UNIT - III

Surveying
 Surveying
• It is defined as the process of measuring
horizontal distances, vertical distances and
included angles to determine the location of
points on, above or below the earth surfaces.
• The term surveying is the representation of
surface features in a horizontal plane.
• The process of determining the relative
heights in the vertical plane is referred as
leveling.
 Objectives of Surveying
• The data obtained by surveying are used to
prepare the plan or map showing the ground
features.
• When the area surveyed is small and the scale
to which its result plotted is large, then it is
known as Plan
• When the area surveyed is large and the scale
to which its result plotted is small, then it is
called as a Map
• Setting out of any engineering work like
buildings, roads, railway tracks, bridges and
dams involves surveying
 Main divisions of surveying:
• Types of Surveying

Plane surveying

Geodetic surveying

 Plane surveying
 The surveying where the effect of curvature of earth is
neglected and earth’s surface is treated as plane, is called
surveying.
 The degree of accuracy in this type of surveying is
comparatively low.
 Generally when the surveying is conducted over the area
less than 260 Sq.Km., they are treated as plane surveying.
 Plane surveying is conducted for the purpose of
engineering projects.
• Geodetic surveying

The effect of curvature is taken into
account.

It is also known as “Trigonometrical
Surveying”.

It is a special branch of surveying in which
measurements are taken with high precision
instruments.

Calculations are also made with help of
spherical trigonometry.
 Principles of Surveying
Measurement of two distances.
Measurement of two angles
Measurement one angle and one distance
C C C

L1 L2 L1

θ1 θ2 θ1

A B A B A B
 Classification of surveying:
Chain Surveying
Compass Surveying
Leveling surveying
• Theodolite surveying
• Plane Table Surveying
• Techeometric Surveying
Instruments used for chain surveying
• Meter Chain
• Chain Pins (Arrows)
• Pegs
• Ranging rod
• Offset rod
• Plump bob
• Cross staff
• Measuring Tape
• In chain surveying only linear distances on the field are
measured. These distances are used to define the boundary of
field and mark simple details.
• Metric chains are available in lengths of 5 m, 10m, 20m and
30 m. 20m – 30 m chain is normally used for the field of
surveying.
• A surveying chain contains brass handles with brass eyebolt
and collar, galvanized mild steel links and wire rings.
• In the case of 20 m and 30 m chains, brass tallies are provided
at every 5 m length and indicating brass wire rings are
attached at every metre length except where tallies are
provided.
• The distance between the outside faces of handles of a fully
stretched out chain is the length of the chain. For holding the
arrows in position, grooves are cut in the outside face of the
handles. The radius of the groove is the same as that the
arrows.

Chain pins or arrows are used with the chain
for marking each chain length on the ground.
• The arrow is driven into the ground at the
end of each chain length is measured.
• Chain pins the arrow should be made of good
quality hardened and tempered steel wire of
minimum tensile strength of 70 kg/mm2.
• The overall length is 400 mm and thickness
is 4mm.

Pegs
• Made of timber or steel.
• Used to mark the position of stations.
• Pegs are in length of 15 cm.
• About 4 cm is left projecting above the
ground.
• Ranging rod is used for ranging or aligning long lines
on the ground in field surveying.
• Ranging rods are used marking points on the ground
so that the positions of the points are distinctly visible
from some distant way.
• The length of ranging rod may be 2 m and 3 m and
its diameter is 30 mm.
• The ranging rod is painted in red and white in
alternate band lengths of 200 mm each.
• The bottom end of the rod is fitted with a pointed,
hollow, cast iron shoe or steel shoe of 15 cm length.

Offset Rod
• It is a ranging rod with two short, narrow, vertical sighting slots
passing through the centre of the section.
• A hook is fitted of a groove is cut at the top to enable pulling or
pushing of the chain through obstruction like hedges.
• Offset rods are meant for setting outlines approximately at right
angles to the main line.

Cross Staff
• It is used to set out right angles in chain surveying
• It consists of four metal arms vertical slits mounted on a pole.
• Two opposite slits are positioned along the length of a line. (ML)
• A line perpendicular to the main line is formed or sighted
through the other two slits

Types
1. Perpendicular offsets, and
2. Oblique offsets.

Plumb bob
• Used to transfer points on ground.
• Used for fixing instrument exactly over the
stations.
• Plumb bob is used while doing chain surveying
on sloping ground.
(a) Cloth or linen type
(b) Metallic Tape
(c) Steel Tape
(d) Invar Tap.
– Made of special alloy of nickel(36%) and steel, having very
low co-efficient of thermal expansion (0.122x10-6 /ºc) to
reduce length variations due to temperature changes.
– Used most of the time for standard comparison of tapes
• Base Line:
The longest chain line in a chain survey is plot is
called Base Line.
• Check line:
Check lines are otherwise known as proof lines are
lines which run in the field to check the accuracy of
work.
• Tie lines:
A Tie line is a line which joins subsidiary or Tie
stations on the main base line. The main object of
running a Tie line is to take the details of nearly
objects but it also serves the purpose of a check line.
Area calculation
 Area calculation
• One of the main objectives of the surveying is to compute
the areas and volumes. Generally, the lands will be of
irregular shaped polygons. There are formulae readily
available for regular polygons like, triangle, rectangle, square
and other polygons.

• Trapezoidal Rule
• Simpson’s Rule

Let
d= distance between ordinate
O1 =First ordinate
On= Last ordinate
• The perpendicular offsets taken at 10 m intervals from a
survey line to an irregular boundary are 2.18 m, 3.2 m,
4.26 m, 6.2 m, 4.8 m, 7.20 m, 8.8 m, 8.2 m and 5.2 m.
Determine the area enclosed between the boundary,
survey line, the first and the last offsets by
(i) Trapezoidal rule (ii) Simpson’s rule.
• d = 10 m,
• n = number of segments = 8
• number of ordinates = 9
• Length of survey line = 8 × 10 = 80 m
Area by Trapezoidal rule , Area = 463.5 m2

Area by Simpson’s method, Area = 474.333 m2

• The following offsets were taken from a survey line to a curved boundary line:

Find the area between the survey line, the curved boundary line and the first and
last offsets by (a) Trapezoidal Rule and (b) Simpson’s Rule.

Let,
Δ1 = Area of the 1st section
Δ2 = Are of the 2nd section
Δ3 = Area of the 3rd section
d1 = 5 m
d2 = 10 m
d3 = 20 m
Compass surveying
• Compass Survey
• In compass survey, the bearing is also studied along
with the measurements of lines. For finding the
bearings, compass is used.
• Types Of Compass
• Prismatic Compass
The bearings taken with prismatic compass are
called whole circle bearing system. It is always read
clockwise.
• Surveyor Compass
The bearings taken with surveyor compass are called
reduced bearing systems. It is always studied anti-
clockwise.
1) A magnetic needle is balanced over a pivot in a circular box of
85 mm to 110 mm in diameter.
2) A graduated aluminium ring is attached to the magnetic
needle.
3) An agate cap keeps the aluminium ring stable.
4) The box is covered by a glass lid.
5) Object vane and eye vane are provided at diametrically opposite
ends.
6) Eye vane caries a reflecting prism which can be raised or
lowered as desired.
7) A vertical horse hair or fine wire is provided at the middle of
the object vane.
8) The graduations in the aluminium ring are made in the clockwise
direction starting with 0o at South and 180o at North with
inverted markings.
9) A triangular prism fitted below the eye slit enables
magnification of readings to suit observer’s eye.
10) Based on this prism arrangement, the compass is named
prismatic compass.
• Traverse
o A geometrical figure formed by the series of
connected lines is called traverse.
• Types Of Traverse
o Close traverse
In close traverse the starting and ending stations
are located at the same place.( Ex: building)
o Open traverse
In open traverse the starting and ending points
are located at two different places.(Ex: road,
railway etc…)
• Meridian
The bearing of a line is the horizontal angle
made by the line with a selected reference line called
the meridian.
• Magnetic bearing
The direction indicated by a freely supported
magnetic needle unaffected by local attractive
forces, is called the magnetic meridian. The angle
between any line and the magnetic meridian is
called the magnetic bearing.
• True bearing
The line joining the geographical north and south
poles is known as the true meridian. The angle
between any line and the true meridian is called
true bearing.
• Systems of Bearing
• Whole Circle Bearing system (WCB)
• Reduced Bearing system (RB)
• Fore Bearing (FB)
• Back Bearing (BB)
• In whole circle bearing, the meridian is taken
with north direction and studied clockwise. It
value ranges from 0-360.
• In (RB) this system the bearing is studied with
North as well as South direction of meridian line
and is studied anti-clockwise. In this system the
circle is divided into four equal parts.
• Fore bearing
The bearing taken at the starting point of the line
is called fore bearing. This bearing is taken
looking towards the ending point of the line.
• Back bearing
The bearing taken at the ending point of line is
called back bearing. This bearing is taken looking
towards the starting point of the line.
 WCB Quadrant (RB) Formula
Between 0º and 90º First = N.E R.B = W.C.B
Between 90º and 180º Second = S.E R.B = 180 - W.C.B
Between 180º and 270º Third = S.W R.B = W.C.B – 180
Between 270º and 360º Fourth = N.W R.B = 360 – W.C.B

The Errors in compass observation

• Instrumental errors
• Personal errors
1. Inaccurate leveling of the compass box.
2. Inaccurate centering.
3. Inaccurate bisection of signals.
• Errors due to natural causes
1. Variation in declination
2. Local attraction due to proximity of local attraction forces.
3. Magnetic changes in the atmosphere due to clouds and storms.
Levelling
• Level surface: A level surface is defined as a
curved surface which at each point is perpendicular
to the direction of gravity at the point.
• Datum: datum is any surface to which elevation
are referred.
• Reduced level (RL): The RL of a point is its
vertical distance above or below an arbitrary
assumed level of datum.
• Bench mark: bench mark is a relatively
permanents point of reference whose elevation
with respect to some assumed datum is known.
Types: Permanent , Temporary Bench Marks
• Back Sight: BS is the staff reading taken first on a
point of known elevation after setting up the
instrument in any position.
• Foresight(FS): it is the last staff reading taken on
point before shifting the instrument.
• Intermediate point(IS): any other staff reading
taken on a point of unknown elevation, all sights
taken between the back sight and the foresight are
IS.
• Change point(CP): it is a point to denote the
shifting of the level.
 Reduction of levels
• Rise and fall method
• Height of instrument or Collimation
method
 Total station
A total station is a combination of electronic and
an Electronic Distance Meter (EMD). This
combination makes it possible to determination
the coordinates of a reflector by aligning the
instruments cross hairs on the reflector and
simultaneously measuring the vertical and
horizontal angles and slope distances. A micro
processor in the instruments takes care of
recording , reading and necessary computations.
The data is easily transferred to a computer where
it can be used to generate a map.
 Fundamental measurements
• Horizontal angle
• Vertical angle
• Slope distance
• Error associated
• Horizontal distance
• Vertical distance
• Co ordinate calculations
 Remote sensing
Remote sensing is broadly defined as science
and art of collecting information about objects,
area or phenomena from distance without
being in physical contact with them.
• Classification of remote sensing
Passive remote sensing:
It uses sun as a source of EM energy and
records the energy that is naturally rediated
and or reflected from the objects.
Active remote sensing:
It uses its own source of EM energy, which
is directed towards the objects and return
energy is measured.
• Principles

Electromagnetic Energy

Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Indian remote sensing satellites
1. Bhaskara I – first Indian remote sensing –
june 1979.
2. Bhaskara II – sept 1987
3. Linear imaging and self scanning sensor I
4. Linear imaging and self scanning sensor II
5. Panchromatic sensor
6. Wide field sensor
7. Ocean colour monitor
 Application of Remote Sensing
• Agriculture
• Forestry
• Land use and soils
• Geology
• Urban land use
• Water resources
• Ocean resources
• Watershed
• Environments
• Street network based application
• Natural resources based application
• Disasters