Surveying

Object of surveying: It is the preparation of plan and map

Plan: Large scale representation of small areas is called plan.

Map: Small scale representation of small areas is called map.

Principal of surveying:
1. To work from whole to the part
2. To locate a new station at least two measurement
If the curvature of earth is considered then it is called Geodetic surveying (Area >
250 km2)
If the curvature of earth is not considered then it is called Plane surveying (Area <
250 km2)
The difference between the length arch of circle and subtended chord on the surface
of earth is 0.1m for 18.2km, 0.3m for 54.3km, 0.5m for 91 km
Sum of the angles on spherical triangle on the earth surface & corresponding plane
triangle is 1 sec per 195.5 Sq. km area.
Plane angle measured in terms of radians.

Spherical triangle is measured in terms of steradians.

Different types of scale

Plane scale: It is possible to measure two successive dimensions. E.g. m,

decimeters
Diagonal scale It is possible to measure three successive dimensions. E.g. m,
decimeters, cm.
Vernier scale: It is small scale which slides along the main scale. The
divisions on the Vernier scale are little smaller or larger than divisions of main
scale.
Types of Vernier scale
1. Direct Vernier: The division on the Vernier slightly shorter than main
scale
 2. Indirect Vernier: It is also known as retrograde Vernier. The divisions
on Vernier indicates in opposite direction as that of main scale. The
smallest divisions of Vernier is little larger than the smaller division on
main scale.
3. Double Vernier: The divisions on Vernier represented in both the
directions the zero is marked at the centre. It is combination of both direct
and retrograde Vernier.
4. Extended Vernier: n division of Vernier scale is equal to (2n - 1)
division of main scale.

Error due to wrong scale

RF of wrong scale 2
𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = ( ) × Measured length
RF of correct scale

RF of wrong scale 2
𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = ( ) × Measured area
RF of correct scale

Errors due to shrinkage

Shrinkage ratio: Length after shrinkage/Actual length

Correct distance: Measured distance/ Shrinkage factor
Correct area: Measured area/ (shrinkage factor)2

Chains used in surveying (Length / links / length of each link)

20 m chain: 100 links - each link 0.2m

30m chain: 150 links - each link 0.2m

Engineer's chain: 100 ft - 100 links - each link 1 ft

Revenue chain: 33 ft - 16 links - each link 2.063 ft

Gunter's chain (Surveyor's chain): 66 ft - 100 links - each link 0.66 ft
Tolerance limit of chains
• 20 m chain: ± 5mm
• 30 m chain: ±8mm
 ❖ Tapes
1. Cloth and linen tape: It is available in 10m, 20m, 25m, and 30m length. It is
not accurate
2. Glass fibre tape: These tapes are not stretch or shrink due to changing
temperature and moisture content. It is accurate than cloth tape
3. Metallic tape: These tapes more durable than glass fibre tape & cloth tape
4. Steel tape: It is more accurate than metallic tape
5. Invar tape: It is made up of steel (64%) & nickel (36%). It is more accurate
than all other tapes.

Arrow: It is used to indicate position of the end of chain on the ground.

Peg: It is used to indicate position of survey stations or end points of the survey
line.
Ranging rod: It is used to locate intermediate points such that these points lie on
the straight line joining the end stations.
Ranging: The process of establishing the intermediate points is known as ranging.

Different Types of map

Topographical map: Shows the hills, Valleys, rivers, Village, towns, forests
etc.
Cadastral map: Showing the boundaries of fields, houses & other properties.
Engineering map: Shows details of engineering works such as roads,
railway, reservoirs, irrigation canals etc.
Geological map: Showing areas including underground resources.

Contour map: Determine the capacity of reservoir and to find best possible
route for roads & railways
Military map: showing the road & railway communication with different
parts of a country such a map also shows the different strategic points important
for the defence of a country.
 Archaeological Map: Showing areas including places where ancient relics
exist.

Error due to incorrect chaining

Corrected length: (L'/L)*Measured length

Corrected area: (L'/L)2*Measured area

Corrected Volume: (L'/L)3*Measured area

Compensating error is proportional to √L

Correction of slope: -h2/2L

Correction for pull: L*(P-P0)/(AE)
Temperature correction: α*(T – T0)*L
𝐖𝟐𝐥
Correction for sag:
𝟐𝟒𝐧𝟐 𝐩𝟐

❖ Correction - Source of error - Sign of error

Satndardisation - Instrument error - positive/negative error
Temperature - Natural condition - positive/negative error
Pull - Personal error - positive/negative error
Sag - Natural/Personal - Always negative

Slope - Natural - Always negative

❖ Generally used scales

Geographical map: 1 cm = 160 km

Topographical map: 1 cm = 2.5km

Forest map: 1 cm = 0.25km

Town planning: 1 cm = 50m to 100m

Cadastral map: 1 cm = 10m to 50m

 Location map: 1 cm = 5m to 25m

Mines: 1 cm = 10m to 25m

Buildings: 1 cm = 10m

Preliminary survey of rails and roads: 1 cm = 10m to 60m

❖ Field book
Standard dimensions of field book is 20 × 21 cm

Double line field book is most commonly used for ordinary survey works
where accuracy is less
Single line field book is used for very large-scale works where more details
are to be entered.

Survey line: The line joining the main survey stations.

Check line or proof line: The lines used for check the accuracy of the frame work
of triangles.
Main stations: Major control points to divide the area called main stations.

Main line: Line joining main stations.

Base line: Longest line in that area divide the almost in two part.
Tie line: Any line drawn to collect more information about different objects in area.

Leader: The chainman at the forward end of the chain, who drags the chain forward
is known as leader.
Follower: The chainman at the rear end of the chain, who holds the zero end of the
chain at the station is known as follower.
Offset: Lateral distance measured from main survey line.
Perpendicular offset: The short measurement at right angles to the survey
line.
Oblique offset: The short measurement inclined to survey line.
 Range type offset: It is an Oblique offset taken along the line of wall a
building.
Cross staff: Instrument used for setting perpendicular offset.

French cross staff: It is used to set-out perpendicular offset and oblique

offset with an angle 45° to 135°.
Adjustable cross staff: It is used to set-out offset with an angle of any
magnitude.
Optical square: It is used to set-out perpendicular offset more accurate than
cross staff. It works under principle of double refraction.
Prism square: It is used to set-out perpendicular offset more accurate than
optical square.
Maximum length of offset is limited to 15m

Walking step of man is 80cm

Error due to incorrect ranging

Error in length (20m chain): d2/40

Error in length (30m chain): d2/60

Obstacles in chaining
Chaining around the obstacle is possible e.g pond or lake.

Chaining around the obstacle is not possible e.g. river.

Obstacles in ranging e.g. Hills or mountains.

Obstacles in chaining & ranging e.g Buildings.

The sketch prepared during reconnaissance survey known as Index sketch.

The main survey stations are located on ground by Reference sketch.

A triangle is said to be well conditioned when it's angke should be lie between 30°
and 120°
❖ Compass surveying

The principle of compass surveying is traversing which involves a series of

connected lines.
Compass surveying: It measures the angle between the magnetic meridian and a
given line.
Compass are classified into two types

Prismatic compass:
~ The angles are measured from 0° to 360°. This system is called whole
circle bearing system.
~ Bearing of line measured in clockwise direction from North.
~ Sighting the object and taking readings are done simultaneously.
Surveyors compass:
~Angle are measured ranges from 0° to 90°. This system is called Reduced
bearing or quadrantal bearing system
~ Bearing of line measured east or west from North or south which ever nearer
Fore bearing: The bearing of a line in the direction of progress of survey is called
fore bearing or forward bearing.
Back bearing: The bearing of a line opposite in direction is known as back bearing.
It is also known as reverse bearing.
Types of meridian

True meridian: The true meridian at a point is passing through that point
and geographical North and South poles of earth surface.
Magnetic meridian: Magnetic meridian at a point is the direction of a freely
floating and balanced magnetic needle free from all other attractive forces.
Grid meridian: For a survey of a state the true meridian of central place is
taken as reference meridian for whole circle bearing is called grid meridian
Arbitrary meridian: Meridian taken in any convenient direction towards a
permanent and prominent mark or signal is known as arbitrary meridian.
 Types of bearing

True bearing: The horizontal angle between the true meridian and a given
line is called true bearing or Azimuth of a line
Magnetic bearing: The angle between the magnetic meridian and a given
line is called magnetic bearing or bearing of a line
Grid bearing: Horizontal angle between grid meridian and a given line is
called grid bearing.
Arbitrary bearing: Horizontal angle between arbitrary bearing and a given
line is called grid bearing.

Magnetic Declination: The horizontal angle between the magnetic meridian and
true meridian is called declination or magnetic declination.
Dip: Dip is the inclination of the magnetic needle with the horizontal. It is 0° at the
equator and 90° at the poles
Isogonic line: Line joining the same points of declination

Agonic line: Line joining points of zero dip

Local attraction

The magnetic needle is deflected from its normal position when it is place near to
external attractive forces such as steel structure and magnet such as disturbing influence
is known as local acceleration.
If the difference between fore bearing and back bearing is 180°. There is no local
attraction of both the station.

Types of declination
The declination at a place does not remains constant but it changes from time to
time.
1. Secular variation:
 secular variation of declination occur over a long period of time 100
year or 150 year.
The annual rate of change of secular variation is generally vary
between 5' to 10'
2. Annual variation:
The variation of declination in one year is called annual variation.

These value changes from 1' to 2'

3. Diurnal variation:
The variation of declination in one day is called diurnal variation.
It ranges from 3' to 12'
4. Irregular variation:
The variation of declination occur due to natural phenomena like
Earthquake, Volcanic eruptions
Sources of errors in compass

Instrumental error: It is related to needle and graduated circle

Errors of manipulation and sighting: Sighting, levelling and readings

Errors due to external influences: These is related to local attraction and

declination
Σ Interior angle: (2N - 4)*90

Σ Exterior angle: (2N + 4)*90

Permissible angular error is 15'√N

In Prismatic compass 0° is marked at south

Compass box is made of Brass

The accuracy of open traverse is checked by the random line

The relative closing error should not exceed 1/600

❖ Plane table surveying

Principle of plane table is parallelism

The North line of the map is marked on the right hand top corner

It is graphical method of surveying where the field work and plotting are done
simultaneously.
The working edge of the alidade is called fudicial edge or bevelled edge

Orientation: The preparation of keeping the plane table at each station parallel to
the position occupied at the previous station is known as orientation.
Orientation by back sighting is more accurate than magnetic needle method

Methods of plane table

Radiation:
~ Detailed plotting generally done by radiation.
~ These method is suitable for survey of small areas which can be done for a
single station.
Intersection:
~ It is employed when inaccessible points to be surveyed
~ Suitable for hilly areas
Traversing:
~ It is used to plot the areas
Resection:
~ Resection is the process of finding the location of plane table with the help of
known locations.
~ Resection is done by following methods
1. Compass method
2. Back ray method
3. Two point method :
~ It is more laborious than three point problems
 ~ Orientation of plane table by solving two point problems is adopted only
when given points are accessible
4. Three point problems
~ methods of Three point problems
A. Trial & error (Lehmann's method): It is more accurate and quick.
B. Mechanical method (tracing paper)
C. Graphical method (Bessel's method)

Sizes of plane table

Large: 750 × 600 mm

Medium: 600 × 500 mm

Small: 500 × 400 mm

❖ Levelling
The aim of levelling is to determine the relative heights of different objects on or
below the surface of the earth.
Definitions
Levelling: The art of determining the relative heights of different points on or
below the surface of the earth. Is known as levelling.
Level surface: surface parallel to the mean spheroidal surface of the earth is said
to be a level surface.
Level line: line lying on a level surface is called level line.
Horizontal plane: Plane tangential to the level surface at any point is known as
horizontal plane.
Horizontal line: Line laying on the horizontal plane is said to be horizontal line.

Vertical line: The direction indicated by a plumb line is known as vertical line.
Vertical plane: A plane passing through the vertical line is known as vertical plane.
 Datum line: This is an imaginary line from which vertical distances of different
points are measured. In India datum adopted MSL at Karachi
Reduced level: The vertical distance of a point above or below the datum line is
known as reduced level.
Line of collimation: It is an imaginary line passing through the intersection of
cross hairs at the diaphragm and the optical centre of the object glass.
Axis of the telescope: The axis is a line passing through the optical centre of the
object glass and the optical centre of the eye piece
Axis of bubble tube: It is an imaginary line tangential to the longitudinal curve of
the bubble tube at its middle point.
Focussing: The operation of setting the eye piece and the object glass a proper
distance apart for clear vision of the object is known as focussing.
Backsight reading (BS): This is first staff reading taken in any set up of the
instrument after the levelling.
Foresight reading: It is last staff reading at any set up of the instrument.
Intermediate sight reading: It is any staff reading between BS and FS.

Change point (CP): This point indicates the shifting of the instrument

Parallax: The apparent movement of the image relative to the cross hairs is known
as parallax

Bench mark (BM): These are fixed points or marks of known RL determine with
reference to the Datum line.
Types of benchmarks
GTS bench mark: These benchmarks are established by the survey of India
at a large interval all over the country.
Permanent bench mark: These are fixed points or marks established by
different government departments like PWD, railways etc.
Arbitrary bench mark: When RL of some fixed points are assumed, they
are termed as arbitrary bench mark.
 Temporary bench mark: when the bench mark are established temporarily
at the end of a day’s work they are said to be temporary bench mark.

Types of levelling
Simple levelling:

Find the difference of elevation of two points which are visible from
a single position of instrument
Differential or Compound levelling:

Find the difference of elevation of two points require more than one
instrument station.
Fly levelling:
It is used for reconnaissance of the area for approximate checking of
the levels
Profile levelling:

It is used to plotting longitudinal section for fixing the gradient and

finding the earthwork quantity
Reciprocal Levelling:
It is used to finding the elevation of two points which are having
certain distance and it is not possible to setup the instrument in between
the two points.
This method eliminates error due to curvature and refraction and
collimation error
Check Levelling:

The operation of levelling from finishing point to the starting point at

the end of a day’s work is known as check levelling.
Curvature correction (Cc)
The vertical distance between the line of sight and the level line at a particular
place is called the curvature correction.
Cc = d2/2R or (0.0785d2)
 curvature correction always negative

Refraction correction (Cr)

Cr = (1/7)*Cc or (0.0112d2)

Refraction correction is always additive

Combined correction

Combined correction = - 0.0673d2

Combined correction is always negative

Visible horizon distance (D)

D = 3.853√h or √(h/0.0673)

Length of the Sopwith telescopic levelling staff is 4m

Least count of levelling staff is 5mm

Arithmetical check for HI method

(Σ BS - Σ FS) = (last RL - First RL)

Arithmetical check for Rise and Fall method

(Σ BS - Σ FS) = (Σ Rise - Σ Fall) = (last RL - First RL)

Permissible error in levelling (E)
Rough levelling: ± 0.1√D

Ordinary levelling: ± 0.025√D

Accurate levelling: ± 0.012√D

Precise levelling: ± 0.006√D

Where,
E is closing error in m
D is distance in km
❖ Theodolite Surveying

Definitions

Transiting: The method of turning the telescope about its horizontal axis in
a vertical plane through 180° is termed as transiting. In other words, transiting
results in change of face.
Face left (Telescope normal): the vertical circle of the theodolite is on the
left of the observer at the time of taking readings.
Face right (Telescope inverted): the vertical circle of the instrument is on
the right of the observer when the reading is taken.
Changing face: The operation of bringing the vertical circle from one side
of the observer to other is known as changing face.
Swinging the telescope: This indicates turning of the telescope in a
horizontal plane. It is called right swing when the telescope is turned clockwise
and left swing when the telescope is turned anticlockwise.
Line of collimation: It is imaginary line passing through the intersection of
cross hairs at the diaphragm and the optical centre of the object glass.
Axis of the telescope: It is an imaginary line passing through the optical
centre of object glass and the optical centre of eye piece.
Axis of the bubble tube: It is an imaginary line tangential to the longitudinal
curve of the tube at its middle point.
Magnifying power of telescope: It is the ratio of the focal length of the
objective to that of the eye piece.
Horizontal angle measures 0° to 360°

Vertical angles from 0° to 90°

Size of theodolite depend on diameter of graduated horizontal circle

For important traverse surveys the permissible angular error is 15''√N

Temporary adjustment: Set up instrument centring levelling
Focussing eye piece Focussing the objective
Methods of theodolite used for measuring angle

Method for close traverse

Loose or free needle Method

Fast needle Method

Method of included angles

Methods for open traverse

Method of Direct angle

Method of deflection angle

Latitude and departure

Latitude (L):

The projection of a line parallel to the meridian is called latitude

𝐿 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

Departure:
The projection of a line perpendicular to the meridian is called
departure
𝐷 = sin 𝜃

The latitude and departure of any point w.r.to. previous point are known as
consecutive co-ordinate of the point.
The latitude and departure of any point w.r.to. common origin are known as
Independent co-ordinate of the point.

Length of line = √(L2 + D2)

Balancing of traverse

Bowditch rule (compass rule)

Correction to latitude to any side
length of that side
=( ) × 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒
perimeter of traverse
Transit rule
Correction to latitude to any side
length of that side
=( ) × 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒
arithmetical sum of all latitude
Correction to departure to any side
length of that side
=( )
arithmetical sum of all departure
× 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 departure
Third rule
Correction to northing to any side
length of that side 1
=( ) × 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒
sum of northing 2

Correction to southing to any side

length of that side 1
=( ) × 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒
sum of southing 2

Correction to easting to any side

length of that side 1
=( ) × 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 departure
sum of easting 2

Correction to westing to any side

length of that side 1
=( ) × 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 departure
sum of westing 2
❖ Tacheometric Surveying

Tacheometry is a branch of surveying in which horizontal and vertical distance are

determined by taking angular observation with an instrument known as a tacheometer.
Characteristics of tacheometer

Multiplying constant (f/i): 100

The telescope should be powerful having a magnification of 20 to 30

diameter
Additive constant (f+d)(fitted with anallatic lens): 0
The Principle of Tacheometry is based on the property of isosceles triangles, where
the ratio of the distance of the base from the apex and the length of the base is always
constant.
Stadia diaphragm is provided for measuring Horizontal distance
The subtence bar is used to measure Horizontal distance up to 200m
In tangential Tacheometry the staff held vertically

As the distance between the tacheometer and staff increases, the staff intercept by
stadia hair increases
❖ Curves

Horizontal curve

The curve is provided in the horizontal plane it is known as a horizontal

curve.
Types of horizontal curve

Simple curve

When curve consists of a single arc with a constant radius connecting

the two tangent. It is said to be a circular curve.
Compound curve

When a curve consists of two or more arcs with different radii, it is

called a compound curve.
Reverse curve
A reverse curve consists of two or more arc bending in opposite
directions.
Their centres lie on the opposite side of the curve.
Transition curve (Spiral curve)
A curve of variable radius is known as a transition curve. An ideal transition
curve is also known as a clothoid curve
Lamniscate curve

A Lamniscate curve is similar to a transition curve, and is generally

adopted in city roads where the deflection angle is large.
Vertical curve

A Parabolic curve path is provided in the vertical planes in order to connect the
gradient for easy movement of the vehicles. This curve is known as vertical curve.
Degree of curve: The angle a unit chord of length 30m subtends at the centre of the
circle formed by the curve is known as degree of curve.
Length of unit chord should not be more than 1/20th of the radius
 Radius of curve for 30m

Radius of 1° curve :- 1719/D m

Radius of 2° curve: 860/D m

Radius of 3° curve: 574/D m

Radius of curve for 20m

Radius - 1146/D
Centrifugal ratio

The ratio between the centrifugal force & the weight of the vehicle is known
as centrifugal ratio
Allowable value for CR in roads: 1/4

Allowable value for CR in railways: 1/8

Definitions
Back tangent (Rear tangent): The tangent line before the beginning of the curve
is called back tangent
Forward tangent: The tangent line after the end of curve is called forward tangent
Vortex (point of intersection): The back tangent and forward tangent extended
intercepts at a point is known as vortex
Intersection angle (Deflection angle): The angle between back tangent and
forward tangent.
Point of curvature: It is the point on the back tangent at the beginning of the curve

Point of tangency: It is the point on the forward tangent at the end of the curve.

Tangent distance: Distance between point of curvature to the point of intersection

or distance between point of intersection & point of tangency
External distance: Distance between point of intersection & middle point of curve

Mid ordinate: Distance between mid-point of the curve and mid-point of long
chord
Properties of simple circular curve
Angle of intersection (I): 180° - ϕ

Tangent length: Rtan( ϕ/2)

Length of curve: πR ϕ/180°

Length of long chord: 2Rsin(ϕ/2)

Apex distance: R {sec(ϕ/2) - 1}

Versed sine of curve: R {1 - cos(ϕ/2)}

Chainage of first tangent point: Chainage of intersection point - tangent

length
Chainage of second tangent point: Chainage of first tangent point + Curve
length
Types of vertical curve

Summit curve: A summit curve where an up gradient is followed by a down

gradient.
Sag curve: Down gradient is followed by an up gradient.
A vertical curve is considered as an Parabolic curve
Vertical curve is designed on the basis of the minimum sight distance

Methods used for setting out a simple curve

Linear method (chain, Tape)
1. By ordinate or offsets from the long chord
2. By successive bisection of arc
3. By offsets from the tangent
4. By offset chords produced
Angular method
1. Rankine's method of tangential angle
2. Theodolite method
3. Techeometric method
❖ Area calculation

Mid ordinate method

Area = common distance × Sum of mid ordinate.

Average ordinate method

sum of ordinate
Area = ( ) × length of base line
No. Of ordinates
Area = (sum of ordinate / No. Of ordinates) × length of base line
Trapezoidal rule

Boundaries between the end ordinates are assumed to be straight

1
Area = × common distance
2
× {First ordinate + Last ordinate + 2 × sum of other ordinate}
× length of base line

Simpson's rule

The boundaries between the ends of ordinate are assumed to form an arc of
a parabola
1
Area = × common distance
3
× {First ordinate + Last ordinate + 4 (sum of even ordinate)
+ 2 (sum of odd ordinate)}

Simpson's formula the number of ordinates must be odd

Planimeter

Irregular area may be computed by an instrument known as Planimeter

When the tracing point is moved along a circle without rotation of the wheel
then the circle is known as Zero circle.
When the anchor point is inside the figure the area of the zero circle is added
❖ Volume calculation
Trapezoidal rule (Avg. End area rule)
1
Volume = × common distance
2
× {Area of First section + area of last section + 2 × area of other section}

Prismoidal formula (Simpson's rule)

1
Volume = × common distance
3
× {Area of First section + area of last section
+ 4 (sum of areas of even section) + 2 (sum of areas of odd sections)}

The volume computed by the prismoidal method is considered to be exact.

The graph prepared on order to facilitate proper distribution of excavated earth is

known as the mass diagram.

❖ Contouring
Contour: An imaginary line on the ground joining the points of equal elevation

Contour interval: The vertical distance between any two consecutive contours is
known as contour interval
Contour interval is inversely proportional to scale of map
Horizontal equivalent: The horizontal distance between any two consecutive
contours is known as horizontal equivalent.
Characteristics of contours

Uniformly spaced, contour lines indicate a uniform slope

Contour lines close together then indicates steep slope

Contour lines are far distance that indicates a gentle slope

Contour lines cannot cross one another, except in the case of an overhanging
cliff
Contour lines meeting at a point indicate a vertical cliff

A depression between summit called saddle

 The contour line intersects a ridge line or valley line perpendicularly

Methods of contouring
A. Direct method:
Direct method of contouring is an accurate method
B. Indirect method:
1. Cross section method
Cross section method is suitable for hilly areas
2. Square method

❖ GIS (Geographical information system)

GIS is a specific information system applying to geographic information data to

support capital management, manipulation analysis, modelling and display of spatially
reference data for complex planning & management problems.
GIS data consists of two types of data
Spatial data
Non spatial data

Elements of GIS

Hardware
Software

Data

User or People
❖ Remote sensing

Remote sensing refers to gathering and processing of information about the earth
surface without having physical contact
Types of remote sensing

Aircraft remote sensing: Aircraft ia used as a platform to carry a camera

Satellite remote sensing: Satellite is used as a platform to carry a sensor

Swatch refers to the width of the area scanned by scanners of the satellite

It is a satellite based system operated by department of defence U.S.A operate

around the clock in all weather
There are 24 satellites revolving at 20,000 km altitude with orbit time of 12 hours
in six orbital clanes.
Differential GPS uses in aircraft landing vehicle tracking
Latitude: It measures the distance of a point on the earth surface with respect to
equator.
Longitude: It measures the distance of a point on the earth surface with respect to
prime meridian.
Graticular network: Combination of both longitudes and latitudes.
❖ Photographic surveying

If photographs are taken from the stations on the ground surface then it is called
Terrestrial photogrammetry
If photographs are taken by a Camera from a aircraft then it is called Aerial
photogrammetry.
Definitions

Camera axis: It is the line passing through the centre of the camera lens
perpendicular to picture plane
Picture plane (Photographic Plane): It is the plane perpendicular to camera axis
at the focal distance of optical centre of the camera lens
Focal length: It is the perpendicular distance from the optical centre to the picture
plane.
Isocentre: The point on the photographs where the bisector of angle of tilt meeting
the photographic plane.
Vertical photograph: It is obtained with axial camera when the ground is perfectly
flat and optical axis is vertical.
Tilted photograph: It is obtained when the optical axis is inclined to the vertical at
an angle not more than 3°
Oblique photograph: It is obtained when the optical axis is tilted more than 3°
Relief displacement: The relief of the terrain i.e. undulating ground surface is the
major source of an image displacement. It is termed as relief displacement.
Formulae

Photo scale: (Distance on photo/ Distance on ground)

Map scale: (Distance on map/distance on ground)

Ground distance: (Map distance/Map scale)

Photo scale: (Focal length of the camera lens/flying height of aeroplane
above the ground surface)
Scale of vertical photograph: {f/(H - h)}
 To get 3D view & photography is normally having 60% forward overlap & 25%
side overlap to provide entire coverage of the area
Plotting

Plotting is the process of adding more details with respect to control points

Methods of plotting

Radial or photo triangulation method

Slotted template or mechanical method

❖ Hydrographic surveying
Hydrographic surveying is that branch of surveying which deals with the
measurement of bodies of water
Sounding: The measurement of depth below the water surface is called sounding.

Equipment method for sounding

Sounding boat

Sounding rods or poles

Lead lines: Usually used for depths over about 6m

Sounding machine: used for maximum depth of 100ft

Fathometer: It is used for ocean sounding where depth of water is too much
~ Depth (h) :- Vt/2
Where,
V = Speed of sound in water
t = Time interval between transmitter and receiver