Have youcompleted

the most important

pre-flight check?

YOU
Don’t ignore your mental health.
Start the conversation—it will be
the best decision you ever made.

For more information go to casa.gov.au/wellbeing

 Flight Planning | 1

CONTENTS
Using this flight planning guide 2

Why planning still matters in an age of technology 3

Planning—the eight phases of flight 4

Personal minimums 6

Planning 8

Pre-flight 12

Pre-departure 14

Take-off and post-departure 16

En route 18

Pre-approach 20

Approach/landing 22

Review 24

© Civil Aviation Safety Authority Australia For further information or additional copies,
visit CASA’s website www.casa.gov.au
This version revised June 2019. Previously reprinted
June 2013, May 2015 and January 2019. NOTICE: The information contained in this booklet
was correct at the time of publishing and is subject to
The Flight Planning guide is designed to help you in change without notice. The Civil Aviation Safety Authority
the planning and conduct of your flight. The guide of Australia makes no representation as to its accuracy.
was developed with the assistance of operators and The booklet has been prepared by CASA Safety
pilots nationwide. For comments and suggestions on Promotion for information purposes only.
improving this guide, contact:
Plan your route thoroughly and carry current charts
CASA Safety Promotion and documents. Always check ERSA, NOTAMs and
the weather before you fly.
T. 131 757
E. safety.promotion@casa.gov.au

Cover photo of aircraft: © Textron Aviation Inc. Used by permission.

Inside front cover photo: © iStock.com | Alina555.

2105.4241
2 | Flight Planning

Using this flight planning guide

This guide is designed to help you understand Considering all of this is easier to do on
the importance of planning and how it the ground than in the air. There is also
integrates with your in-flight situational the decision about whether to take off at
awareness and decision-making. It’s not a all. Many factors contribute to this decision
nuts-and-bolts guide to the details of flight but planning tools, such as the personal
planning; you would have learnt that at the minimums checklists included in this flight
ab-initio stage. planning kit, can help you make this decision.

Flight planning is critical—no matter the type This guide addresses the three levels of
of flight. flight planning (the straightforward elements,
unusual situations and whether to go) and
Flight planning involves consideration of
their application over eight stages of flight.
the straightforward elements of a flight,
Reading, reflecting on, comprehending and
such as how much fuel to carry, what radio
using it will make any pilot safer.
frequencies to use—but it also involves
anticipating the unusual and preparing a
course of action should it occur.

This involves consideration of alternate routes

and destinations, or a planned deviation
should clearance to enter controlled airspace
not be issued. It extends to preparation of
emergency equipment, which can range
from life rafts and vests to a toiletries kit,
which in its own small way can reduce
the psychological pressure to fly through Image courtesy of Dean Covell

bad weather to reach the comforts of the

destination.
 Flight Planning | 3

Why planning still matters in an age of

technology
With seamless technology integrating doesn’t end up with a smashed screen or
your route, weight and balance, aircraft decides to malfunction.
performance and documentation, planning
Additionally, your knowledge of how to use
may seem a bit old-fashioned; not as
the system, its limitations and the difficulty
necessary or urgent as it once was.
of programming it inflight is not to be
But planning is important for the same reason underestimated—and is a prime example of
it has always been, because it constructs a the importance of planning.
four-dimensional picture of the flight in your
It’s therefore important to make sure you’re
mind. The benefit of planning is not that you
not just blindly following your EFB’s directions.
have a schedule you can follow at all costs,
Keep your heads up, keep your eyes out of
but that the act of planning builds this picture
the cockpit and keep the ‘V’ in VFR.
of your flight in your head.
GPS, while amazing, is not perfect. Errors
Electronic flight bag (EFB) software has made
can occur from outdated data, or from the
the job of pilots easier. Software packages,
inaccurate press of a finger entering it.
running on tablets and smartphones, bring
together a range of tools formerly only To rely on EFB technology with no backup and
available to airline pilots. no plan in your head, is ultimately dangerous.
Used correctly, your EFB/global positioning
They are a go-to solution to simple, easy
system (GPS) is a marvellous aid to situational
navigation. As long as it is carrying enough
awareness; used wrongly, it destroys it.
charge, doesn’t overheat, is mounted legally,

Image courtesy of Fiona Garvin

4 | Flight Planning

Planning—the eight phases of flight

Stories have a beginning, middle and end;
for operational purposes, flights are a little
more complicated­—but not much. There are
The flight begins when we
eight phases in every flight for every aircraft, start to think about and
whether a weight-shift trike or a large RPT investigate the weather
airliner. Each phase has its own significance Robert N. Buck

in flight planning, and each must be

managed successfully for the success of
the entire flight.

These phases are:

1 planning

2 pre-flight

3 pre-departure

4 post-departure or climb

5 en route

6 pre-approach or descent

7 approach and

8 landing.

Image courtesy of Dean Covell

 Flight Planning | 5

Planning involves making the decisions and The En route phase can feel more relaxed
calculations about where the flight will go, compared with the workload at the beginning
what route to follow, what the weather is at and end of a flight. But it still requires
the departure aerodrome, destination and attention to be paid to navigation, weather
along the route, how much fuel to carry, and developments, fuel management and
how this will affect how many passengers and consumption, and traffic avoidance.
bags, or how much freight, can be taken.
Pre-approach involves slowing the aircraft
Planning should also include making plans for
from cruise speed, flying a stable and
diversions, delays or emergencies. Alternate
accurate descent, obtaining automatic
destinations and routes would be part of this,
terminal information service (ATIS) or
as would arrangements for accommodation
automatic weather information service (AWIS)
should the return flight be delayed.
information, making appropriate radio calls
Pre-flight involves inspection of the aircraft on the aerodrome or area frequency, and
and analysis of whether any faults or configuring the aircraft for approach and
conditions found on it will affect the flight plan. landing.
It also involves analysing the pilot in the same
Approach involves sighting the
way—are you fit to fly today?
aerodrome, flying in the aerodrome circuit,
Pre-departure involves checking the communication with ATC or other traffic,
operation of the aircraft and setting its assessing aerodrome and wind conditions
systems up for take-off and climb. by visual inspection, and stabilising the
aircraft for landing.
Post-departure involves configuring the
aircraft for cruise flight and commencing Landing involves placing the aircraft onto
navigation procedures and checks, all while the runway, vacating it, configuring the
avoiding other air traffic and flying accurately aircraft and safely taxiing and shutting down.
on your outbound route.
There is also one more thing to consider,
which is to review the flight, or what can be
learned from it.

Image courtesy of Dean Covell

6 | Flight Planning

Personal minimums Four areas are often used to consider

personal minimums.

They are
Over a century of aviation there have been
» pilot,
tens, if not hundreds, of thousands of words
of advice written for pilots. Yet crashes » aircraft,
continue. The personal minimums approach is
» environment and
a way of transforming these words of advice
into a practical tool a pilot can use. » external pressures,

which are often shortened to the acronym

PAVE.

I stood … somewhat in The advantage of using a personal minimums

awe, anxiously awaiting checklist is that it is thorough and neutral.
to see how this man, The scheme presented here is in two parts: a
whom no weather could self-assessment checklist generates inputs for
stop, would handle it. a PAVE checklist. The PAVE checklist is divided
Imagine my surprise into four sections—a marginal item in two or
more sections is a red flag that tells you not
when he turned to the
to attempt this flight right now.
despatcher and said,
“It’s no good. I cancel!” There are also adjustment factors that you
Robert N. Buck put into your PAVE calculation to compensate
for special circumstances.

These suggested adjustment factors are just

Most pilots encounter the concept of that—a suggestion. If your flying experience
minimums in terms of weather. There are is limited, or if you do not fly very often, you
specific values for ceiling and visibility. For might want to double these values.
example, for VFR pilots, the alternate minima
In addition, if your situation involves more
for an aerodrome are a ceiling of 1500ft
than one special condition from the checklist
and a visibility of 8km. If ceiling and visibility
included in this kit, you will probably want to
are less than these alternate minima at your
add the adjustment factor for each one.
destination, you must plan for an alternate.

But for a newly-licensed or low-hour pilot, it

Refer to the personal minimums
may be unwise to approach these minimums.
checklist contained in your kit.
You would be better advised to set more
conservative limits and fly to them.
 Flight Planning | 7

For example, suppose you are planning a There are two important cautions:
night cross-country to an unfamiliar airport, 1 Never shift your personal minimums to
departing after a full workday. If you decide a lower value for a specific flight. Changing
to make this trip—or you might decide that personal minimums ‘on the go’ defeats the
it is safest to wait until the next day—the purpose of having them in the first place.
chart suggests that you should raise your The time to consider adjustment is when you
baseline personal minimums by adding at are not under any pressure to fly, and when
least 1000ft feet to your ceiling value; you have the time and objectivity to think
2km to visibility, and 300m to required honestly about your skill, performance, and
runway length. comfort level during the last few flights.
Of course, the more you fly, the more
2 If you shift one variable, keep all others
practised you will be, and the better you will
constant. For example, if your goal is to
become. Establishing personal minimums is
lower your baseline personal minimums for
not a once-and-for-all exercise. With time and
visibility, don’t try to lower the ceiling, wind,
experience, you may be able to modify your
or other values at the same time. Likewise,
personal minimums to match your growing
do not push the baseline if there are special
skill and judgement.
conditions (an unfamiliar aircraft, pilot
If, for instance, your personal minimums fatigue) present for this flight. You might find
call for daytime visibility of at least 10km it helpful to talk through both your newly-
and you have solid experience flying in those established personal minimums and any
conditions, you might consider lowering the plans to raise them with a qualified and
visibility value to 8km for your next flight. experienced instructor.

Once you have done all the thinking required

to establish your personal minimums, you
You’ve got to ask yourself need to stick to them. That will sometimes
one question: Do I feel be difficult when the flight is important to
lucky? Well, do ya, punk? you, or when you are staring into the faces
of your disappointed passengers.
A man’s got to know This is when personal minimums become
his limitations especially valuable. They give you
Clint Eastwood
pre-established hard numbers that can
make it a lot easier to make a smart
no-go or divert decision, rather than a vague
sense that you can ‘probably’ deal with
the conditions. A written set of personal
minimums also gives you a way of explaining
tough decisions to passengers, or those
waiting for you.
8 | Flight Planning

Planning
To plan is to think through a situation before
it happens.

» You think about what you need

to accomplish

» You think about the steps required

to get there

» You think about obstacles that might

stop you from reaching your goal

» You think about what can go wrong.

The benefit of planning is that you see all of

these with a new clarity because you’ve taken
the time to think about them.

Image courtesy of Dean Covell

Plans are nothing,

Viewed this way, a flight plan becomes more
planning is everything
than just a timetable and itinerary. It is the
General Dwight D. Eisenhower
story of your flight from point of origin to
destination, telling in advance the different
factors that will affect how safely and
efficiently you will make the journey. These are
better considered on the ground than in the
air. Composing and filing a thorough flight plan
and notifying flight details are your first line
of defence. The more you do down here the
less you’ll have to do up there, particularly
if something unusual happens.
 Flight Planning | 9

It’s important to tell every part of the story. You can find out about these topics from the
That’s why you should use standard flight Airservices National Aeronautical Information
plan forms. That way you won’t leave out Processing System (NAIPS). Its website has
an important detail. You can download details and facilities for:
Airservices flight notification form at
» Pre-flight briefing and update
www.airservicesaustralia.com/flight-
briefing/flight-notification-form/ or use the » Location briefing
notepad included in this kit.
» Area briefing
You already know that there are many factors
» MET forecasts, briefings and charts
to consider when you’re flight planning, such
as fuel consumption, air temperature, winds » Flight notification
and weather. Notices to airmen (NOTAMs) will
» SARtime notification
have details of temporary airspace changes,
aerodrome changes and other things you will » First light/last light
need to be aware of. » GPS RAIM
When you’re planning, you should also
consider the airspace you will be flying
through or near, and how it will affect
your flight.

Image courtesy of Dean Covell

10 | Flight Planning

You no longer have to lodge details about

tracks, headings, true air and ground speeds
or time intervals for your flight plan. You still
have to prepare a flight and fuel plan for
your flight.

I balanced all,
brought all to mind
W.B. Yeats

Calculating those ‘old-fashioned’ details adds

Image courtesy of Dean Covell
a layer of thoroughness to your flight plan,
which might show up shortcomings. Better
As Airservices says: ‘The methodology used
to find out now than later. Besides, the
by individual pilots to prepare their plans is a
combination of flight-planning software and
matter of choice, but good aviation practice
up-to-date information from NAIPS makes
and common sense dictate that a careful plan
working out these details much less tedious
is the key to a good flight.’
than it used to be. By all means crunch the
numbers on your computer, but never forget A factor not covered by NAIPS is the aircraft
the basic principles and formulas. They will you will be flying. You may well be familiar with
be useful to know if you need to recalculate it, but, regardless, you should have accurate
in flight. A calculator and a pencil, pad or the fuel, performance and weight/balance data
optional kneeboard will be useful then, too. for the type of aircraft you are going to fly.

This planning time is when you should collect

the necessary documents for the flight:
» SARTIME minus 5
» pilot’s licence
Set your mobile phone or watch alarm for
» medical certificate
5 minutes before your nominated SARTIME,
so you have a reminder to cancel SARTIME. » pilot’s operating handbook (POH).
 Flight Planning | 11

Fuel is a major element of flight planning. Feel free to carry more if you can do so and
You are required to have sufficient fuel stay within weight and balance restrictions for
on board for the planned flight. This is your aircraft. It’s called planning.
achieved by using the most accurate fuel
Even in the digital age, flight planning is a
consumption data available and by considering
skill, and one that gets better with practice.
the operating conditions of the flight when
Your first few flight plans may seem like those
planning. You must land with your final
dreaded school or uni assignments that
reserve fuel intact. For a day VFR aeroplane
seemed to go on forever. Persist. Eventually
this is 30 minutes of fuel and for a day
you will be able to gather and use the
VFR helicopter it is 20 minutes.
information needed for efficient flight
Not all of the factors that increase fuel planning in a short time, particularly if you
consumption for a planned flight can be fly commercially. Do it often and you will do
foreseen. For some operations a contingency it well.
fuel reserve is required. Even if you are not
required to carry a contingency fuel reserve,
» Planning makes the flight easier

CASA recommends that pilots carry an » Standard forms make planning easier

amount of extra fuel to have a margin available » Planning becomes easier with practice

to deal with unplanned occurrences. One

method is to apply a contingency fuel reserve.

Image courtesy of Adrian Barac

12 | Flight Planning

Pre-flight
‘Kick the tyres and light the fires’ was the one would hope. In general terms it’s a
old jet pilot’s joke about pre-flight inspection. combination of observation, methodical scan
While in the past that may have been a of the entire aircraft, and type knowledge.
somewhat acceptable pre-flight for an It helps to have a slightly suspicious mind,
aircraft, and with the useful feature of an where any leak or stain is considered guilty
ejection seat, it is a long way from the until proven innocent or harmless.
disciplined inspection required for even the
most basic flying machine.

If planning is the foundation for decision- It is better to be looked

making then information is the foundation over than overlooked
of planning. All of your previous planning for Mae West

this flight has been with information provided

to you. In the pre-flight inspection you must
gather that information yourself. From time to time, the process fails and
pilots take off with control locks or pitot
It’s not this guide’s place to go into the details covers in place. Those flights are short and
of the pre-flight inspection. Most pilots have very unpleasant, even if they don’t end up in
performed hundreds; one for every flight, a crash.

Often the culprit is interruption, which leads

to an incomplete check. A ground-level version
of the sterile cockpit convention used on
large flight decks can reduce the likelihood
of distraction. It is important, but it is not
always easy to recognise when interruption
or distraction has occurred. The procedure
is then to recommence your check and
inspection from the last known completed
item, or, if in doubt ‘from the top’. Be
consistent about where you start your check
from, and in which direction you go around
the aircraft—that way you’ll be more accurate
and better able to deal with interruptions.
Image courtesy of Dean Covell
 Flight Planning | 13

The other point old hands make about the

pre-flight inspection is that it begins 100m
from the aeroplane as you walk towards it.
The power of man has
Like a work of art, you only see the whole grown in every sphere,
picture when looking from a distance. except over himself
A deflated tyre is hard to spot in isolation; Winston Churchill

often it makes itself apparent from a wing-low

stance, which you can’t see when you’re
But how does a human being put a value
up close.
on those risks? External risks are perceived
There’s another, equally important component through psychological lenses, which may
of flight needing a pre-flight check—you. make them seem larger or smaller. These
lenses can include the pilot’s self-image,
The best defence against temptation pride, perceived skill and the expectations of
is a contingency plan. others to take off or land on time and at the
The best way to avoid temptation is to planned destination. But you can look at the
prepare a contingency plan. How badly do situation through a different lens—that of the
you need to be at your destination at a personal minimums checklist. By assigning
certain time? The cynical old adage, ‘if you’ve an appropriate value to each risk factor you
time to spare go by air’ has a core of truth can make the go or stay decision—or have
that refers to the effects of weather on VFR it made for you—regardless of your hopes,
flights. If you absolutely have to be there your fears, or the uninformed expectations of
on time, be prepared to drive, or buy an those with you.
airline ticket.
»  stablish a standard operating
E
The US Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association procedure for your pre-flight check
(AOPA) cautions against the mission mentality. » Check yourself as well

Mission is a military term, AOPA says. » Beware the mission mindset

‘It implies failure, defeat and (possibly) death

if a task is not completed successfully.
As civilian pilots, we take “trips” or “flights”—
not missions. The real danger comes not
from failing to get where we’re going, but
from getting into a mission mindset when
the rewards don’t justify the risks.’
14 | Flight Planning

Pre-departure
Although we talk of flight planning, there’s a Don’t forget to brief your passengers before
lot that has to be prepared for on the ground. the flight.
Your flight doesn’t start when the aeroplane
While airline pilots may sometimes refer
rotates, but as soon as the engine comes
to them disparagingly as self-loading cargo,
to life.
passengers can be a very useful resource
Things that have to be planned for in for the VFR pilot. Passengers can be most
this phase include stowing yourself, your useful as an extra set of eyes, leaving you
passengers and any equipment in the cockpit, more time and energy for your main job of
starting the aeroplane, checking its systems, flying the aeroplane.
configuring it for take-off and making it safely
One of your first acts, either just before or
to the correct end of the runway.
just after starting, will be to listen to the
ATIS—the automatic terminal information
service. This is a final layer of detail being
Preparation, I have often
added to your flight plan. Now you know
said, is rightly two-thirds which runway you will use and what the local
of any venture weather is—does this new information change
Amelia Earhart
anything significant in your plan?

Image courtesy of Adrian Barac

 Flight Planning | 15

This is also your first formal encounter with

checklists in the flight (although you might
have used one for the pre-flight inspection).
They’re not just for flying schools or
beginners, and using one in no way implies
you’re mentally feeble. Just the opposite—
it indicates you’re operating to the same
standard as the military and airlines.

Checklists can be used in two ways in a

single-pilot aircraft. You can perform the
actions from memory and check them against
the lists afterwards. Or you can go through
them line by line.

Once the after-start checklist is done your

journey begins—now you are the pilot in
Image courtesy of Dean Covell
command. The best way to measure your
time in command is not your wristwatch but
With a reasonable idea of where you are and
with the hour meter, commonly called the
where you’re going on the aerodrome you’ll
VDO or Hobbs meter. The newer digital
have time to notice how the flight instruments
types have a stopwatch readout that gives
are responding—instruments indicating
exact time from start-up, making fuel
movement about the yaw axis should move
calculation more precise if you use them
freely during taxi, and the attitude indicator
rather than your watch.
should show any changes in pitch. Indeed
The trip to the runway threshold is a journey some schools teach this as a formal checklist.
in itself, and needs planning, particularly at
Where possible, you should carry out your
complex aerodromes such as Archerfield,
pre-take-off checks in a run-up bay. A taxi
Bankstown, Jandakot, Moorabbin and
clearance to a particular runway holding
Parafield.
point entitles you to conduct your pre-take-off
Prior to taxi, plan your expected taxi route and checks using an en-route run-up bay.
ensure you know what the aerodrome signs,
marking and lights mean. Comply with any » Use checklists
ATC clearances and don’t forget that you need » Make passengers useful
a specific clearance from ATC to enter, cross » Plan your taxi
or backtrack on any runway during your taxi.
» If in doubt, stop clear of the runway,
and ask ATC for help
16 | Flight Planning

Take-off and post-departure

Take-off is a particularly active phase of flight. And, although it seems obvious; if you’re
What this implies is that if anything unusual flying from a bush strip with any sort of
happens you’ll need to have a plan because question mark over its length or surface
you’ll be too busy to make up a response on you’ll need to have used your aircraft’s
the spot. performance chart to plan whether with you,
your fuel, passengers and baggage aboard,
The variables you will face include traffic,
can make it off the ground safely.
weather and aircraft performance.
Aircraft performance is usually interpreted in
In addition to flying the aircraft, you will have
terms of the great bogey: engine failure after
to keep an eye out for other aircraft and
take-off (EFATO), but you might encounter
simultaneously ensure that you don’t become
other surprises—weight and balance upsets,
a problem for them by diverting from
a locked control. In any of these cases you’d
your planned track.
want to land again quickly but would not want
You need to keep a constant watch on the to make the ‘dead man’s turn’ back to the
weather. For local conditions over and near runway, running out of airspeed, altitude and
the runway, your eyes may be all you have options. A few minutes with a map before
at a remote aerodrome. Look out for wind departure could familiarise you with possible
variations and also bear in mind that as landing areas near the runway. You may only
temperature increases aircraft performance save a few seconds of decision time, but in
decreases. this context they might be precious seconds.

Image courtesy of Andrew Scargill

 Flight Planning | 17

Once you’re off the ground, your challenge That way you will spend less time head down
becomes to fly the departure procedure in a phase of flight that demands a head-up
accurately. You will also have to ‘clean-up’ your approach, looking out of the cockpit to spot
aircraft for the next phase of flight, retracting other traffic and keep yourself on track.
flaps, adjusting power settings and leaning
the mixture. This could be a big job, or a » Spring-load your reactions by having
plans prepared for emergencies
small one; depending on what type you are
flying. Use a checklist regardless; it’s faster. » Include runway condition in your
take-off plan
» Be familiar with departure
procedures and routes

Image courtesy of Adrian Barac

18 | Flight Planning

En route
The bustle of take-off and climb-out is over. The old adage ‘plan to fly, then fly the plan’ is
Now you have time to admire the scenery— a little simplistic. Once your wheels (or skids)
not for long, of course. There’s a more are off the ground, you are in a continuous
important task: reviewing your plan. decision-making cycle where you compare the
plan to reality. If your plan and ‘reality’ differ,
There are two basic questions:
you have no choice. You must change your
are you where you want to be? and,
plan: you can’t change reality.
is the aircraft doing as you expect it to do?
But even your improvisations should have a
If the answer to either of these questions
foundation of planning. Should you have to
is no, then it may be time to modify your
divert to an alternate destination, it’s basic
plan, or adopt a new one, which will, in
planning to have its aerodrome frequency
all probability, be a variant of the plan you
written down, or stored in your comms unit.
worked out in relative leisure when you were
on the ground. However, a truly continuous decision-making
cycle is a lot to ask of any pilot. Human
beings are not very good at continually
monitoring situations in which most of the
It is possible to fly without time, little happens. Our minds tend to
motors, but not without wander, typically after about 15 minutes.
knowledge and skill This is a well-known principle of psychology,
Wilbur Wright called the ‘vigilance decrement’.

Image courtesy of Adrian Barac

 Flight Planning | 19

Image courtesy of Adrian Barac

Therefore taking this vigilance decrement readily apparent. You won’t have to worry
into account means it’s better to set up a about missing them. For the remainder, a
schedule or pattern for in-flight tasks, to frequent, structured and scheduled scan
alternate between scanning flight instruments, is a better method for discovering insidious
engine instruments, navigation and assessing failures than continually staring wide-eyed at
what weather you can see from the pilot’s the panel.
seat. Schedule this cycle before and after
Your enemy is not relaxation but complacency.
each frequency or direction change, or every
Too many accident reports start with words
five or ten minutes.
to the effect of: ‘Suddenly I realised I was
And, remember: you always have the option lost’ or ‘without warning the engine stopped.’
of asking air traffic control (ATC) for help. Monitoring fuel or maps could have stopped
ATC would rather assist with a small problem these confessions being written.
than have to fix a big one.
»  aximise your performance as a pilot
M
Make time in the cycle for a brief moment by relaxing
of relaxation. Really bad events—an engine » Review your plan
failure, for example—will make themselves »  et up a schedule for monitoring
S
your aircraft, communications and
navigation
20 | Flight Planning

Pre-approach
Pre-approach, also known as approach based on the approach profile you select
review, or top of descent, is the time for to fly. The ATIS or AWIS provide valuable
housekeeping in a typical flight. information with which you may evaluate
your plan. As in cruise flight, compare your
After the relaxed, but alert, cruise it is time
situation with your plan. Weather, wind,
to get busy again. There is QNH to be
runway and associated traffic are all variable.
obtained, local traffic to be considered,
Your pre-approach planning should take
arrival radio frequencies to be selected,
each of these variables into account, and
radio calls to be made, a cabin to be
you should use each of them to re-evaluate
prepared, an engine to be managed, and
your planned point of descent, your
passengers to be briefed.
intended type of approach and your choice
Your on-the-ground planning will have worked of landing runway.
out an appropriate point to begin descending,

CTAF operations
Recommended calls in all circumstances
Situation Broadcast
The pilot intends to take off Immediately before, or during, taxi-ing
The pilot is inbound to an aerodrome 10 nm or earlier from the aerodrome based
on aircraft performance and pilot workload,
with an estimated time of arrival
The pilot intends to fly through the vicinity of, 10 nm or earlier from the aerodrome based
but not land at, a non-controlled aerodrome on aircraft performance and pilot workload,
with an estimated time of arrival

Recommended calls dependent on traffic

Situation Broadcast
The pilot intends to enter a runway Immediately before entering the runway
The pilot is ready to join the circuit Immediately before joining the circuit
The pilot intends to make a straight-in- On final approach at, not less than 3 nm from
approach the threshold
The pilot intends to join on base leg Prior to joining base leg
The aircraft is clear of the active runway(s) Once outside the runway strip

More information on radio procedures in non-controlled airspace is available in

the resource booklet Be heard, be seen, be safe.
 Flight Planning | 21

This comparison is particularly critical if you

are about to descend, for reasons which
should be obvious. The combination of low
altitude and being even slightly lost can mean
a sudden impact: with ground, wires or, in the
case of a busy airport, another aircraft.

Your familiarity with the aircraft and the route

will have some bearing on when you should
begin your top-of-descent checks. As a rule of
Image courtesy of Dean Covell
thumb, if you are unfamiliar with either, then
plan to begin the checks earlier.
It seems like stating the obvious but descent
planning becomes more important in larger
and higher-performance aircraft. It’s arguably
Nothing gives one person the critical flight phase for those flying truly
so much advantage over heavy metal. Airbus says approximately
another as to remain 70 per cent of rushed and unstable
always cool and unruffled approaches involve ‘an inadequate
management of the descent-and-approach
under all circumstances
Thomas Jefferson profile and/or an incorrect management of
energy level.’ In other words the problem
begins at the top.

Anything with a single propeller and piston

You will make your first radio call to your engine is a lot easier to adjust for speed and
intended destination about now (approaching height on approach than a heavy jet, but just
the relevant VFR approach point for a because your aeroplane has the ability to
controlled aerodrome or 10 nm or earlier operate above and below a stable descent
from a non-controlled aerodrome). If it is a profile doesn’t make doing so a good idea.
controlled aerodrome that conversation will A stable approach is a good idea in any
be formal, and predictable in structure. For aircraft, whether it be a powered trike or a
a non-controlled aerodrome be prepared to Zeppelin. Set it up right, save yourself a lot
make the time for a more informal negotiation of unnecessary work and be a safer, more
with other aircraft which may be nearby. professional pilot.

» Compare your plan with the situation

»  ommence your approach according
C
to aircraft type and experience
» A stable approach begins here
22 | Flight Planning

Approach/landing
The timeworn instructor’s saying that a good
landing follows a good approach is a cliché
because it’s true. Every landing is unique, yet
all landings are similar.

Your planning cycle in this phase of flight is

becoming short. Action now swiftly follows
plan. You only have to consider things that
could happen over the few minutes you have
remaining in the air.

This phase of flight is tightly defined. You are

on a rigidly-defined path doing predictable
things: flying the circuit, completing your
checks, putting the flaps down.

If not, something’s gone wrong with your

planning and/or execution. The point of flight
planning has been to get you to this point in
one piece and to this phase of flight without a
Image courtesy of Dean Covell
backlog of cockpit tasks.

So most of what you do in landing follows not Escalation of commitment, commonly known
only the flight plan, but also a script that is as press-on-itis, is one of your worst enemies
similar for every landing. There are two main during the approach stage; you are so close
variables: wind and traffic. The actual unusual to, yet so far from, successfully completing
situation you encounter will vary—crosswind, your flight. There’s a way to fly around this
windshear, traffic on the runway, or in the trap: your planning should incorporate
circuit perhaps—but it will generally involve pre-determined points of the approach where
one of these two. Knowing this, you can plan you consciously decide whether to continue,
what your response would be. It’s that and a known course of action in the event
spring-loaded concept again. that a go-around is necessary.
 Flight Planning | 23

In short, you should be asking yourself In the last seconds of your flight as you taxi
‘should I continue the approach? and ‘should for shutdown and tie-down, the planning
I land?’ These remain open questions until cycle shortens to a few seconds. Similar to
the point when your speed is under control planning your taxi to the departure runway,
on the runway. ensure you plan your taxi from the landing
runway to the tie-down point. Accidents can,
and do happen with aircraft taxiing after
You can land anywhere landing. This is what the saying ‘keeping your
mind ahead of the aircraft’ means.
once
Anonymous Finally the prop stops and the silence echoes
as you remove the vice-like ‘domes’ from your
ears. But it’s not quite over. One more critical
Once the wheels are on the runway and the task remains: to review the flight.
aeroplane is under control, it’s time for the
after-landing and shutdown checks. It’s an » Have responses ready
adage among instructors that these checks » Keep an open mind about going round
are the hardest for students and low-hour »  eep planning until the engine stops on
K
pilots to remember and perform after the the apron
accumulated concentration and fatigue of the
flight. It’s yet another reason to have these
checks written down on a list.

Image courtesy of Dean Covell

24 | Flight Planning

Review
The engine stops and cool air again swirls of doubt and vulnerability? What did you do
past your ears in the roaring silence as you well and what could you have done better?
remove the headphones. You run through Did you have all the equipment you needed?
a final checklist and, if you’re leaving the
Use your paper and kneeboard one more time
aeroplane for any significant time, secure and
to answer these questions in as brief, or as
tie it down.
long, a form as necessary. Some pilots keep
a diary of their flights—this is good practice.
YOU CANCEL SARTIME
Then enjoy your hamburger, because you’ve
Your hundred-dollar hamburger beckons, or already started to plan your next flight.
perhaps the aero club bar is looking good.
But there’s one thing left to do: review the
flight while it’s fresh in your mind.
It ain’t over till it’s over
How much of it went to plan? Did you have a Yogi Berra

back-up plan for the aspects that departed

from ‘the script’? Did you feel in control of the
situation at all times, or were there moments

FURTHER INFORMATION
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Flight Safety Australia

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