plan, we can

start filling in some more information off of the data
derived.

FROM TO CAS TEMP ALT/FL TAS TRACK WIND HDG GS

kts °C Ft /FL kts M° kts kts M° kts
PM TOC 130 -8 20k 160 016 220 41 183
13k 0
TOC NOSAM 190 016
NOSAM TOD 190 042
TOD NR 150 11k 20k 180 042 230 37 217
-4 2400

Applying the temp calculation to the Whizzy we find that the CLIMB and DESCENT TAS is 160 kts and 180 kts
respectively.

35 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 So, let’s work the Ground Speed for Climb and Descent.

A GS of 183 kts for 11 mins will produce a distance over the ground of 21.2 nm.
(rounded to 21.0nm) for the CLIMB

183 kts for 11 minutes will mine us a

distance of 21.2 nm

A GS of 217 kts for 7 minutes will produce a distance of 23.6 nm (rounded to 24.0 nm)

For the DESCENT.

217 kts for 7 min will mine us

a distance of 23.6 nm

The EET for the cruise legs can

now be calculated and applied to the
plan.

Forecast winds PM NR NR GS
5000 280/25 270/20
10000 260/35 280/30
15000 230/45 220/45
20000 220/50 200/50
FZG LVL 9000 ft 8000 ft

TO CAS TEMP ALT/FL TAS TRACK WIND HDG GS Dist Time ETA Fuel Zone Total
kts °C Ft /FL kts M° kts kts M° kts nm min Hr.min cons fuel fuel
PM TOC 130 -8 20k 160 016 220 41 020 183 21 11
13k 0
TOC NOSAM 190 -12 20k 267 016 200 50 017 317

36 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
NOSAM TOD 190 ✓ ✓ ✓ 042 ✓ ✓ 039 315
TOD NR 150 11k 20k 180 042 230 37 044 217 24 7
-4 2400

Now before we go and enter any more data we must go back to our chart and see where the TOC and
TOD was marked.

Top of Descent TOD into NZNR

So, now all

we have to do is get our DIVIDERS out and measure
the tack miles from NOSAM to TOD using the scale at
the bottom of the chart. (or simply deduct from the
track miles on the chart)

Top of Climb TOC out of NZPM

So, now all we have to do is get our DIVIDERS out

and measure the tack miles from TOC to NOSAM
using the scale at the bottom of the chart. (or simply
deduct from the track miles on the chart)

We can now go ahead and fill 2220Z in

more detail on our plan.
(Below)

TO CAS TEMP ALT/FL TAS TRACK WIND HDG GS Dist Time ETA Fuel Zone Total
kts °C Ft /FL kts M° kts kts M° kts nm min Hr.min cons fuel fuel
PM TOC 130 -8 20k 160 016 220 41 020 183 21 11 2231
13k 0
TOC NOSAM 190 -12 20k 267 016 200 50 017 317 28 5 2236
NOSAM TOD 190 ✓ ✓ ✓ 042 ✓ ✓ 039 315 6 1 2237
TOD NR 150 11k 20k 180 042 230 37 044 217 24 7 2244
-4 2400

24.0
total
time

37 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 Now that our plan is coming together, we can add up all the minutes and it follows that we have a total time of 24
minutes.

ETA’s; The operational details gave an ETD of 2220Z. In actual practice the ETD at the departure and intermediate
reporting points is worked out from when the aircraft set heading. However, for practice and examination
purposes, Progressive ETA’s are worked out during flight planning. It simplifies your ETA workings if you copy the
ETD on the top of your ETA column (as above).

To work out the ETA to the TOC add 11 minutes to the ETD

2222z + 11 = 2231z (insert this in the plan)

Continue this for each leg until the destination. (as above)

Now do a double check for fidelity as explained before. The difference between the ETD of 2220 and the ETA of
2244 is 24 minutes. This corresponds to the total time of the totals of the ETA’s.

Fuel details; From the operational details select the fuel consumption details for each leg and using the Whizzy
determine each zone fuel. The total fuel column should now show the total progressive fuel used from the start of
the flight.

It may be simpler to add ALL the cruise EET’s and apply the fuel consumption to that rather than calculate the fuel
required for each cruise leg. You can quickly determine the total cruise time by deducting the climb and descent
times from the total time. E.g. 11 + 7 = 18 minutes. Deduct 18 minutes from the total time of 24 minutes and only 6
minutes was spent in the cruise. (Quick is it not?)

DIVERSION
The operational details state that a diversion must be planned to commence from NR at an altitude of 1500 feet.
There is no need to flight plan for the missed approach and the short reversal to overhead the aid. (Fuel allowance
has been made for this segment in the missed approach detail 75kg in the fuel requirements section)

In the operational world the diversion flight is flown at a relative low altitude considering the short distance usually
involved.

It follows then that the technique for applying a diversion to a flight plan is the same as that for the main plan.
Attend first to the CLIMB and DESCENT and then deal with the LEVEL CRUISE.

NOTE; The minimum approach altitude at GS is 3000 feet and the highest route LSALT is 4400’ o this would dictate
a cruise of 7000’ (magnetic track table wise). We would use the descent profile diagram, not the approach chart as
discussed before this refers to the holding altitude. You can see that within 10 DME GS we may descend to 3000
feet. In the example there should be no problem because the TOD will be xyz from GS.

You do not need to fill in the ETA columns, but you should complete the fuel columns in order that total diversion
fuel may be calculated.
TO CAS TEMP ALT/FL TAS TRACK WIND HDG GS Dist Time ETA Fuel Zone Total
kts °C Ft /FL kts M° kts kts M° kts nm min Hr.min cons fuel fuel
PM TOC 130 -8 20k 160 016 220 41 020 183 21 11 2231
13k 0
TOC NOSAM 190 -12 20k 267 016 200 50 017 317 28 5 2236

38 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
NOSAM TOD 190 ✓ ✓ ✓ 042 ✓ ✓ 039 315 6 1 2237
TOD NR 150 11k 20k 180 042 230 37 044 217 24 7 2244
-4 2400

24.0
total
time

The diversion instructions are restated below for clarity.

(Diversion; Following missed approach Turn RIGHT track 070° FROM nr VOR TO 1500, TURN left direct to NR VOR
and depart to NZGS via DOMON (S391337 E1771103) to GOTNO (S390341 E1772445), HAWKE (S385306 E1773944)
GS VOR. Plan to arrive overhead GS VOR at minimum initial approach altitude for VOR DME RWY32)

As stated earlier, the fuel planning for the Missed Approach has been allowed for in the fuel Cals so you may
ignore the small tracking requirement to get overhead the Aid at NR.

It follows then that your diversion planning should start from 1500’ overhead the NR VOR and the track to GS via
GOTNO and Hawke as required.

So, first things first. What altitude to plan at. Remember we are in a turbine aircraft that is far hungrier on fuel at
lower altitudes, (For example a PC12 on one engine will burn around 480kg/hr in the flight levels but below 10000’
the fuel burn may be as high as 680kg/hr). Route LSALTS are at their peak at 4200’ on the GOTNO HAWLE sector
and we are going on a Northerly Magnetic Heading as far as the tables are concerned.

In the interests of fuel saving and faster descent time we will go to FL130. (we will still be pressurized).

Using the lower portion of your plan form set out the diversion planning. (as below)

TO CAS TEMP ALT/FL TAS TRACK WIND HDG GS Dist Time ETA Fuel Zone Total
kts °C Ft /FL kts M° kts kts M° kts nm min Hr.min cons fuel fuel
PM TOC 130 -8 20k 160 016 220 41 020 183 21 11 2231
13k 0
TOC NOSAM 190 -12 20k 267 016 200 50 017 317 28 5 2236
NOSAM TOD 190 ✓ ✓ ✓ 042 ✓ ✓ 039 315 6 1 2237
TOD NR 150 11k 20k 180 042 230 37 044 217 24 7 2244
-4 2400

39 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 24.0
total
time

NR TOC 130 -8 13K 160 026 220 41 031 200 15 4.5

13K 1500
TOC GOTNO 190 -8 13k 233 ✓ ✓ ✓ 029 278 20 4.5

GOTNO TOD 190 ✓ ✓ ✓ 027 ✓ ✓ 028 277 24 5

TOD GS 150 6 13k 165 027 252 22 032 185 12 4

6000 3000

Remember we are now using the NR GAS winds for descent so we will have to do some more interpolation for this.

Forecast winds PM NR NR GS
5000 280/25 270/20
10000 260/35 280/30
15000 230/45 220/45
20000 220/50 200/50
FZG LVL 9000 ft 8000 ft

Wind direction is forecast at 280 for 10k and 270 for 5k. 5000’ the diff so the math is simple 10/5 = 2.

 2°T per 1000 ft.

 Wind at 6k is 272°T or 252°M (applying the 20-degree east variation).

Wind velocity is forecast at 30kts for 10k and 20kts for 5k. Same diff as above and same math equation as above.

 2kts/1000’

Wind velocity at 6k is 22kts.

Now go ahead and work out the distances and apply these to the plan above.

From the operational information the climb rate was, 1800’/min and descent 1500’/min.

Remember we are only descending from 13k to 3000k so a total of 10,000’. So, at 1500’/min this will equate to
approximately 4 minutes of descent.

Work the climb and descent distances based on these time and ground speeds now to complete the PLAN bearing
in mind we are only after the fuel burns on this part of the plan to make up the total fuel required.

It follows that that NR to GOTNO is a distance of 35nm and TOC works out to be just before DOMON. The
remaining leg of the cruise to GOTNO is 20nm of cruise.

GOTNO to TOD is 12nm back from GS which equates to 24nm. (do the math off of the chart distances)

Now our plan is coming together, and we now have the fuel calculations to work out.

40 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 TO CAS TEMP ALT/FL TAS TRACK WIND HDG GS Dist Time ETA Fuel Zone Total
kts °C Ft /FL kts M° kts kts M° kts nm min Hr.min cons fuel fuel
PM TOC 130 -8 20k 160 016 220 41 020 183 21 11 2231 550 101 101
13k 0
TOC NOSAM 190 -12 20k 267 016 200 50 017 317 28 5 2236 450 38 139
NOSAM TOD 190 ✓ ✓ ✓ 042 ✓ ✓ 039 315 6 1 2237 ✓ 7.5 146.5
TOD NR 150 11k 20k 180 042 230 37 044 217 24 7 2244 300 35 181.5
-4 2400

24.0 ✓
total
time
✓

NR TOC 130 -8 13K 160 026 220 41 031 200 15 4.5 550 41 222.5
13K 1500
TOC GOTNO 190 -8 13k 233 ✓ ✓ ✓ 029 278 20 4.5 450 34 256.5

GOTNO TOD 190 ✓ ✓ ✓ 027 ✓ ✓ 028 277 24 5 ✓ 38 294.5

TOD GS 150 6 13k 165 027 252 22 032 185 12 4 300 20 314.5
6000 3000

FUEL CALCULATIONS
For the art of planning it is a requirement that the fuel calculations be carefully worked through to an accurate
conclusion. It may be advisable to use a separate piece of paper for this to do your workings.

From the operational information the fuel requirements were’

Taxi and Take-off 70kg

Climb 101kg
Cruise 45.5kg
41 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 Descent 35kg
Instrument approach NR 50kg
Missed approach and climb to GS 75kg
Diversion Climb 41kg
Diversion Cruise 72kg
Diversion Descent 20kg
Instrument GS 50kg

Reserves:
30mins @ holding rate 400kg/hr 200kg
10% contingency of Flight fuel used 39kg (Highlighted is flight fuel)
Total fuel requirement 798.5kg
Double check

Now add the total flight time from PM to NR (24 mins) to the total diversion time(18mins) = 42 minutes. With an
average fuel consumption of 450kg/hr your approximate total flight fuel is around 315kg WHICH IS VERY CLOSE TO
THE 315.5 shown on the flight plan.

The average groundspeed PM to NR is 258kts, total distance is 79nm = 19 minutes which is very close to the 24
mins planned.

Figure 6 below shows the completed Flight plan.

TO CAS TEMP ALT/FL TAS TRACK WIND HDG GS Dist Time ETA Fuel Zone Total
kts °C Ft /FL kts M° kts kts M° kts nm min Hr.min cons fuel fuel
PM TOC 130 -8 20k 160 016 220 41 020 183 21 11 2231 550 101 101
13k 0
TOC NOSAM 190 -12 20k 267 016 200 50 017 317 28 5 2236 450 38 139
NOSAM TOD 190 ✓ ✓ ✓ 042 ✓ ✓ 039 315 6 1 2237 ✓ 7.5 146.5
TOD NR 150 11k 20k 180 042 230 37 044 217 24 7 2244 300 35 181.5
-4 2400

24.0 ✓
total
time
✓

NR TOC 130 -8 13K 160 026 220 41 031 200 15 4.5 550 41 222.5
13K 1500
TOC GOTNO 190 -8 13k 233 ✓ ✓ ✓ 029 278 20 4.5 450 34 256.5

42 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
GOTNO TOD 190 ✓ ✓ ✓ 027 ✓ ✓ 028 277 24 5 ✓ 38 294.5

TOD GS 150 6 13k 165 027 252 22 032 185 12 4 300 20 314.5
6000 3000

Figure 6

Individually as you have worked through this plan above you will find small differences. As long as you have stuck
to the operational details supplied then that is okay Acceptable tolerances are;

± 2kts

±2°

± 2 mins

± 5kg fuel

There will naturally be small differences in the types and even between the same models of Whizz Wheel. The
thickness of a pencil can make the difference when plotting or
inconsistencies in the use of dividers etc.

SPLIT CLIMBS AND DESCENTS

On the previous plans the climb and descent detail showed that there
was no compulsory reporting point or turning points between
departure and TOC, or between TOD and bottom of descent. However,
there will inevitable be occasions where a departure or for that matter
an arrival involves a compulsory reporting point before TOC or after
TOD or, more commonly, a turning point to provide important terrain
clearance from high ground during the climb or descent. In the worked
examples ahead, we explain the flight planning techniques used when
the climb and descent are split into two or more sectors.

THE CLIMB 16nm

The departure procedure from VOR ALPHA
specifies a climb on R089 to VOR BRAVO from where aircraft may climb
direct on VOR BRAVO R238 to VOR CHARLIE. The minimum net climb
gradient to MSA shall be 6.6% (400ft/nm)

R089
VOR BRAVO

VOR ALPHA

43 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 VOR CHARLIE
So, let’s look at planning this climb in two sections into a plan. Commence the climb from
VOR ALPHA at an altitude of 2000’ and climb via VOR BRAVO to FL210. The 2/3 mead=n wind velocity for the entire
climb is 280°M/35. The climb TAS is 160kts and the rate of climb required can be maintained at 1350ft/min.

Firstly, the total climb from 2000’ to FL210 is 19k @ a ROC (Rate of Climb) of 1350 ft/min so total climb of 14
minutes.

It follows then that if we set the wind velocity of 280/35 and TAS of 160kts with a track of 089°M on the Whizzy,
the heading to steer is 087°M and a GS of 194kts. It just so happens at 194kts it will take 5 minutes to cover the 16
nautical miles to VOR BRAVO. Also, since the total climb time is 14 minutes it follows that the time from VOR
BRAVO to TOC is 9 minutes in total.

So, set the wind velocity of 280/35 and TAS of 160kts and a track of 238°M on the Whizzy. This produces the
heading to steer of 246°M and the GS of 132KTS.

 In 9 minutes @ 132kts the Aircraft will travel 20nm to reach TOC.

A check of the minimum net gradient of 6.6% can be achieved by referring to AIPNZ Volume 1 Table ENR 1.5-1.
Between VOR ALPHA and BRAVO the GS is 194kts, which according to the table requires a minimum climb rate of
1300ft/min. This was established by interpolation between 180kts and 210kts whereby 194kts is virtually in the
middle. Therefore, the associated rate of climb is almost exactly halfway between 1200 and 1400ft/min vis a vis
1300ft/min. This will be acceptable to us.

It is also possible to arrive at the same answer by checking if 400ft/nm is achievable. The time between VOR
ALPHA and VOR BRAVO is 5 minutes which at 1350 ft/min gives a gain in altitude of 6750’ over the 16 nautical
track miles.

Divide 6750 by 16 = 422ft/nm which is actually better than what is required.

FROM TO CAS TEMP ALT/FL TAS TRACK WIND HDG GS DIST TIME ETA
Kts °C ft kt °M °M kts °M kts nm Min Hr.min
VOR A VOR B 21k 160 089 280 35 087 194 16 05

44 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
VOR B TOC 2k ✓ 238 ✓ ✓ 246 132 20 14

09
TOC VOR C

THE DESCENT
The descent is from FL190 to 3000’ overhead VOR ZULU via VOR YANKEE. Tas IS 170kts and the ROD is 800ft/min.
The halfway mean descent wind is 190°M/40. The distance VOR YANKEE to VOR ZULU is 18nm.

VOR XRAY
59nm

VOR YANKEE

VOR ZULU

45 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 The total descent time is 1600/800 = 20 minutes. To determine where the TOD will be you should start at the last
descent leg between VOR Y and VOR Z.

Set the wind velocity of 190°M/40 on the Whizzy with a TAS of 170 and a track of 261°M on the computer. This will
mine a heading of 248°M and a ground speed of 153kts. For 18nm this will requires 7 minutes. Now set the wind
velocity, TAS and Track of 157°M on the Whizzy and you will obtain a heading of 164° and a ground speed of
135kts.

For 13 minutes (20 totals minus 7) this produces a distance of 29nm.

TOD is 29nm before VOR YANKEE.

FROM TO CAS TEMP ALT/FL TAS TRACK WIND HDG GS DIST TIME
Kts °C ft kt °M °M kts °M kts nm Min
VOR X TOD 157
TOD VOR Y 19k 170 157 190 40 164 135 29 13
20
VOR Y VOR Z 3k 170 261 190 40 248 153 18 07

WIND COMPONENTS
Whenever the effect of the wind velocity has been pre-determined for you it can be expressed as a + (plus) or –
(minus) wind component.

By applying this wind component to the TAS (or IAS at low altitudes) you may obtain the Ground Speed (GS).

NOTE: The term + means a tailwind which is duly added to the TAS.

The term – means a headwind which is duly subtracted from the TAS.

 A TAS of 150kts with a wind component of -20 means a headwind and is subtracted from the TAS to give a
groundspeed of 130kts.

 A TAS of 150kts with a wind component of +40 means a tailwind which is added to the TAS to give a Ground
Speed of 190kts.

PLOTTING FOR IFR NAVIGATION

During the course of this subject you will be put to the test on your knowledge of navigation processes associated
with IFR Flight.

46 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
A number of questions will be asked straight off of the flight plan using the calculation skill you have jus learnt in
the previous chapter. These types of questions will usually be a check of the accuracy of your flight plan workings.
However, there could be a number of questions centered around the orientation of the flight path using the
instruments and NAVAID depictions in the aircraft. These types of questions will normally be in the multi choice
format and contain distractors among the answer options.

For example.

At your flight planned Groundspeed, will you be able to comply with the minimum net climb gradient specified in
the departure procedure you have been instructed to use?

Now, there is TWO way you can go about this getting the answer,

Open the AIPNZ Vol 1 ENR 1.5 Table 1.5-1 and use the tabulated information straight off of the table. At a
Groundspeed of 141kts the minimum required rate of climb would be 4.9% or slightly over 700’/min. It follows
then if you had a planned rate of climb of 1800’/min then this would be adequate.

The other way of getting this info is off of the chart, MSA being 7300’. It follows then from take0ff you need to gain
at least 310’ for every nautical mile forward on the SID until 5600’ (ALPHA 9 SID). This will require at least 18nm.
From 5600’ to 7300’ you require a climb gradient of at least 3.3% (200’/nm) requiring 8.5nm. At the Ground speed
of 141kts it takes just of 11 minutes to cover 26.5nm at the minimum gradient. The planned rate of climb then at
1800’/min is more than adequate.

Here is another little gem;

2220Z you are airborne and set heading PM maintaining centerline to 1500’.

What is you ETA SW VOR?

Note that in this statement the take off and set heading time is one and the same. However, this will not always be
the case and the flight planned ETA’s should be predicated on the set heading time which could be a reporting
point at the end of a SID.

Another part of plotting involves your understanding and orientation with the Instruments and Nav Aids available
to you as the flight Crew. Before we go onto the Charts involved for IFR in New Zealand we need to look at the HIS,
VOR, and RMI and the indications and orientation we can glean from each of these instruments separately or in
unison in the cockpit of a busy flight. We are going to use real life SID’s and STARS in this exercise and the
information on the Departure and Approach plates of some of the more commonly use aerodromes in your exams.

ETP/CTP EQUITIME POINT OR CRITICAL POINT

ETP (also critical point), is the point in the flight where it would take the same time to continue flying straight or
track back to the departure aerodrome. The ETP is not dependent on fuel, but wind, giving a change in ground
speed out from, and back to the departure aerodrome. In Nil wind conditions, the ETP is located halfway between
the two aerodromes, but in reality, it is shifted depending on the windspeed and direction. The aircraft that is
flying across the Ocean for example, would be required to calculate ETPs for one engine inoperative,
depressurization, and a normal ETP; all of which could actually be different points along the route. For example, in
one engine inoperative and depressurization situations the aircraft would be forced to lower operational altitudes,
which would affect its fuel consumption, cruise speed and ground speed. Each situation therefore would have a
different ETP. Commercial aircraft are not allowed to operate along a route that is out of range of a suitable place
to land if an emergency such as an engine failure occurs. The ETP calculations serve as a planning strategy, so flight
crews always have an 'out' in an emergency event, allowing a safe diversion to their chosen alternate. The final
stage is to note which areas the route will pass through or over, and to make a note of all of the things to be done
– which ATC units to contact, the appropriate frequencies, visual reporting points, and so on. It is also important to
47 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
note which pressure setting regions will be entered, so that the pilot can ask for the QNH (air pressure) of those
regions. Finally, the pilot should have in mind some alternative plans in case the route cannot be flown for some
reason – unexpected weather conditions being the most common. At times the pilot may be required to file a
flight plan for an alternate destination and to carry adequate fuel for this. The more work a pilot can do on the
ground prior to departure, the easier it will be in the air.

This sounds like a lot of work but for now we are going to keep tings fairly simple and most of the Calculating cam
be doe simply on the ‘WHIZZY’. (Whizz wheel).

So, with this in mind the STANDARD COMPUTER (WHIZZY) setting is as follows;

Dist to CP

GS Home

GS HOME
GS ON +

To consolidate on the calculation of the setting on the ‘Whizzy’ above. Typically, it would be necessary to work out
an asymmetric CP when planning a flight over remote areas where the choice of ENROUTE aerodromes is limited
or non-existent, or over water as could easily be the case in New Zealand.
So, a flight FROM A to B. The information is

Total distance = 169nm

Asymmetric TAS = 110kts

Wind Components = -20kts ON

+20KTS HOME

48 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
It follows then using the whizzy setting below 100
nm

130kts
Home

Distance to
CP/ETP

GS Home

GS out + GS home

Total distance

It would be fair to say then that an engine failure before 100nm from the departure point it would be quicker to
return to A

NOTE# If the HEADWIND component OUT was stronger that the component HOME then the CP/ETP MOVES
CLOSER TO THE DESTINATION. (Be very careful with the questioning around this)

49 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
POINT OF NO RETURN PNR
The Point of No Return, sometimes referred to as the PNR, is the point on a flight at which a plane has just enough
fuel, plus any mandatory reserve, to return to the airfield from which it departed. Beyond this point that option is
closed, and the plane must proceed to some other destination. Alternatively, with respect to a large region
without airfields, e.g. an ocean, it can mean the point before which it is closer to turn around and after which it is
closer to continue. You can see then that this equation deals with fuel endurance as the MAIN FACTOR.

For this equation we use the Whizzy as such;

As an example to consolidate this procedure follow through with us; Typically it will only
be necessary to work a PNR for a flight over remote areas or over water where few or no
alternate aerodromes are available should an enroute problem arise. Keep in mind that the setting we are
explaining assume a CONSTANT fuel flow when working out the safe endurance. In reality should an engine fail
then the fuel flow will change and thus so will the endurance but the PNR calculation here will at least provide the
guide to the course of action you would elect to take.

A flight again from A to B with no off-track alternates.

TAS = 150kts

Wind Components = -20kts RETURN

+20kts OUT to PNR

50 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 Safe Endurance = Total endurance is 225 minutes

It is necessary to calculate the safe endurance on the fuel that is available to work the PNR. Simply put reduce the
TOTAL endurance by the RESERVES.

That is 225 min

- 45 fixed reserve

_____________

= 180 mins

 1.10 (10% contingency to take out)

______________

164 minutes “Safe” endurance to work with.

So let’s do the METRICS..

NOTE# CAREFULLY, It is 72 MINUTES TO THE PNR so you still have to use the Ground speed to find the
DISTANCE!

51 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
It follows then that mins at 170kts for 74 minutes = 210nm from departure point “A”. This is where the PNR will
be.

Note also you may get a question asking how far is the PNR from the destination. Do the Math.

THE HSI
You have climbed on the PMNR3 departure via H240, IRMIX Q800 RIDLA H103. You were cleared on the FOXTROT1
departure and you are in a left-hand turn onto 030° on climb to 6000’ to intercept the track of 066 to WEBER
(401333E1762736). Which diagram correctly shows the HSI readings shortly before joining the PM WEBER track?
Your VOR is tuned to the PM VOR/DME 113.4

a b c d
The answer of course lies in the HSI pointer being set up on the desired track to WEBER which in this case is 060°.
You would be making a standard 30° intercept so your heading on the HSI would be 030°. The CDI would be
parked out to the left in anticipation of you getting closer to that 060 radial before it starts its march toward the
center. The ANSWER is (b).

Now here are a number of scenarios for you to work through.

1. Your VOR is tuned to the NR VOR/DME 113.8. You are about to depart RWY 16. You intend going to
Wellington via WEBER and PM direct. You have been cleared a 16 MIKE FOUR DEPARTURE. You would
have your HSI SET on and you heading would be?

A b c d

This time remember your runway heading as you are lined up is 160°. It follows then that the 181R is to
your right. Have a go?
The answer is?

52 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 2. This time you are airborne NP RWY 23 with your VOR tined to the NP VOR/DME 114.4. You have just
passed 1100’ on the SOUTH5 departure in a right-hand turn to intercept the R298 to the NP VOR on your
way to MEVAX vis the overhead NP. Prior to this turn you would set your HSI up like? and the CDI would
show?

a b c d
This time you are already airborne and maintaining runway heading and in the process of setting up the HSI
pointer so remember where the R298 is in relation to your current heading.

Have a go. The answer is?

3. Next you are inbound for the VOR DME A approach RO with your VOR tuned to 112.1. You are at position
IBAMU per the VORSEC chart on descent to 4000’. You have briefed the approach and intend to join via
TOTRA for a circling approach RWY 36. Your NUMBER 2 HSI would be set up in the following way to
achieve the descent profile heading?

Bear in mind you may have to join this approach from the 10 DME ARC to get to TOTRA.

a b c d
The answer is?

4. Inbound to NS now for the VOR/DME C with the VOR tuned to 113.1. You are inbound from NZWU via
DUMOT HR240 and the VORSEC chart and have been cleared for the runway 20 VOR A approach from
overhead the aid. Initial joining point is ELMAX 15 DME NS. Currently you are maintaining 5000’ and 20
DME NS. In briefing the approach, you set your Number 1 HSI up for the outbound of the reversal and
your number 2 HSI is set to intercept the track to ELMAX from 20 DME NS.

Your Number 1 AND Number 2 HSI would most closely resemble?

53 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 a b c d
The answer is?

THE VOR
The VOR or OMNI as its sometimes called is actually quite a simple instrument to use but beginners can get into all
sorts of strife if a few basic principles are not learnt and followed. Set out here now is a common misconception
you should make sure you are 100% clear about. If not ASK QUESTIONS, Please.

The TWO/FROM indication will change if you turn onto a reciprocal heading. THIS IS NOT CORRECT. The VOR
indication is completely independent of the aircrafts heading. The VOR TO/FROM indication will not change unless
you reset the OBS to the track you intend to fly. The instrument does not know if you turn around unless you tell it.

B
A This Photo

VOR

This Photo

54 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 The aeroplane at position A is The pilot turns the aircraft to
tracking away from the station place it at position B on the same
with 090 set on the OBS. The track BUT inbound to the VOR
aircraft is on the 090°M outbound station. If no change is made to
track so the CDI is centered and the OBS setting the VOR will
the flag shows ‘FROM’ assume that the aircraft is still
facing in the original direction
and the instrument indication
WILL NOT change.

In the second scenario;

The aeroplane at position A is The pilot turns the aircraft to

tracking away FROM the station place it at position B on the same
with 090 set on the OBS. The track BUT inbound to the VOR
aircraft is on the 090°M station. The OBS setting has now
outbound track so the CDI is been reset to 270. The CDI will be
centered and the flag shows centered, and the flag will say ‘TO’
‘FROM’.

IMPORTANT NOTE: The VOR will always assume that the aircraft is facing in the direction which has been set on
the OBS. In other words, you understand and have set it correctly. The indications will only make sense for an
aircraft which is facing in that direction. This is called the ‘Command Sense’. The takeaway from this is that the OBS
should always be set in the same hemisphere as your DI (Direction Indicator) to be reading in the ‘COMMAND
SENSE’.

RADIALS
The use of the term ‘radial’ can be confusing to new starts to the use of the VOR. The easiest way to look at things
is to remember that radials were invented for the sake of ATC Controllers and other pilots. If an aircraft reports
that it is on the 090 radial, then it follows that the observer station must look towards the east to see the aircraft.
EVERY aircraft on the 090 radial is SOMEWHERE to the east of the station7. It doesn’t really matter whether the
heading is taking it TO or FROIM or across the radial.

55 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
Radials are defined by their characteristics and radio signal received by your onboard equipment that is received in
each direction. Each radial is named by its OUTBOUND direction. The aircraft tracking 270°M towards the station in
the above picture and example is still said to be on the 090 radial.

It follows then that the Pilot is not really interested in the radials during the course of normal navigation. He or She
simply sets the magnetic track he/she wants to fly, and the instrument automatically indicates whether that track
will take the aircraft TO or FROM the station. Tis only when communicating with ATC or other pilots that this radial
thing is considered. E.g. The aircraft tracking 270° M to the VOR in the above picture would still report its position
as ‘inbound on the 090 radial’.

However, if the OBS setting is to one side of the signal being received (as you will see in the examples below) the
CDI will be displaced from the centre position. The edge of the centre circle and each white dot is representative of
2° of displacement from the selected track. To intercept the selected track, the pilot simply turns towards the
needle. These are said to be ‘COMMAND INDICATIONS’

An example of a fly right command. The selected

track is 3.5 dots to the right. (7°).

An example of a fly left command. The track selected

is 4 dots to the left (8°).

56 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 An example of a fly right command. The track
selected is 4 dots to the right (8°).

A fly left command. The CDI is 3 dots to the left (6°).

Here is some practice for you. Match the instruments to the locations shown below.

57 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 1

6
9 3

5
7

8
4
10

A B C D

E F G H

58 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
Your educated answer?

A= ,B= ,C= ,D= ,E= ,F= ,G= ,H= .

Once you have gotten the skill of orientation then the mental processes involved in intercepting a given track TO or
FROM a station are the same no matter which type of navigation aid is being used. Below is some typical VOR
questions but remember this, they could be put to you with a Fixed Card ADF or indeed an RMI. It doesn’t matter
which the principles are the same.

• The indications of a VOR are this;

OBS, 080

CDI, CENTRED

FLAG, FROM

What HDG is required to make a 30° intercept of the 070°M outbound track FROM the VOR?

070°M
FROM

• The indications of a VOR are this;

OBS, 240

CDI, CENTRED

FLAG, FROM

What HDG is required to make a 30° intercept of the 250°M inbound track to the VOR?

250°M
TO

59 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 • The indications of a VOR are this;

OBS, 270

CDI, CENTRED

FLAG, TO

What HDG is required to make a 45° intercept of the 150°M outbound track FROM the VOR?
This

This 270°M TO

• The indications of a VOR are this;

OBS, 300

CDI, CENTRED

FLAG, FROM

What is the HDG required to make a 45° intercept of the 090°M inbound track to the VOR?

090°M TO

ERRORS AND LIMITATIONS OF THE VOR

Here is a list of so-called errors of the VOR SYSTEM and crop up regularly in exams.

GROUND STATION ERROR: A systematic error which is usually less then ± 2°, associated with the actual installation
on the ground, i.e. the transmitter, Arial earth systems and the power supply. If were flying then there’s not much
we can do about this.

60 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
SITE EFFECT ERROR; An error due to the topographical features surrounding the station and affecting the signal.
This happens in New Zealand. (Because of this there is a VOR installation on the top of the remarkable ranges
around Queenstown in the South Island). At the time of commissioning the VOR, the combined ground station
error and site effect error must be less than ±3°

TERRAIN EFFECT; This error is caused by the radial being reflected or ‘rippled’ as it passes over rough terrain
between the station and the aircraft. It appears in the cockpit as oscillations of the CDI and or RMI needle. These
are referred to as bending when the oscillations are slow and scalloping when the oscillations are rapid. The
magnitude of these oscillations normally does not exceed 2°

AIRBORNE EQUIPMENT ERROR; Caused by the various components of the VOR installation in the aircraft, tis error
is less than 2° in a well-designed system.

VERTICAL POLARISATION EFFECT; VOR transmissions are horizontally polarised. However, signals reflected from
terrain can become vertically polarised. When the aircraft is banked this can cause some abnormal movement of
the CDI and or RMI needle.

AGGREGATE ERROR; This is the algebraic sum of all of the above errors. It is almost always less than ±5°.
Remember the VOR does not pretend to be a precision aid however its general accuracy is good and aggregate
errors of more than ±2° are rare.

SCALLOPING; Under some circumstances, the terrain, and aircraft altitude, CAN CAUSE the VOR radial can be bent.
The CDI oscillates fairly rapidly from side to side as the aircraft flies along the radial.

THE GPS
A quick synopsis of the GPS architecture is set out here as there is an increasing trend for a couple of GPS type
questions to be inserted into the current exam question suite. Whilst in the course of your training you will
become conversant and thoroughly trained on the GPS as a navigation tool it is important, we revisit a couple of
principles here.

A constellation of
satellites is in orbit
above the earth at any
one time.

61 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 Our units installed in
the aircraft receive
signals from various
numbers of these
satellites depending on
whether they are
visible above the
horizon to our unit in
the aircraft.

NOTE; The more that

are visible the more
accurate is our
navigation

To fix position the

receiver requires four
operational satellites in
view Three for position
and one to synchronise time
Before an instrument approach procedure is approved by CAA and ICAO it must meet certain criteria:
• Accuracy
• Integrity
• Continuity; and
• Availability

Modern receivers provide all of the above and some now provide extra benefits.
Before a GPS receiver can be used for IFR navigation it must meet certain ICAO Technical Service Order
requirements (TSO)
• TSO 129
• TSO 145; or
• TSO 146a
The TSO’s stipulate the requirements that a receiver must meet a minimum standard
TSO 129 receivers are the most common type of IFR GPS in New Zealand and the oldest capable of Receiver
Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM)
TSO 129 Integrity monitoring is capable only of:
Detecting a loss of integrity monitoring; or
Detecting a loss of integrity
This is called Fault Detection (FD)
Requires 5 satellites

TSO 145 and 146a are capable of Fault Detection and Exclusion (FDE)
If there is a fault it can resolve and exclude the faulty data to continue providing data with integrity
FDE requires more satellites than FD
Minimum of 6
More reliable
Approved for sole means navigation

62 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
Baro-aiding. (Short for Barometric aiding assistance)
A method of augmenting the GPS integrity solution by using a non-satellite input source. To ensure that baro-
aiding is available, the current altimeter setting must be entered as described in the operating manual.

NOTE # For RAIM you need 5 satellites or 4 satellites + baroaiding (barometric altitude information is linked to
GPS) and for FDE (Failure detection and exclusion) you need 6 satellites or 5 satellites + baroaiding.

PBN DISCUSSION
Performance-based navigation (PBN) is the internationally recognised regulatory framework for implementing area
navigation, with an emphasis on GNSS as the enabling technology.

PBN includes the definition of navigation specifications in terms of the accuracy, integrity, continuity and
functionality required for various types of operations. It uses on-board equipment such as global navigation
satellite systems (GNSS) receivers, stand-alone navigators, and integrated navigation systems.

PBN is absolute navigation—the aircraft determines its current latitude and longitude, and where it is in relation to
the intended flight path. As long as the aircraft has a means of determining its current position, it can operate
anywhere within coverage of the relevant GNSS system.

This contrasts with traditional relative navigation, based largely on fixed ground-based navigation aids which guide
aircraft along published routes via waypoints defined by the aids.

WHAT DOES PERFORMANCE MEAN?

Under PBN, airspace and route design take into account the aircraft operations in the region, and the capability of
aircraft flying in it.

Both aircraft and flight crew must meet performance standards for the route, which may change with the flight
phase (en-route, approach etc.) and the class of airspace in which the aircraft is flying.

SPECIFICATIONS
PBN encompasses two types of navigation specifications:

• RNAV (area navigation), and

• RNP (required navigation performance).

The difference between the two specifications is that on-board performance monitoring and alerting is required
for RNP but not for RNAV. RNAV requires independent performance monitoring of an aircraft’s position.

RNP has parallel lateral performance requirements and can be supported by a variety of technologies. In New
Zealand, RNP operations require GNSS but can be supplemented by inertial systems.

63 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
RNAV
The RNAV family of navigation specifications were created by ICAO to consolidate the disparate
approvals developed by countries around the world, including:

• US RNAV Type A and B

• European B-RNAV and P-RNAV
• Australian AUSEP and GPS OCEANIC.

64 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
While it remains possible to operate using RNAV based on DME/DME, DME/VOR or inertial
navigation systems, New Zealand is developing the substantial infrastructure required to do so.
For this reason, GNSS will be the basis of navigation for most aircraft.

RNAV defines fixes by name, latitude and longitude. These area navigation fixes allow planning
of routes which are less dependent on the location of navaids.

RNP
In an aircraft using a stand-alone GNSS, the functionality requirements of RNP are achieved
through the use of receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM).

Integrated area navigation systems employ several sources of information, such as inertial and
GNSS, to provide highly accurate navigation. They use aircraft autonomous integrity monitoring
that are equivalent to RAIM.

Further information on augmentation systems is available in the course of your lesson briefings.

RNAV specifications, except oceanic and remote RNAV 10 (RNP 10), are not implemented or
used in NZ airspace.

BENEFITS OF PBN
Performance-based navigation allows pilots, operators and air traffic control to make the best
use of advances in navigation technology and brings increased safety, efficiency and
environmental benefits.

The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) says that PBN helps the aviation community
by reducing congestion, helping to maintain reliable all-weather operations at even the most
challenging airports, conserving fuel, protecting the environment, and reducing the impact of
aircraft noise. The benefits can be seen in the table below.

65 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
THE IMPORTANCE OF ACCURATE POSITION ESTIMATES
Technologies such as ADS-B help overcome some of the limitations of ground-based navigation aids in en route
position finding. But they are not a substitute for good communication practices.

A number of safety incident reports have involved pilots either not arriving at a reporting point within two minutes
of their estimate, or not updating their estimate when it was outside the two minutes, as required in the
Aeronautical Information Package (AIPNZ).

The majority of these reports involved aircraft in a climb, descent, regaining track after a diversion, or around the
New Zealand flight regional boundaries.

In areas outside radar or ADS-B coverage, air traffic controllers use the aircraft track, altitude and position
estimates advised by the pilot to provide separation from other aircraft or airspace. This means that if your
tracking, altitude or estimates provided to ATC are not accurate, it is possible that your separation with other
aircraft or airspace may also be compromised.

66 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
POTENTIAL SOURCES OF ERROR WITH AREA NAVIGATION
The RNAV and RNP specifications define the accuracy required in both the cross-track (lateral) and along-track
(longitudinal) dimensions.

Lateral navigation. Aircraft tracking and positioning errors may lead to navigation being less accurate than
required. Three errors in on-board performance monitoring and alerting contribute to the total system error (TSE),
and are shown in the illustration below:

• path definition error (PDE). This occurs when the path defined in the RNAV system does not correspond to
the desired path i.e. the path expected to be flown over the ground
• flight technical error (FTE). This relates to the autopilot’s ability to follow the defined path or track,
including any display error
• navigation system error (NSE). This refers to the difference between the aircraft’s estimated position and
its actual position.

Longitudinal navigation specifications define requirements for along-track accuracy, which includes navigation
system error (NSE) and path definition error (PDE).

There is no flight technical error (FTE) in the longitudinal dimension, and PDE is considered negligible.

The along-track accuracy affects position reporting (e.g. ‘10 nm to ABC’) and procedure design (e.g. minimum
segment altitudes, where the aircraft can begin descent once crossing a fix).

67 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
The on-board performance monitoring and alerting requirements in the RNP specifications are defined for the
lateral dimension for the purpose of assessing an aircraft’s compliance. However, NSE is considered as a radial
error so that on-board performance monitoring and alerting is provided in all directions.

HOW PBN PROVIDES MORE FLEXIBILITY THAN CONVENTIONAL

NAVIGATION
Standard instrument departure (SID) and standard terminal arrival route (STAR)

SIDs are designated IFR departure routes linking an airport or runway with a significant point, normally on a
designated air route, at which the en-route phase of flight commences.

STARs are designated IFR arrival routes linking a significant point, normally on an air route, with a point from which
a published instrument approach procedure can be commenced. Major airports typically have a ‘family’ of STARs
which link major air routes to instrument approach procedures.

Leg types

A leg type describes the desired path proceeding, following, or between waypoints on a procedure. Tracks are
intercepted to and from stations and waypoints with reference to navigation aids/systems using ground-based and
satellite-based navigational systems.

Leg types are identified by a two-letter code that describes the path (e.g. heading, course, track, etc.) and the
termination point (e.g. the path terminates at an altitude, distance, fix, etc.). Leg types used for procedure design
are included in the aircraft navigation database, but not normally provided on the procedure chart. The path and
terminator concept define that every leg of a procedure has a termination point and some kind of path into that
termination point.

INSTRUMENT APPROACHES
ICAO has introduced a method of classifying instrument approaches—Type A and Type B. Details are contained in
ICAO Annex 6 Part 1 Chapter 4.

Approaches are then flown using either a two-dimensional (2D) [NDB, VOR, DME] or a three dimensional (3D) [ILS,
APV] methodology.

USE OF GNSS FOR INSTRUMENT APPROACHES

ICAO recognizes GNSS and augmented GNSS signal in space (SIS), and traditional ground-based
aids, as suitable technologies to support a range of 2D and 3D approaches.

The official ICAO term for RNAV(GNSS) approaches (previously called GPS APPROACH in New
Zealand) is now RNP APCH, although RNAV(GNSS) will be around for some time until charts and
databases are updated to the new ICAO charting standards.

68 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
2D APPROACHES
Two dimensional approaches use lateral guidance only. Examples are NDB, VOR, localizer (LLZ) or GNSS (required
navigation performance—RNP).

With 2D approaches it is the pilot’s responsibility to adhere to all step-down altitudes and use the minimum
descent altitude (MDA) procedure.

With the advent of GNSS, including its various augmentations, a range of different 2D approaches are possible.
These include:

3D APPROACHES
Three dimensional approaches use both lateral and vertical guidance, with the vertical profile provided by the
guidance system. A decision altitude (DA) minimum procedure is used.

Instrument landing systems (ILS), microwave landing systems (MLS) and ground based GNSS augmentation landing
systems (GLS) can provide Cat I, II or III level of minimums.

There are several types of RNP APCH with 3D vertical guidance, and they differ in the way in which they source
their vertical guidance information.

69 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
APPROACH PLATES
A single instrument approach plate may contain a mix of 2D and 3D approaches. Care must be taken to ensure that
correct piloting procedure is used including recognition of the type of minimums presented.

ENABLING LEGISLATION
The CAA developed a PBN Implementation Plan in 2009 to meet the ICAO guidance. At the heart of the plan was
the introduction by Airways of PBN implementations across controlled aerodromes in New Zealand.

Performance-based navigation (PBN) has now been implemented at 17 controlled aerodromes in New Zealand.
Gisborne and Napier will have PBN implemented in November 2020.

70 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
The New Southern Sky (NSS) National Airspace and Air Navigation Plan envisions a full PBN environment in New
Zealand by 2023. There is no mandate for PBN, so Airways will accommodate a ‘mixed-mode’ of PBN and non-PBN
aerodrome procedures for a number of years yet.

Already, more than 90 percent of New Zealand flights are PBN-capable.

More aviation operators are expected to upgrade to PBN together with ADS-B upgrades by 2022. This will
contribute to greater safety and efficiency benefits.

The CAA strongly recommends that all operators with aircraft on Air Transport Operations (Parts 121, 125 and
135), familiarise themselves with the interim guidance available on the NSS website titled Performance Based
Navigation – Interim guidance for Air Transport Operations (121, 125, 135).

The CAA intends this document should be used by Air Transport Operators for guidance until new Performance
Based Navigation (PBN) rules and Advisory Circulars are finalised. This will be superseded when formal
requirements and guidance are published.

Aircraft with flight management systems (FMS), such as some newer commuter/regional aircraft, will need to
obtain navigation authorizations from CASA. The PBN standards also provide for IFR helicopter-specific operations,
such as in metropolitan areas and for offshore support.

Parts 121,125,135 and 91 and its associated advisory circulars provide operating instructions and airworthiness
requirements for IFR pilots flying aircraft using PBN.

PILOT AND OPERATOR OBLIGATIONS

Pilots in command of IFR flights must only use RNAV or RNP if they are qualified to do so.

The aircraft operator must also:

• hold, or be deemed to hold, a navigation authorization for the relevant PBN specification
• ensure that each member of the flight crew satisfies the requirements in the relevant appendix or
legislative instrument.
• ensure that each member of the flight crew conducts the flight according to the authorization.

NAVIGATION DATABASES
Since navigation under PBN relies on area navigation, the aircraft navigation system must carry a navigation
database. Under the requirements of the NZCAA Legislation:

• the database must be valid for the current AIRAC cycle

• all terminal routes (SIDs, STARs and approaches) must be loaded from the database and may not be
modified by the pilot.

AIRCRAFT EQUIPMENT
Information on aircraft equipment is available in the New Southern Skies Document.

71 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
KEY POINTS
• PBN has two requirements—the pilot must be suitably trained and qualified and the aircraft must be
appropriately equipped.
• The introduction of PBN allows pilots, operators and air traffic control to make the best use of recent
advances in navigation technology, and brings increased safety, efficiency and environmental benefits.
• The difference between the RNAV and RNP navigation specifications is that on-board performance
monitoring and alerting is required for RNP but not for RNAV operations.
• Area navigation operates by first determining the aircraft’s present position in terms of latitude and
longitude, and then where this position is in relation to the intended flight path.
• In New Zealand, if you have a GNSS-equipped aircraft approved for IFR operations and it meets the
criteria, you do not need to make any changes.

RADIO NAVIGATION AND THE 1:60 RULE

Before we move on this old chestnut needs a bit of revision as you will inevitably come across questions and
problems during the course of your exam that deal with this.

Some examination questions combine the techniques of radio navigation with the one in sixty rule. Whilst in the
real world this is rarely if ever done the guys and girls that set this exam wish for whatever reason to test your
skills in this area. So here we go again, apologies.

The 1:60 rule allows the pilot to get an approximate distance or angle off the flight planned track by applying a
simple formula.

Remember formulas can be re-written using the same denominators to give different information to the various
side of a problem. Here we are basically dealing with the functions of a triangle and the behaviour of its various
sides. It goes like this.

X Present
Position

FPT

The distance from the station [D], the distance off track [d] and the angle off track [a] are all related by the
following formula;

a = 60 x d  D

It follows then that if the distance from the station was 35nm and the distance off track was 7nm, the angle off
track is; 60 x 7  35

72 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 = 12°

Also by simple transposition of the formula, if you know the angle off track (by reference to an NDB or VOR), AND
THE DISTANCE FROM THE STATION (FROM A DME or GPS),you can find the distance off track. So, the formula
becomes;

D = D x a  60

Using the same figures then, the distance off track becomes;

35 x 12  60

= 7 nm

It also follows then that if you are halfway down the track and you know the angle off (from NDB or VOR), the heading
change required to track direct to the destination will be double the track error. However, this will only work if you
have maintained a constant heading since departure.

Present position halfway

X
Heading change required = 2a

a a

73 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
Here is a sample problem to work through;

Your aircraft is 20 DME from the station at which the NDB is

located. (shown on the fixed card ADF to the left)

The FPT is 202°M. Track distance is a. 4nm left

b. 4nm right

c. 12nm left

d. 12nm right

4nm

It follows then that H A = T

170 +20°to = 190°to

The present track to the station is 190°M. The FPT is 202°M. The angle between the two is 12°. (You cannot call
this a closing angle in this case since you are not told whether the HDG and ADF indications have been constant 
it makes no difference to the argument). The aircraft presently is located at X. If X is 20nm out and the angle is 12°,
the 1:60 rule tells us that the distance off FPT is 4nm to the right.

74 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 The aircraft whose indications are show at left is 30 DME
from the aerodrome at which the NDB is located. The
HDG and ADF indication have remained constant since
overhead the NDB. The pilot expects he is almost out of
range of the aid and so decided to regain the FPT of
155°M by doubling the track error. What HDG should be
used to regain FPT? At what distance from the station
should the FPT be regained? If the ADF is still receiving the station, what ADF indication will confirm the FPT has
been regained?

Work through

H A = T

160 -10 from 150 from

Change HDG by 10°

X

TE = 5°
FPT - 155°M

60nm

H A = T

170 ±??? = 155

[-15 FROM = 165]

The TMG has been 150°M. The TE has been 5°, so the HDG should be changed by 10° to the right i.e. to 170°M. The
distance to regain the FPT will be the same as the distance flown i.e. another 30nm. Even though it is not
mathematically correct to say the distance from the station to the intercept of FPT is 60nm, it is acceptable in
practice and in the examination to ignore the very small difference. By the way the HDG to fly after the intercept to
maintain FPT would be the original HDG of 160°M with the TE applied i.e. 160 + 5 = 165°M. The tail of the ADF will
then once again indicate 360°R (-10 FROM) and the drift has been 10° L eft throughout.

1:60 practice
75 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
Directional Gyro Fixed card ADF

1.0 The aircraft at left is 30 DME from the aerodrome

at which the NDB is located. The flight planned track
is 270°M The is...

a. Nil
b. B. 10nm right of track
c. C. 10nm left of track
d. 5nm right of track

2.0 The aircraft at left is 30 DME from the aerodrome

at which there is an NDB. The flight planned track is
240°M The aircraft is?

a. 5nm left of track

b. 5nm right of track
c. 3nm left of track
d. Right on track

3.0 The aircraft at left is 20 DME form an aerodrome

at which and NDB is located. The FPT is 019°M. The
aircraft is?
a. 9nm left of track
b. 9nm right of track
c. 3nm left of track
d. 3nm right of track

Answers in this back of this volume.

CHART INFORMATION AND SCALE:

There are a number of nuances that you all need to be aware of going into the IFR Navigation exam.

Firstly, you will all be issued with a colour copy of a chart in approximately A3 format very similar the one issued
with your Waypoints Navigation Manual.

The main point of interest for us here is that this chart is of a scale 1:1 000 000.

It follows then that each graduation (of the lines of parallel) marked up the vertical line of longitude is 5 nautical
miles in distance. If you do not do anything else, please check this one aspect off before proceeding on writing any
exam.

An example of that chart is pictured below.

76 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
Note the graduations

This is 5 nautical miles.

We use the parallels of latitude because

they are equidistant apart as we move
away either side of the equator.

This is a LAMBERT CONIC PROJECTION

chart. It is conformal and the standard
Parallels are stated at the base of the map
just above the scale.

Standard Parallels are lines at which there

is no distortion in the map projection.
Standard parallels are used in both conical
and cylindrical projections. They
theoretically touch the earth’s surface.
These parallels contain no distortion,
meaning that when the new
representation is created there will be
error on the projection except on that
line. To measure distance on a map, it is
important to select a projection that
accurately represents distance, an
equidistant projection. These projections
maintain a constant distance from the
center point. One way to accomplish this
is to use standard parallels. Standard
parallels are parallel lines that are drawn
on a reference globe that will maintain a
scale factor of 1.0. Once standard parallels
are drawn, all distances measured from
within these lines will be accurate.

In a tangent conic or cylindrical projection,

there is only one standard parallel.
However, to reduce distortion, a secant
projection may be used, which contains
two standard parallels. At each standard
parallel, the projection shows no
distortion. In other words, it is ORTHOMORPHIC. Lines of true scale are called standard
parallels for conic projections, and central meridians for cylindrical projections.

ORTHMORPHIC meaning

A projection in which the scale, although varying throughout the map, is the same
in all directions at any point, so that very small areas are represented by
correct shape and bearings are correct. The standard PARALLEL in New
Zealand runs through the Marlborough Sounds and Just SOUTH of NZPM
(Paraparaumu).

77 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
Another point of interest is that because the CHARTED flight routes on New Zealand Charts are of a MAGNETIC
track origin there is no need to allow for the variation when the information is taken off of these charts on degrees
magnetic.

It also follows then that if we

carefully (using our accurate
and tidy methods) align our
square protractor on as an
example, the waypoint of
IGUTA (at the centre of the
protractor at right) with the
track coming away from IGUTA
to Nelson (193°M) and the
track going north to AKAVI and
OMKUN (359°M) then we can
simply read bearings with a
great degree of accuracy from
NZWU or NZPP with relative
ease and quickly as well saving
us valuable time in the cockpit
but more importantly in the
IFR navigation exam.

78 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
The other CHARTS in the series have
differing SCALES. For example, the
NATIONAL enroute chart has a scale of
1:1 500 000 but the chart inserts on the
same map have scales of 1;4 000 000 and
1: 12 000 000. This can be a fatal trap for
New Player. So, whatever you do please
check the scale of the map you are using
and what each graduation means in terms
of nautical miles.

The North South series of ENROUTE chart

has a scale of 1: 1 000 000.

The North Island and South Island AREA

chart has a scale of 1: 540 000.

So, from this information you can see

that the choice of map and the airways
plotted can easily go from one map to
another because of New Zealand’s unique
shape and length. “The land of the long
white cloud” in more ways than one.

TRANSPOSITION OF
CHARTED POSITION
LINES
Knowing your exact position during
instrument flight is important for may obvious reasons. In this day and age of electronic aids in the cockpit along
with electronic flight bags this process has become a lot simpler and quicker for the Modern Flight Crew.

However, you will have learned from previous studies how ground-based AIDS can assist you in orientating
yourself TO or FROM a beacon and how position lines help you to form a mental picture of your position.

To be more precise here we are talking about the use of plotted position lines on your chart. In the past this task
was more of a task for the trusty navigator but even in this modern day and age it is considered necessary for the
instrument rated pilot to have a good working knowledge of this practice. This will also give you a good lead into
higher qualifications and licences such as the ATPL. ’This subject is examined in the New Zealand syllabus for the
Instrument Rating’.

POSITION LINES ON YOUR CHART

Plotting position lines on your chart to get an accurate fix involves a margin of error. So, reduce that we require at
least TWO but preferably THREE, reliable position lines obtained either simultaneously (but remember we are
moving forward over the ground at a rate of knots), or obtained at different times and then advanced and
transferred to a COMMON time.

RULES; The lines should intersect as close as possible to 90° if you are using TWO position lines and 60-60-60° or
120-120-120° cuts for THREE position lines (as depicted below).

79 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 60°

60°
60°

NDB

VOR

NDB

In New Zealand because of its relatively small sizing it is generally possible to tune THREE beacons in a common
way to produce lines that cross at close to 90°,60° or 120°. These beacons can either be NDB or VOR. It follows that
to obtain THREE position lines at the same time would require the combination of ADF and VOR in the form of
TWIN ADF and TWIN VOR or and RMI and a separate VOR and/of ADF and/or DME.

In most cases due to aircraft fit out this might just not be possible to get ALL THREE lines simultaneously. So, in real
terms we need THREE fixes taken over time that we can ADVANCE to a COMMON TIME.

An exact position could also be obtained using DME. Theoretically there is no reason why THREE DME fixes taken
SIMULTANEOUSLY from different locations cannot be used to plot a position, but it would be very unusual to see
an aircraft fitted with 3 DME’s for this purpose. So, again we are left with the option of obtaining THREE fixes over
time and ADVANCING them to a COMMON time further along the track. (So, can you see now why your instructor
has been so pedantic at getting you into the habit of recording position times on your map. It’s about to all come
home to roost so to speak). More commonly the DME is used in conjunction with the VOR and/or ADF.

Even if THREE suitable lines cross precisely over one location, the accuracy of the position is still not 100%.

NOTE; This due to the fact that bearings from beacons are often affected by terrain or atmospheric conditions and
it’s worth noting that the ADF is more vulnerable than the VOR in this respect.

Also bear in mind that the distance between VOR radials widens with distance from the station. (much like the
spokes on a bicycle wheel). It follows the that THREE radials intersecting at some distance from the stations will
result in a degree of inaccuracy of your plotted position. That being said, position accuracy depends GREATLY on
the beacon orientation around the aircraft. E.g. Bearings around the aircraft giving 120-120-120° cuts will
inherently be more accurate than beacons to one side giving 60-60-60° cuts.

So all of this has been a lead up to what happens in the real world of position plotting.

80 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
THREE intersecting lines, or two position lines and a DME distance will inevitably produce a SMALL AREA OF
PROBABILITY also known as a ‘Cocked Hat’ (like Napoleon’s hat). This area should be as small as possible with
accurate plotting.

The aircraft can be considered to be in the CENTRE of the cocked hat. The centre would be obtained by bisecting
the THREE angles of the triangular cocked hat.

COCKED HAT

NDB
VOR

POSITION LINES OBTAINED NON-SIMULTANEOUSLY

When position lines have been obtained at different times, as is usually the case in the course of an IFR flight when
we are banging along in excess of 150kts, we need to transfer one or more of these lines (Preferably two or more
others) TO A COMMON TIME.

You are going to need your plotting skills now and a good square protractor and ruler and a good set of dividers.

Let’s look at an example.

If a position line from an NDB is obtained at 0110Z and a VOR radial and DME distance are established at 1015Z,
then the NDB position line should be transferred by five minutes so that
all THREE lines can be considered to apply to the time of 0115Z.
Although is more common to transfer the first position line to a later
time, there is NO RULE that stops you transferring a position line back to a
previous time or fix. However, this is considered poor practice because the
position of the aircraft would have advanced even further down the
track towards its destination.

To transfer the position lines is going to require your tidy work habits and a
good working knowledge of the ADF, VOR and DME, and also the various
means by which this equipment is displayed in the working cockpit of an
IFR flight.

So, on the basis that THREE position lines are to be calculated from two
or more NAVIGATION AIDS then the following tidy work habits are
required from you -Captain.

o Find the value of each position line as a MBF (magnetic bearing

FROM) and note the time for each.
o Plot the THREE position lines on your chart
81 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 o Calculate an approximate GS (ground speed) from one of the positions. (better from the first position as
this gives you a greater spread of time and distance for accuracy)
o Transfer position line 1 to position line 3.
o Transfer position line 2 to position line 3.

As you can see, we are binging ALL of the FIXES FORWARD to the latest time. Note also that the THREE position
lines will give you an approximate position by way of the ‘cocked hat’.

It follows then that for the example now explained the aircraft is equipped with a fixed card ADF and a CDI
indicating VOR. The following information is obtained at the ZULU times (UTC) stated.

@ 0115Z You are overhead VOR Alpha tracking out on R355 to VOR BRAVO. You current heading is 349°M
and the TAS is 150kts and the distance between the two VOR’s is 128nm.
@ 0123Z Your ADF tuned to NDB XRAY reads 308°R.
@ 0125Z Your ADF tuned to NDB YANKAEE reads 096°R
@ 0129Z Your VOR tuned to VOR ALPHA shows FROM and the CDI centres when the OBS is rotated to 348°.

Now, we need to work the value of each of these position lines from the two NDB’s and one VOR.

NDB X @ 1023Z

Hdg °M 349°

+ R +308

= MBT =657-360 = 297°

±180° - 180°

= MBF = 117°

NDB Y @ 0125Z

Hdg °M 349°

+ °R +096°

= MBT = 445-360 = 085°

± 180 + 180°

= MBF = 265°

VOR A MBF = 348°

Using your tidy plotting habits you can plot these THREE position lines from each beacon. At the end of each
position line draw an arrowhead and writhe the time against it. (this is to prevent minor mistakes later on)

82 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 Select the position line that crosses the extended track (R355 from ALPHA) MOST CLOSELY TO 90°. You can
see that the position line from NDB Y is closer to 90° to track than the line from NDB X.

Measure from your last known position (VOR ALPHA at 0115Z) to the intersection of the NDB Y position line on
R355 – let’s assume this is 27nm.

Given that you know the overhead time at VOR A (0115Z) and the time of the position line from NDB Y (0115-
0125Z = 10 mins) you can then determine an approximate Ground Speed because you have travelled 27nm in
10mins.  GS = 162kts.

So, using this approximate GS TRANSFER the first position line from (NDB X) at 0123Z to the LAST position line
(the 348 radials from A) AT 0129Z. 6 MINS @ 162 kts = 16nm.

You TRANSFER this position line by PARALLELING the 0123Z line further along the required track (R355) and
when you have done so, place a double headed arrowhead at each end to indicate that this line has been
transferred.

Repeat the procedure for the 0125Z position line. From 0125Z to 0129Z = 4 mins @ 162kts = 11nm. Parallel
the 0125Z line 11nm further along the required track (R355) and place a double headed arrow at each end to
indicate that this line has also been transferred.

NOTE; Always write the ZULU time by the plotted position line.

Your position can now be approximated by the formation of a ‘cocked hat’ formed by the two transferred
position lines and the last position line from VOR A (R348). (this is where you have just transferred everything
too).

Fix at 0129Z 0129Z Transfer 4

mins @
GS of 162
NDB = 11nm
X

NDB
Y

0125Z

Transfer 6
mins @ TMG
GS of 162
= 16nm
VOR ALPHA 27nm in 10 mins = GS 162KTS 0123Z

83 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
As stated, before there is a great need to work not only efficiently but with a great deal of accuracy. The most
common mistake made seems to be transferring the wrong time and/or transferring the wrong Track. It’s
important to use a scrap bit of paper and carefully record the timeline down in chronological order before you
launch into this exercise.

Things of note here are, that the transfer of position line 1 is to the time of position line 3 and then position line 2
is transferred to position line 3. (It follows the that 1 goes to 3 and 2 goes to 3).

SECONDLY THE TRANSFER IS ALONG THE INTENDED TRACK, along the R355 in the example and NOT the Track
Made Good.

When it comes to the size of the ‘Cocked Hat’, if they are greater than 10nm then the less accurate position line
may have to be discarded and only TWO position lines used for the Fix. Otherwise you will have to re-draw another
more accurate position line to close the “Cocked Hat’ to a smaller sizing.

When it comes to the size of the ‘Cocked Hat’, if they are greater than 10nm then the less accurate position line
may have to be discarded and only TWO position lines used for the Fix. Otherwise you will have to re-draw another
more accurate position line to close the “Cocked Hat’ to a smaller sizing.

It’s just a matter of placing your pencil on the track at the spot where the transferred line is to go, slide the
protractor to the pencil and look through the protractor to line it up carefully with the original position line. Now
draw the transferred position line to either
side of the pencil position.

NOTE; It s possible to transfer curved position

lines such as DME arc’s but because this is not
a syllabus item it will not be dealt with. Transferred to here
It follows then that once this process is
completed there will be a body of information
that can be determined from this, such as,

o Position can be determined in degrees

Magnetic or True from or To any
location such as a beacon or
aerodrome or it could even be a
LAT/LONG.
o Drift If you got the ‘Cocked Hat’ result
from your plot the draw an accurate
line from your last known position
(VOR A in this case) to the centre of
the ’Cocked Hat’. Draw and measure
this line as it represents Your Track Made Good (TMG). You can calculate the DRIFT by
measuring the angle between HDG and TMG (349 – 348 = 1°PORT DRIFT IN THIS Line to transfer
EXAMPLE).
o Track Error By definition track error is the difference between the track required and the Track Made
Good. In this example this is between 355 and 348 = 7° PORT drift.

84 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 o Wind velocity the five factors required to find the wind
velocity are readily available from the workings. E.G. TAS,
GS, TMG, HDG and DRIFT. When determining the Ground
Speed, it is recommended that you re-work it by
measuring the distance from the last known position
(VOR A) to the actual position found through the transfer
lines. (As this will be over a greater distance the accuracy
will be better and more reliable). In our example, TAS =
15kt, GS = 162kt, TMG = 348°, HDG = 349°, DRIFT = 1°
port. Using the WHIZZY set 349 (HDG) against the index,
move the slide so that 150kt (TAS) is under the grommet,
where the port drift of 1° crosses the GS of 162kts, make
a mark with your felt pen. Rotate the grid to place this
mark vertically below the grommet and you will find that HDG
the wind direction has been 156°M and the wind speed of
12kts.
o Correction to Heading In actual conditions you would
alter heading immediately to regain track once you have
established you are off track. However, for practice
purposes you will commonly be asked to a new heading
in degrees Magnetic or True to the next reporting point or
indeed to your destination. To calculate a new heading, you
should use your newly found wind velocity, TAS and the
WIND AFFECTING YOU
required track to whatever point you are asked to go to.
Alternatively, if you fly direct to destination you could use
the 1:60 rule by adding track error (You already have this)
to the closing angle (which you calculate from ’60’ over
distance to go x the distance off – use the WHIZZY). The
total correction can then be applied to your current
heading. Clearly, using the new wind velocity method is
time consuming and this could lead to an incorrect heading
because, during calculations, the aircraft is still banging
along and diverging further from the required track. It
follows then, that all calculations need to be done as quickly
as possible and accurately and the heading changed without
delay.
o ETA The plotted position gave you a good fix and distance from your last known position. By simply
measuring this distance and using the Whizzy to work out the time taken to cover the distance, you will
be able to obtain an accurate GS. Using this GS for the distance to run from your fix to the next required
point or destination enables you to establish a new ETA, Clearly.

PRACTICE MAKES PERFECT

Before we launch into the next chapter, I think it is important that we now put to use the skills you have just learnt
in another practice exercise. At the rear of this book will be some practice exams that entail all you have learnt so
far and more.

So, going back to our charts here is a little practice at extracting information by way of finding plots on the chart
and working out the distances.

85 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 Plotting
LAT/LONGS

Using the Chart from your waypoints

book

Plot1 S393712E1741648 Plot2 S401333E1762736 Plot1 S401913E1753816 plot2 S381315E1751948

DIST BETWEEN THESE POINTS DIST BETWEEN THESE POINTS

IS? IS?

Plot1 S372713E1750527 Plot2 S391041E1763328 Plot1 S375529E1765456 Plot2 S392217E1752027

DIST BETWEEN THESE POINTS DIST BETWEEN THESE POINTS

IS? IS?

Plot1 S3782003E175175 Plot2 S391007E1764458 Plot1 S410718E1744915 Plot2 S411806E1731321

5

DIST BETWEEN THESE POINTS DIST BETWEEN THESE POINTS

IS? IS?

Plot1 S391152E1744828 Plot2 S395734E1750135 Plot1 S373228E1743130 Plot2 S390235E1734135

DIST BETWEEN THESE POINTS DIST BETWEEN THESE POINTS

IS? IS?

Plot1 S370017E1744849 Plot2 S410718E1744915 Plot1 S373437E1745736 Plot2 S405410E1745855

DIST BETWEEN THESE POINTS DIST BETWEEN THESE POINTS

IS? IS?

86 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
MORE PRACTICE TO MAKE PERFECT
TRANSFERRING MORE POSITION
LINES
In this exercise your aircraft is equipped with a fixed card
ADF, and an RMI, two CDI type VOR’s and a DME. (Sorry
no GPS AS YET😊)

Your flight is from New Plymouth (NZNP) to Christchurch

(NZCH) via the Nelson (NZNS) VOR and PEAKS
(S425024E1723651) to the CH VOR (S433015E1723053).
Observations have been recorded on your flight log or
chart at these times:

@0430Z NS VOR, HDG 176°M (required track NS VOR

r174, dist to PEAKS 96nm) TAS 160kts

@0448Z OMDOX (CAPE Campbell) (S414402E1741621)

bears 238°R.

@0455Z Kaikoura (KI S422513E1734144) NDB bears

262°R.

@0458Z CH OBS (VOR 2) 163 TO, CDI 1 dot left (includes

centre circle).

1. What is your position in terms of latitude and

longitude at 0458Z?
2. What has been the drifty between 0430Z and 0458Z?
3. What has been the track error between the NS VOR and the 0458Z position?
4. What has been the wind velocity (°M) that has affected you since 0430Z?
5. What is the HDG required to fly from the 0458Z position direct to PEAKS?
6. What is your ETA PEAKS?

87 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
WORK THROUGH
Firstly, we have our desired route through to Christchurch. However, the first this to do is with the off-track
bearings that relate to our progress along the track such as bearings from NDB’s etc, we must turn these into
MBF’s (Magnetic Bearings From) that AID.

@0448 HDG 176°M

OMDOX (CC) +°R +238°M

MBT 414 – 360° = 054°M

MBF 054° + 180° = 234°M

@0445Z HDG 176°M

KI NDB +°R +262°M

MBT 438 - 360° = 078°M

MBF 078 + 180 = 258°M

Next determine the radial from the CH VOR at 0458Z; With the
OBS 163 and heading 176, the CDI POINTING LEFT MEANS THE
SELECTED RADIL IS TO YOUR LEFT. It follows that since each DOT
equals 2 degrees then the aircraft is 2° starboard (right) of track
(the edge of the centre circle represents one dot).

It follows then that heading south with the selected radial to your
left means the aircraft is to the right of track. A 2° ANGLE from
R343 (reciprocal of 163) from the CH VOR, towards the west
means that at 0458Z the aircraft is on R341.

So having calculated the position lines, plot each line and place a
single arrowhead at the end of each and write the time against
each one.

The position line that crosses the desired track closest to 90° is
the 0455Z position line from the KI NDB (the 2nd position line).
Measure the distance from the NS VOR to where this position line
crosses the required track, 61.5nm. The time taken to cover this
distance is 25 minutes (from 0430 to 0455) and a GS of 148kts.

Transfer the first OMDOX position line from 0448Z to the time of the last position line at 0458Z. This will give you
10 mins at GS of 148kts. Note; Remember to transfer along the required track FROM NS to PEAKS (i.e going in a
southerly direction).

As previously alluded to, its best to use the protractor rather than your ruler for greater accuracy.

Transfer the second position line from 0455Z to the time of the last position at 0458Z which is 3 mins at a GS of
148kts = 7.5nm. Note; Remember again to transfer along the required track FROM NS to PEAKS (i.e going in a
southerly direction).

88 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
The two transferred position lines and the R341 from CH may form a small ‘Cocked Hat’ to the west of track. The
centre of the triangle is your FIX POSITION at 0458Z.

Work the Latitude and Longitude for this position.

Again, use your protractor for this task. Be careful of the differing scales on the Enroute Charts as well.

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ABOVE

1. S42° 23’ E172° 39’
2. Drifty is the difference between the HDG and the track made good TMG measured from heading to track.
Draw a line from the NS VOR through the 0458 position, and measure this accurately with your
protractor, it should read 179° (± 1). Your heading has been 176°M since leaving the NS VOR and it follows
the drift has been from 176° - 179° = 3 degrees starboard (right) drift. 3° starboard drift (±1)
3. 5° Right track error (± 1°)
4. There are five items to find the wind velocity: TAS, GS, HDG, TMG and DRIFT.
• TAS = 160kts
• GS, measure the distance NS VOR – 0458 position = 69nm in 28 mins = 148kts
• HDG = 176°M
• TMG = 179°M
• Drift = 3° Starboard
• On the Whizzy set HDG under the index and move the slide so that 160 (TAS) is under the
grommet. Where 3° right crosses 148kts GS make a mark with your felt pen. Rotate the grid until
this mark is vertically below the grommet and read the wind direction under the index, 143°, and
read the wind speed beneath the grommet, 15kts.
• Answer; Wind velocity 143°M at 15kts (you can allow ± 10° and ± 3kts)
5. Using the square protractor carefully measure the magnetic bearing from PEAKS (located on the CH VOR
R243 at 40 DME), to the 0458Z position, which should give you a magnetic bearing from (MBF) of 342°.
The reciprocal of 342 is 162°, which is the required track to PEAKS. The closing angle is the difference
between the original track of 174° and the new required track of 162°, which equals 12°. Using the 1:60
rule, the track error was calculated as 5° (see answer to question 3) and the closing angle is 12 °. It
follows then that the answer is 5 + 12 = 17° left therefore the original heading 176°M must now become
159°M. The distance from the 0458Z position to PEAKS is 28nm. At a GS of 148kts (used for the wind
velocity calculations) this distance takes 11.5 minutes. Add this time to the 0458z to obtain an updated
ETA of 0509.5Z. (It is accepted that a slight alteration to heading may affect the ground speed, but you
may ignore this aspect).
6. ETA PEAKS is 0509.5Z (± 1 min).: In practice it would have taken one or two minutes to calculate a new
heading. NOTES FOR
REFERENCE; In the course of an actual flight it would probably only take a couple of minutes to calculate a
new heading after determining your position from the just transferred position lines. So, it follows that at
the timer of the heading change it could have been 5000Z because you are still banging along (that’s
assuming two minutes was enough to make this calculation of course). This would mean that you should
extend your track from the NS VOR through the 0458 time to 0500Z (two mins of GS at 148kts = 5nm).
Then you would measure that track from the 5nm extended track position to PEAKEs and calculate
another closing angle. Once that is completed you can work out the new heading and calculate the
distance to run and of course a new ETA.

MULTI FUNCTION DISPLAYS (MFD)

89 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
In the course of the IFR navigation exam more and more questions are appearing in regard to interpretation of
multifunction displays. Now, whilst there are a myriad of types of MFR now coming to market and the stretch of
keeping up becomes even more real I thought it pertinent that we take a step back and look at some of the basic
standards associated with MFD’s.

The multi-function colour displays provide the primary flight displays (PFDs) of height, airspeed, Mach number,
vertical speed, artificial horizon, pitch angle, bank angle and heading, and velocity vector. They provide the
navigation displays, or horizontal situation indicator (HSI) displays, which show the aircraft position and track
relative to the destination or waypoints together with the navigational information and distance and time to go.
The weather radar display can also be superimposed on the HSI display. Engine data are presented on multi-
function colour displays so that
the health of the engines can
easily be monitored and
divergences from the norm
highlighted. The aircraft
systems, for example, electrical
power supply system, hydraulic
power supply system, cabin
pressurization system and fuel
management system, can be
shown in easy to understand
line diagram format on the
multi-function displays. The
multi-function displays can also
be reconfigured in the event of
a failure in a particular display

The MFD logic is that it is

broken up into groups such as
the picture at right showing

90 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
The Page Group Icon shows which page group and page you are viewing.

Page group indicator

Selected page indicator

Selected page group is highlighted

Map page group

Waypoint page group

Auxiliary page group

• Page group indicators
are shown in the Nearest page group
bottom right hand side
of the screen on the MFD.

91 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
The MAP page has the main pages shown below.

• Navigation Map
• Traffic Map
• Weather Map
• Terrain proximity

These are purposely arranged in order of

importance. It follows then that behind each of
these main pages are any number of subpages.

1. Airport Information
The WAYPOINT 2. Intersection Information
page group is set up as follows

4. VOR Information

3. NDB Information
As we can see there are 5
pages in the subgroup of WAYPOINT.

5. User WPT Information

92 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
The AUX or auxiliary page
has a number of important
executable functions in it.
There are two pages in the
subgroup.

The NEAREST page group has 7 subgroup

pages to it and is an important go to
reference for IFR flight.

COLOUR PHILOSOPHY
NOTE
As the number of colours used on the display
is limited, to ensure adequate colour
differentiation under all lighting conditions.
There are a few cases where a
given colour is used in a slightly different
context than described in the following table.
COLOUR/ PURPOSE
RED
Used to indicate flight envelope and system limits, and
for warning annunciations that require immediate pilot
recognition and which may require immediate pilot
correction or compensatory action. Red is used to indicate
Data Link Weather cell movement and precipitation areas,
and terrain and obstruction data.
GREEN
Used for navigation information or mode data related
to or provided by the selected navigation source (i.e.
93 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
navigation deviations, equipment operating state, waypoint
information). Green is also used to indicate Data Link
Weather precipitation areas, terrain data, and the status of
user controls (i.e., ON, enabled, or active).
AMBER
Used to indicate abnormal information sources, and for
caution information that requires immediate pilot awareness
and for which subsequent pilot action may be required.
Amber is used to indicate Data Link Weather precipitation
areas, WX-500 data and terrain and obstructions data.
Used to show primary flight data (e.g. IAS, ALT, and HDG),
scales, and menu items that are selectable for editing.
MAGENTA
Used for pilot-selectable references (bugs) that have been
enabled for editing, to identify the selected WINDOW or field,
for depicting the active GPS navigation leg on a moving map
display, to indicate datalink weather precipitation areas, and
for depicting the flight director.
GRAY Used to show supplemental flight data and for hotkey and
menu legends that are OFF, disabled, or inactive.
CYAN
Used to indicate editable values that are not currently
selected for editing, for bearing pointers depictions, and for
areas outside of the terrain database coverage area.
BLUE Used to indicate the sky, Data Link Weather precipitation
areas, and navigation map features.
BROWN Used to indicate the ground.
Table 3

Even though on these PFD snapshots the GPS is shown in

Magenta, in the background are NAV1 and NAV2
depictions ready to become the primary source should the
pilot wish to use those. Note: The OBS soft key is only
available during GPS function.

94 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
In any abnormal mode the PFD will display RED X’s
where information has lost its source data and cannot
be displayed. There is usually a reversionary function
or “boot strapping” to swap information off of
another screen.

(In the piucture at right the FAIL sections are denoted

with a RED X)

PRACTICE EXAMS FOR IFR PLANNING

1.0 IFR EXAMPLE FLIGHT PLAN
Plan an IFR flight between New Plymouth, Hamilton, Rotorua, via IBAMU H247, Taumaranui and back to New
Plymouth with Tauranga as an alternate.

OPERATIONAL INFORMATION

The AIRCRAFT FOR THIS FLIGHT IS A PRESSURIZED TWIN TURBINE ENGINE AEROPLANE, EQUIPPED WITH,

HSI, VOR, RMI, ADF, ILS and DME. It also is equipped with twin Garmin GTN750 GNSS units.

Plan at the MINIMUM flight level available.

ROUTE NP-HARVO-DADUK-HN-MIKER-LALAN-RO-IBAMU-TM-IDLOK-NP.

CLIMB Set heading overhead NP VOR at 5000’ AMSL and climb on track. ROC 1500’min.

CAS 145 KTS

95 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 ROC 1600 fpm

FUEL 600 lbs/hr

CRUISE CAS 180 KTS

FUEL 400 lbs/hr

DESCENT CAS 180 KTS

ROD 2000 fpm

FUEL 300 lbs/hr

Plan to arrive at the NP VOR at the minimum altitude for a VOR approach into NP RWY 23.

DIVERSION Divert from RO to TG AT 5000’ planning to arrive overhead TG NDB at the procedure
commencement altitude. NDB/DME RWY 25.

OPERATIONAL INFORMATION ctd.

Start, Taxi, take off and Climb to 5000’ – 100 lbs

ONE instrument approach and MAP – 150lbs

ONE instrument approach and land – 135 lbs

Holding consumption rate – 250 lbs/hr

10% Contingency fuel for route (A-B) and diversion (B-C). Arrive with legal reserves on board.

Note# Contingency fuel is not applied to, taxi, take off, approaches/missed approaches OR holding fuel.
Variation is 20°E.

Enroute Weather
NP – RO
Altitude Wind Temp

3000 240/15 +07

5000 240/15 +07

7000 255/20 +03

9000 265/25 -02

11000 265/33 -06

96 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 FL130 265/35 -12

FL180 265/35 -15

RO – NP
Altitude Wind Temp

3000 260/12 +13

5000 265/15 +10

7000 265/23 +02

9000 290/23 -06

11000 305/39 -10

FL130 305/39 -14

FL180 305/39 -24

RO -TG
Altitude Wind Temp

3000 240/15 +07

5000 240/15 +07

7000 255/20 +03

9000 265/25 -02

11000 265/33 -06

FL130 265/35 -12

FL180 265/35 -15

1. What will be the flight planned TAS in the climb Enroute NP HARVO?
2. What is the TRACK in degrees True DADUK HN?
3. What is the minimum fuel required for this flight?
4. What will be the contingency fuel for this flight?
5. What will be the minimum cloud base we could accept at NZTG if we need this as an alternate?

0700 AIRBOURNE NZNP

0710 SET HEADING NZNP @5000 IN CLIMB TO the flight levels.

HEADING is ….?? MAGNETIC

Fuel state ……?? lbs

6. What will be planned ETA for NZHN VOR?

7. What IAS if any are you limited to at your planned level in the cruise?
97 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
8. Upon turning the corner at NZHN what is planned G/S to NZRO at your new Flight Level?

07..?? SET HEADING FOR NZRO

9. At 13 nm from RO you realize you have drifted off track and are at position S38 18
52 E176 23 51. What drift have you been suffering since leaving NZRO?
10. What is your bearing from NZRO?
11. What is your RADIAL are you on TO NZRO VOR?
12. What correction to your heading will you need to make to regain track by 2 miles past IBAMU?
13. NZAP AWIB 260/12 FEW @2000 SCT@3000, QNH 1009. If you had to divert from your present
position what will be your most suitable approach at NZAP?
14. On a diversion and approach into AP what frequencies will you use to broadcast intentions to local
traffic?
15. If you were to conduct an RNAV35 approach and your initial approach point was AKBAR @ 8200’
what would be the track miles to AP506?
16. What sector entry would you plan for the reversal at AKBAR?
17. What is the CAT A & B circling minima for RWY 35 NZAP?
18. ASSUMING NOT VISUAL WHAT IS MISSED APPROACH HEIGHT at AP501 and what will your turn be
and track to AP512?
19. Having regained track at IBAMU using the 1:60 what is your ETA NZTM NDB?
20. What is your revised eta NZNP?
21. Referring NZNP VORSEC Chart at 40 miles NP (on track) what is your min reception Alt NP VOR/DME?
22. NZNP ATIS, Wind 030/25 BKN 2500 VIZ 5000 QNH 1013. What will be your choices of approach?
23. Which approach will give you the lowest minima?
24. What is the circle to land minima CAT B ay NZNP?
25. If tower is unavailable can you use remote QNH?

1.2 IFR EXAMPLE FLIGHT PLAN

Plan at minimum Flight altitude NZAA NZHN (H211) NZAP (H211) NZNR.

Using NZRO as your alternate.

Aircraft is a twin-engine pressurized TURBINE aircraft equipped with HSI, VORX2, RMI, ADF, ILS, GNSS and DME.

OPERATIONAL DATA

Climb: Set heading on departing runway 05 at NZAA @ 2000’ amsl. Climb on track to 8000’

CAS 145KTS

ROC 1500fpm

Fuel 550kg/hr

Cruise: CAS 160KTS

Fuel 450kg/hr

Descent: CAS 180KTS

ROD 2000fpm

98 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 FUEL 300kg/hr.

Plan to arrive at NZNR minimum altitude for the NZNR VOR DME Rwy34

Plan also for a Diversion: Divert from TAIKI at 7000’ amsl (ignore descent from 14000’) to arrive overhead
ROTORUA VOR at minimum initial approach altitude for VOR/DME RWY 36. (there are no NOTAMS applicable to
the VORSEC charts)

Fuel: Start/Taxi/ Take Off – 100kg (this includes climb to 2000’)

One Instrument Approach MAP - 75kg

One Instrument Approach & Landing – 50kg

Holding Consumption rate - 400kg/hr

A-B Fuel plus 10% contingency

B-C Fuel for Diversion

Weather: NZAA – NZNR (note: Wind is Magnetic)

Altitude Wind Temp

3000 258/15 +10

5000 265/17 +8

7000 270/20 +6

9000 290/22 FZL

11000 295/22 -4

FL130 295/22 -8

FL180 295/22 -18

1. You are cleared for the AA RNAV23 SID …. departure via H211 LAKES and HN. For a daylight departure
what is the MFA on this route sector?
2. 1900z you turn the corner and intercept track at 2000’ and set heading for LAKES. Upon reaching TOC
what will be your track miles to LAKES?
3. Settled in the cruise what is your magnetic heading and groundspeed on the way to LAKES?
4. For the departure SID what radio frequency will you be on an who will you be talking to?
5. 19..? overhead HN what frequency will you be on and who will you be talking to?
6. What will be your ETA KARBA?
7. At KARBA with the VOR change over in front of you on track what frequency will you have your VOR’s on
A; both in front, B; both behind C; one in front one behind D; doesn’t really matter at this stage.
8. At KARBA what frequency will your ADF be tuned to and what will be your magnetic heading be?

99 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 9. 19.. z overhead NZAP how many miles to TOD?
10. 2007z overhead TAIKI if due to company operating requirements you were diverted to NZRO what would
your ETA NZRO be?
11. Given the same winds as forecast what would be the best and most efficient approach into NZRO?
12. 2012z your ADF reads 061R. Your VOR1 shows you on R316 NZNR and VOR2 shows you on R149 NZRO.
What is your off-track distance?
13. What will be your correction angle to make good a trach direct to NZRO and your new ETA for NZRO?
14. Back to the original flight plan now (Whew!) What will be the descent restrictions into NZNR with
reference to the VORSEC charts?
15. Assuming a VOR DME RWY34 approach at NZNR what will be you planned altitude to arrive at AKINA on
the 10 DME arc having just left the NZNR VOR from the overhead?
16. After turning inbound on the NZNR VOR DME approach tracking 344 degrees what will be your top of
descent?
17. What is the final approach fix check altitude for this approach?
18. What is the approach minima and viz required for this approach?
19. What is the max speed for a circling approach on this runway?
20. What is the MAX indicated airspeed in the missed approach?
21. If required to enter a hold after a missed approach at position PANIA what sector entry would you
conduct?
22. What is the MAX indicated speed you are limited to in the hold at PANIA?

23. If leaving the hold via the R188 and the 10DME arc what will be the track miles from the hold and around
the arc to AKINA for a second approach?

1.3 IFR EXAMPLE FLIGHT PLAN

Plan at FL160 NZNS (Q438) NZTM (H247) NZRO

Plan to carry NZTG as your alternate. Category B Aircraft.

Aircraft is a pressurized twin turbine equipped with HSI, VOR x 2, ADF, ILS, GNSS x 2 and DME. You are also radar
and ADSB equipped and certified for flight in known icing conditions.

OPERATIONAL DATA

Climb

CAS 183 KTS

ROC 1600 fpm

Fuel 600 lbs/hr

100 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
Cruise

CAS 230 KTS

Fuel 550 lbs/hr

Descent CAS 140

ROD 1000 ft/min

FUEL 480 lbs/hr

Holding fuel flow 500 lbs/hr

Plan to arrive overhead NZRO @ 4000’ for the NZRO

VOR DME A approach.

Weather; NZNS – NZRO (note; winds are magnetic)

Altitude Wind Temp

3000 340/15 +10

5000 355/25 +7

7000 285/30 +3

9000 285/30 MS01

10000 140/40 MS04

12000 140/40 MS05

14000 250/30 MS03

16000 270/45 MS02

Landing wind at NZRO 360/15.

DEPARTURE INSTRUCTIONS: You will be cleared for the

LIMUT2P SID (You may ignore the slight tracking
change to GUSMI.)

Plan straight out from NS to SNAPA and or beyond.

101 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
SNAPA @10000 Climbing and cleared to further climb to the flight levels on track (Q438)

1. What will be your TOC distance since leaving NZNS?

2. What was the climb restriction at SNAPA?

2027z Established in the cruise having passed IGUTA on track (@2018) your number 1 VOR
shows you passing the R266PM.

2022 Off of the coast of NZWU your ADF shows NZWU 064R

2023 Your second VOR shows you are passing the R152NP
3.0 What is your current position and what drift has been affecting you up till now? (Lat /
Long)

4.0 What is your new ETA for the Taumaranui NDB?

5.0 What is your current groundspeed?

6.0 What wind has been affecting you?

7.0 What alteration will you need to make good the track direct to TM NDB?

At TM @16000’ you are cleared to descend when ready for RO.

8.0 What distance behind you will TM NDB will be your TOD?

NZTM NDB descent is now required to be briefed for arrival into NZRO.

9.0 What will be your TOD on this leg from RO?

2110 Overhead NZRO now and you landing wind is 170/20. You are cleared for the VOR DME Rwy18 APPROACH.

10.0 Commencing the turn outbound for the reversal at what distance will you make a base turn for the approach?
11.0 What DME distance is the MAPt?
12.0 What is the circling minima for your category of aircraft?
13.0 What is the Max speed for circling in this approach?
14.0 Could you circle left off of this approach? If not, why not?
15.0 You elect to conduct this missed approach and track out to TOTRA. In order to track back to the aid, you will
need to conduct a reversal in the hold. What sector entry will you conduct?
16.0 Having conducted the missed approach and now overhead the aid at 4000’ you are cleared to turn right and
intercept the 290 radial for a pilot intercept of the 12-mile ARC. How many track miles will it be from [D290L]
to the lead radial of 356°?

18.0 For your category of aircraft what will be the max speeds for final approach?

19.0 For initial approach there is an (140*) speed. What is the significance of this speed?

20.0 Fill in the blanks?

102 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 PALT TEMP CAS TAS
10000 -2 180 **
7000 FZL 178 **
9000 166 190 **
16000 MS02 183 **
21000 180 250 **
5000 -4 160 **

21.0 Fill in the blanks?

Aircraft Vat Initial Final Max speed Max speeds for

Category Approach Approach for Visual missed approach
Speeds speeds (Circling)
Intermediate Final
A
B
C

MORE PRACTICE QUESTIONS FOR THE IFR SERIES OF EXAMS

• The definition of a position line is?

Answer; A LINE or Charted track ON WHICH THE Aircraft is known to be on at a particular time.

• What is the geographical position of an aircraft at a specific time is?

Answer; This is known as a FIX.

• The total correction in regard to a heading is known as?

Answer; The current track error and the closing angle.

• The definition of the VOR/DME MRA is quantified by?

Answer; The HIGHER of MSA or MRS.

• On approach if the temperature is significantly lower than ISA you cannot use that approach, why is this?

103 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
Answer; The altimeter operation is based on ISA so when the temperature is significantly lower the altimeter will
read low and a correction needs to be applied.

• Enroute from NZWN to NZHS. At the changeover point (40 NR) your alt is 8000’ on radial R181, you
commence a descent through cloud. Who is responsible for separation?

Answer; Christchurch Control.

• You are ENROUTE from NZNR to NZAA on H211. At 28 DME NR at 11000’ (FL110) which controlled
airspace are you in?

Answer; Christchurch Control.

• What are the factors required to calculate the fuel for each leg of a flight?

Answer; Groundspeed, Leg Distance and fuel consumption rate.

• Define what the PNR is?

Answer; It is a point along the track from the DEPARTURE aerodrome BEYOND which there is insufficient fuel to
return but enough fuel to arrive with fuel reserves intact.

• Enroute from NZAA to NZCH via NZNP on H479. You get the following
RMI reading. (picture to the right) Your Magnetic bearing from NP is?

Answer; Need to allow 7° port drift the you have been holding on H479. 212MBF

• In using the BFO function on the ADF what sort of signal do you receive?

Answer; You will receive an UNMODULATED signal.

• You fly from A TO B. At the point of 110nm from the destination you are 1 minute late. How much faster
must you fly to get to the destination on time. TAS 240kts, GS236kts.

Answer; To fly 110 nm @ GS236 is going to take 26 min. However, as you are, 1 minute late you will need to
adjust your speed. However, you now need to arrive in 25 minutes to be on time so new GS will need to be
GS244kts.  You will need to fly 8kts faster.

• You start descent from FL310 to 3000’ what distance will you travel

Answer; Use the 3:1 rule of thumb to calculate distance travelled. You are descending a total of 28k. It follows
then that 28 x 3 = 84nm

• In regard to the SID. Where does a SID terminate if not terminated early by a controller?

104 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 Answer; ≠> 400’ from departure end of runway or where transition begins or upon reaching MSA or the clear
route begins. (whichever comes first)

• The holding fuel height above an aerodrome is regarded as what?

Answer; ≠> 1500’ or 3000’, whichever is the more restrictive.

• What is the difference between track required and Track made good?

Answer? This is the track error

• RMI (pictured right) shows 205M to the VOR. What would the
required heading be allowing for 7°Port Drift.

Answer; 212°

• Your ETA 0230. TEMPO 0400/0402. Will you need to carry holding fuel
if you have no alternate planned?

Answer; If your ETA is within 30 mins either side of a TEMPO you must
carry extra fuel or plan an alternate.

• What Navigation documents would be for both IFR and VFR?

Answer; STAR, SID, ENROUTE, APPROACH.

• You are at FL180, FZL is 9000’. What OAT would you use to calculate TAS?
• Answer; In the standard atmosphere FZL would occur at 7500’ and in a standard atmosphere 9000’ would
yield a temperature of -3. However today FZL is 9000’ when it should be -3 but it’s actually 0°. This is ISA
+3.

It follows then that at FL180 it is ISA+3  15-(2 X ALT) = -21° +3°= -18

• An altimeter affected by cold air will read.?

Answer; Low (this is not a going from low to warm air question)

• With regard to the NDB and coastal refraction, when would this be at its worst?

Answer; When flying on a track that is less than 30 degrees from the coast.

• In flight and using the approved GPS system, when does RAIM need to be checked?

Answer; Prior to the approach commencing.

• You GPS system has barometric aiding. How many satellites do you need to have reception from to
have RAIM?

Answer; Five

• Flight cruise at 10,000’, you descend to 3000’. CAS is 150, Temp -4. What is decent TAS?

Answer; Ignore the distractors and put up the temp of -4 halfway down the descent to get TAS 165kts.

• You are on descent and are going to be passing through the transition level. What is the highest
altitude can you use? Your flight is from S401238E1744150 to S411109E1742145.

105 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 a. 12000
b. 10000 Answer; b
c. 7000
d. 6000

• The international Date line is not straight. Does it follow geographical features, or does it follow
oceanographic features?

Answer; It follows geographical features.

• What is the uncharted route “W” used for?

Answer; It is uncarted domestic RNAV.

• Given the following diagram: Y

X Z

A B
68nm 34nm

Travelling from A to B. You have gone 68 nautical miles and are to the left of track. In order to get back to B your
correction would be?

a. x +y + z
b. y+x Answer; c.
c. y+z
d. 2x +z

For a positive fix to be taken how many lines “at LEAST” do you need and crossing at what angle?

Answer; Two position lines crossing as near to 90° as possible.

• NZOH too NZAP on H313. You are in the cruise at FL150. What would you have to check enroute?
a. V314
b. Other volcanic zones
c. M301
d. Check NOTAMS for M304 Answer; d

You plan a flight NZAA, NZHN on H211 onward to NZNR.

The points you would enter on the lodged flight plan would be?

a. AA IGABI LAKES HN KARBA AP MOOSE NR

b. AA LAKES AP GOSTI TAIKI NR
c. AA HN AP NR
d. AA LAKES HN KARBA GOSTI AP TAIKI NR
106 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
Answer; d

• What does RVSM stand for?

a. Romeo Victor Sierra Mike
b. Runway Vector Separation Minima
c. Reduced Vertical separation Minimum
d. Runway Velocity Slowdown Minimum

Answer; c

• From the choices below what is one of the main errors associated with the DME?
a. Only a certain member of aircraft can use it at one time
b. It is subject to coastal refraction
c. In bad weather scalloping may occur
d. Cannot be used if RAIM is not available.

Answer; a

ANSWERS TO PRACTICE EXAMS

ANSWERS TO figure 3

ALT TEMP CAS TAS

FL170 -16 130 176
FL150 -9 160 211
FL180 -15 130 180
FL200 -18 130 187
FL140 -7 160 207

107 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 PRACTICE EXAM 1.0
(Answers to these questions are in italics bold below the question)
FROM TO CAS TEMP ALT/FL TAS TRACK WIND HDG GS Dist Time ETA Fuel Zone Total
kts °C Ft /FL kts M° kts kts M° kts nm min Hr.min cons fuel fuel
NP TOC 145 12K 13K 174 017 242 32 025 173 9 3 0717 600 30 30
lbs
-10 5000
TOC DADUK 180 -12 13K 220 ✓ 245 35 025 208 51 11 0728 400 75 105
DADUK TOD ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 018 ✓ ✓ 025 208 20 7 0735 ✓ 45 150
TOD HN 180 5000 13K 170 018 220 15 020 184 9 3 0738 300 15 165

+7 2600
HN TOC 145 10k 14K 170 089 235 20 085 188 15.5 5 0743 600 50 215

-4 2600
TOC LALAN 180 -14 14k 228 088 265 35 087 204 14.5 4 0747 400 25.5 240.5

LALAN TOD ✓ -14 14k 228 088 265 35 087 204 9.5 3 0750 ✓ 20 260.5

TOD RO 180 +7 14K 195 088 220 15 085 192 9.5 3 0753 300 15 275.5

5000 4400

RO TOC 145 10K 14K 168 203 280 28 168 11 4 0757 600 40 315.5
194
-7 4400
TOC TM 180 -16 14K 222 203 245 35 196 201 57 17 0815 400 110.5 426

TM TOD 180 -16 14K 222 243 245 35 242 187 42.5 13 0828 400 85 511

TOD NP 180 +8 14K 198 243 245 19 242 180 10.5 3.5 0832 300 18 529

6000 2200
diversion

RO TOC 145 +7 6000 152 327 240 15 333 154 14 5.5 400 37

3000 2600
TOC TOD NIL - - - - - - - - - - -
CRUISE
TOD TG 180 +7 6000 188 327 240 15 332 190 19 6 300 30

3000 3000

108 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
(Answers to these questions are in italics bold below the question)

1. What will be the flight planned TAS in the climb Enroute NP HARVO?
TAS 174kts
2. What is the TRACK in degrees True DADUK HN?
038°T
3. What is the minimum fuel required for this flight?

OPERATIONAL INFORMATION ctd.

Start, Taxi, take off and Climb to 5000’ – 100 lbs

ONE instrument approach and MAP – 150lbs

ONE instrument approach and land – 135 lbs

Holding consumption rate – 250 lbs/hr

10% Contingency fuel for route (A-B) and diversion (B-C). Arrive with legal reserves on board.

Note# Contingency fuel is not applied to, taxi, take off, approaches/missed approaches OR holding fuel. Variation is
20°E.

From the plan

100 lbs climb

300 lbs instrument approach HN and RO

135 lbs instrument approach and land NP

529 lbs flight fuel (342.5 NP-RO to TG flight fuel only)

187 lbs res (45 min at holding rate)

53 lbs contingency (10% flight fuel)

TOTAL FUEL REQUIRED without diversion 1304 lbs

With diversion at RO to TG 987.25 lbs

4. What will be the contingency fuel for this flight?

5. 53 lbs
6. What will be the minimum cloud base we could accept at NZTG if we need this as an alternate?
480’ NDB DME RWY 25

0700 AIRBOURNE NZNP

0710 SET HEADING NZNP @5000 IN CLIMB TO the flight levels.

HEADING is ….?? MAGNETIC

025°M

Fuel state ……?? Lbs

1204 lbs

7. What will be planned ETA for NZHN VOR?

109 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 0738Z
8. What IAS if any are you limited to at your planned level?
In the cruise NONE
9. Upon turning the corner at NZHN what is planned G/S to NZRO at your new Flight Level?
204 kts cruise

07..?? SET HEADING FOR NZRO

Set heading at 0743

At 13 nm from RO you realize you have drifted off track and are at position S38 18 52 E176 23 51. What drift have
you been suffering since leaving NZRO?

61° Port

10. What is your bearing from NZRO?

142R at 13nm
11. What is your RADIAL are you on TO NZRO VOR?

297R TO

12. What correction to your heading will you need to make to regain track by 2 nm past IBAMU?

D
d
a
FPT

The distance from the

station [D], the distance off track [d] and the angle off track [a] are related by the following formula.

a = 60 x d D (distance gone)

So, the distance from the station is 13nm (ELAGA) and the distance off track is 11nm, the angle off track [a] is 60 x
11  13

= 50.76° (this will get you flying parallel to the FPT)

The second part of the equation involves the distance to go where [D] in this part of the equation is the distance to
go.

a = 60 x d D (distance to go)

It follows then that 60 x 11  20

a = 33.0°

TOTAL CORRECTION is 84° turn to the right to gain track 2 miles past IBAMU

13. NZAP AWIB 260/12 FEW @2000 SCT@3000, QNH 1009. If you had to divert from your present position what
will be your most suitable approach at NZAP?

110 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 NDB DME runway 35. This gives you direct entry to the hold should you need it and a lower minimum
without the need to circle.

14. On a diversion and approach into AP what frequency will you use to broadcast intentions to local traffic?
123.6 AND 118.4 (Broadcast your intentions on both as you come out of the flight levels and within 20 miles
AP)

15. If you were to conduct an RNAV35 approach and your initial approach point was AKBAR @ 8200’ what would
be the track miles to AP506?

6.9nm

16. What sector entry would you plan for the reversal at AKBAR?

Sector 2 Teardrop

17. What is the CAT A & B circling minima for RWY 35 NZAP?

1790’

18. ASSUMING NOT VISUAL WHAT IS MISSED APPROACH HEIGHT at AP501 and what will your turn be and track to
AP512?

Height for missed approach is 466’ (height is AGL) At AP512 turn left

19. Having regained track at IBAMU using the 1:60 what is your ETA NZTM NDB?

5 min climb sector and 22.5nm cruise at 187kts = 7 mins

 since leaving RO @ 0753 ADD 12 mins = ETA 0805 IBAMU

20. What is your revised eta NZNP?

13mins cruise from IBAMU to TM @201 kts + flight planned time

 13 +16.5 = 29.5 mins.

ETA NP (Revised) 0834.5Z

21. Referring NZNP VORSEC Chart at 40 miles NP (on track) what is your min reception Alt NP VOR/DME?

On track and inbound on the 064R NP min alt at 40 miles NP IS 5000’

22. NZNP ATIS, Wind 030/25 BKN 2500 VIZ 5000 QNH 1013. What will be your choices of approach?

All approaches available with exception of RNAV.

23. Which approach will give you the lowest minima?

VOR DME RWY 23 450’

24. What is the circle to land minima CAT B ay NZNP?

600’

25. If tower is unavailable can you use remote QNH?

No. the approach chart says USE NP QNH.

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 PRACTICE EXAM 1.2

FROM TO CAS TEMP ALT/FL TAS TRACK WIND HDG GS Dist Time ETA Fuel Zone Total
kts °C Ft /FL kts M° kts kts M° kts nm min Hr.min cons fuel fuel

AA TOC 145 +2 14k 164 134 293 22 132 220 22 6 1900Z 550kg/hr 55 55

8000 2000

TOC LAKES 160 -10 14K 200 134 295 22 132 ✓ 8 2 1902Z 450 15 70

LAKES HN ✓ ✓ 14K ✓ 134 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 47 13 1915Z ✓ 10 80

HN KARBA ✓ 14 K ✓ 127 ✓ ✓ 126 222 24 6.5 1921.5Z ✓ 50 130

✓
KARBA AP ✓ ✓ 14K ✓ 127 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 21 5.5 1927Z ✓ 40 170

AP TAKI ✓ ✓ 14K ✓ 118 ✓ ✓ 117 222 24 6.5 1933.5Z ✓ 50 220

TAKI TOD ✓ ✓ 14K ✓ 118 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 20 5.5 1939Z ✓ 40 260

TOD NR 180 +6 14k 202 118 270 20 115 220 13 3.5 1942.5Z 300 17.5 277.5

7000 2400

Diversion

TAKI TOD 160 -10 14k 200 334 295 22 338 184 45 15 1948.5Z 450 11

TOD RO 180 +8 14k 195 335 265 17 340 191 11 3 1951.5Z 300 15

5000 4400

1. You are cleared for the AA SID RNAV RWY 23…. departure via H211 LAKES and HN. For a daylight
departure what is the MFA on this route sector?
2400’
2. 1900z you turn the corner and intercept track at 2000’ and set heading for LAKES. Upon reaching TOC
what will be your track miles to LAKES?
8nm
3. Settled in the cruise what is your magnetic heading and groundspeed on the way to LAKES?
132°M, GS 220kts
4. For the departure SID what radio frequency will you be on an who will you be talking to?
Auckland approach 124.3

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 5. 1921.5Z overhead HN what frequency will you be on and who will you be talking to?
Bay approach 119.5 or 123.8
6. What will be your ETA KARBA?
1927Z
7. At KARBA with the VOR change over in front of you on track what frequency will you have your VOR’s on
A; both in front, B; both behind C; one in front one behind D; doesn’t really matter at this stage.
C
8. At KARBA what frequency will your ADF be tuned to and what will be your magnetic heading be?
AP NDB 230, 126°M
9. 1927Z overhead NZAP how many miles to TOD?
44nm
10. 1933.5Z overhead TAIKI if due to company operating requirements you were diverted to NZRO what
would your ETA NZRO be?
1959.5Z
11. Given the same winds as forecast what would be the best and most efficient approach into NZRO?
VOR DME RWY 18 RO
12. 1949Z your ADF reads 061R. Your VOR1 shows you on R316 NZNR and VOR2 shows you on R149 NZRO.
What is your off-track distance?
6nm
13. What will be your correction angle to make good a track direct to NZRO and your new ETA for NZRO?
Alter heading 30° Port, ETA RO 2000Z
14. Back to the original flight plan now (Whew!) What will be the descent restrictions into NZNR with
reference to the VORSEC charts?
10K Step 30DME NR, 8K Step 20DME NR, 4500’ Step 10DME NR. (Descent profile needs to reflect this)
15. Assuming a VOR DME RWY34 approach at NZNR what will be you planned altitude to arrive at AKINA on
the 10 DME arc having just left the NZNR VOR from the overhead?
Not below 2000’
16. After turning inbound on the NZNR VOR DME approach tracking 344 degrees what will be your top of
descent?
6.9DME
17. What is the final approach fix check altitude for this approach?
1200’ @ 5 DME NR
18. What is the approach minima and viz required for this approach?
500’ minima and 1600m viz
19. What is the max speed for a circling approach on this runway Cat B?
135kts
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 20. What is the MAX indicated airspeed in the missed approach?
185kts
21. If required to enter a hold after a missed approach at position PANIA what sector entry would you
conduct?
Sector 1 (Parallel)
22. What is the MAX indicated speed you are limited to in the hold at PANIA?
170kts
23. If leaving the hold via the R188 and 10DME arc what will be the track miles to AKINA for a second
approach?
24. 20 DME = 3 radials per NM
15 DME = 4 radials per NM
10 DME = 6 radials per NM
120 DME = 1/2 radial per NM

Distance traveled along an arc = Radials * DME / 60

 24 x 10  60 +the distance out to the arc.

14nm

PRACTICE EXAM 1.3

TO CAS TEMP ALT/FL TAS TRACK WIND HDG GS Dist Time ETA Fuel Zone Total
kts °C Ft /FL kts M° kts kts M° kts nm min Hr.min cons fuel fuel
NS TOC 183 +3 SL 203 015 285 30 023 210 14 4 2002Z 600 40 40

7000 10k
TOC SNAPA 230 -9 10k 266 015 140 40 021 288 16 3.5 2010 550 32 72
SNAPA TOC 183 -17 10k 234 012 250 30 018 250 10.5 2.5 2012 600 25 97

14k 16k
TOC IGUTA 230 16k 293 012 270 45 020 310 31.5 6 2018 550 55 152
-20
IGUTA TM 230 -20 ✓ 293 ✓ ✓ ✓ 020 310 100 19.5 2037.5 550 178 330

TM TOD 230 -20 ✓ 293 023 ✓ ✓ 031 315 42 8 2045.5 550 73 403

TOD RO 140 -9 16k 162 023 140 40 012 186 26 8.5 2054 480 7 410

10k 4000
TOTAL 410
FUEL

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SNAPA @10000 Climbing and cleared to further climb to the flight levels on track (Q438)

1.0 What will be your TOC distance since leaving NZNS?

40.5nm

4.0 What was the climb restriction at SNAPA?

Transition, Cross SNAPA at or below 10k

2027z Established in the cruise having passed IGUTA on track (@2018) your number 1
VOR shows you passing the R266PM.

2022 Off of the coast of NZWU your ADF shows NZWU 064R

2023 Your second VOR shows you are passing the R152NP

17.0 What is your current position and what drift has been affecting you up till
now? (Lat / Long)
Position S4000E17421.
Drift Calculation: a = 60 x d  D
60 X 2.5  21 = 7° Port drift

18.0 What is your new ETA for the Taumaranui NDB?

GS between 2018 and 2023 is 252kts
 ETA TM from current position is 78nm @ 250kts= 18.5mins
ETA = 2058.5 Z

19.0 What is your current groundspeed?

250kts

8.0 What wind has been affecting you?

040°M/40kts

20.0 What alteration will you need to make good the track direct to TM NDB?
4.5 -5.0° Starboard

At TM @16000’ you are cleared to descend when ready for RO.

21.0 What distance behind you will TM NDB will be your TOD?
42nm

NZTM NDB descent is now required to be briefed for arrival into NZRO.

22.0 What will be your TOD on this leg from RO?

26nm

2110 Overhead NZRO now and you landing wind is 170/20. You are cleared for the VOR DME Rwy18 APPROACH.

23.0 Commencing the turn outbound for the reversal at what distance will you make a base turn for the approach?
10DME
24.0 What DME distance is the MAPt?
1 DME
25.0 What is the circling minima for your category of aircraft?
Cat B 1880 feet
26.0 What is the Max speed for circling in this approach?
115 | I F R F l i g h t N a v i g a t i o n
 135kts
27.0 Could you circle left off of this approach? If not, why not?

You cannot circle left because there is a no circling restriction shaded area on the landing plate for RO

28.0 You elect to conduct this missed approach and track out to TOTRA. In order to track back to the aid, you will
need to conduct a reversal in the hold. What sector entry will you conduct?
Sector 1 entry
29.0 Having conducted the missed approach and now overhead the aid at 4000’ you are cleared to turn right and
intercept the 290 radial for a pilot intercept of the 12-mile ARC. How many track miles will it be from [D290L]
to the lead radial of 356°?
20 DME = 3 radials per NM
15 DME = 4 radials per NM
10 DME = 6 radials per NM
120 DME = 1/2 radial per NM
Distance traveled along an arc = Radials * DME / 60
 66 x 12  60 = 13.2nm

18.0 For your category of aircraft what will be the max speeds for final approach?

130kts

19.0 For initial approach there is an (140*) speed. What is the significance of this speed?

This is the maximum speed for the reversal

20.0 Fill in the blanks?

PALT TEMP CAS TAS

10000 -2 180 210
7000 FZL 161 178
9000 -1 166 190
16000 MS02 183 235
21000 -26 180 250
5000 -4 160 167

21.0 Fill in the blanks?

Aircraft Vat Initial Final Max speed Max speeds for

Category Approach Approach for Visual missed approach
Speeds speeds (Circling)
Intermediate Final
A <91 90-150 70 -100 100 ////////// 110
(110*)
B 90-120 120-180 85-130 135 ////////// 150
(140*)
C 121-140 160-240 115-160 180 ////////// 240

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Answers to 1:60 PRACTICE
1.0 a, 2.0 a, 3.0 d

Version 1, approved for issue;

Signed Jeremy Anderson, Operations Director NZICPA.

Date: 24/6/2020

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