FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

What Is Surveying?

Surveying is defined as a method of determining the relative position of the points on, above, or
below the earth’s surface by taking direct or indirect measurements of distance, direction, and
elevation.

Two types of measurements are taken in surveying: Linear measurements and angular
measurements. There are different types of surveying equipment used in civil engineering such
as Chain, Theodolite, dumpy level, cross-staff, plane table, ranging road, measuring tapes, etc.

Importance of Surveying

✓ Planning and design of all civil engineering projects require measurements from surveying.
✓ Execution of work needs surveying too for transferring the points onto the ground.
✓ Fixing of state and national boundaries also required measurements obtained from
surveying.
✓ Control points can be established with the help of surveying.
✓ Hydrographical and oceanographic charting and mapping are facilitated by surveying.
✓ A topographic map of the land surface can be prepared with the help of surveying.
 Types of Surveying Equipment

A. Instruments for Direct Linear Surveying

1. Measuring Tapes

It is made up of cotton, coated linen, or any other synthetic material. Centimeters or decimetres
are marked on the tape. They are available in length of 20, 30, or 50 metres. Some of the commonly
used tapes in surveying are:

• Cloth/linen tape: Available in lengths 10, 20, 25, and 30

metre. Also available in lengths of 33, 50, 66, and 100 feet. A brass
ring is provided at the terminal end of this tape. Rarely used
nowadays.1
• Metallic tape: Available in lengths 2, 5, 10, 20, 30, and 50
meters. Except for 2 and 5-meter tapes, other tapes have a small
ring fastened at the ends which is of the same width as that of the
tape for protection and are supplied in a leather or metal case with
a winding device.
• Steel tape: Available in lengths 1, 2, 10, 20, 30, and 50
meters. Except for 1 and 2 meter tapes, other tapes have a small
brass ring fastened at the ends. These tapes are supplied in a
corrosion-resistant metal case or a leather case with a winding
device. It should be handled with care, as it is a delicate
instrument. However, its quality and accuracy are far better than
the other tapes.
• Invar tape: Available in lengths of 20, 30, and 100 meters.
Made up of an alloy of nickel and steel with a low thermal
coefficient of expansion. Used for linear measurements that
require high precision. It should be kept on reels of high diameter
as they can be easily bent and damaged.

2. Surveying Chains

The chain is used to measure the distance on the ground. It gives much accurate measurement as
compared to a tape. A chain is a surveying instrument that is made up of connecting links of
galvanized mild steel. The mild steel wire is bent into a ring and joined to each other with three
small circular or oval rings. Each connecting link measures 20 cm.A tally marker or a special joint
is also installed sometimes to mark the distance of 5 metres.
The total length of the chain is 20 metre or 30 metre, which also includes a brass handle on each
end. The handles are provided with swivel joints for they can be easily turned during surveying
without being twisted.

Some of the commonly used chains in surveying are

• Metric chain– Widely used and available in lengths of 5,

10, 20, and 30 meters.

• Surveyor’s chain: Length is 66 feet and has 100 links

Widely used for land measurement as 10 square chains make 1
acre.

• Engineer’s chain: Length is 100 feet and has 100 links.

Brass tags are installed at every 10 feet.

• Revenue chain: Length is 33 feet and has 16 links.

A chain has to be tested if it is accurate and necessary
adjustments are made if not.

3. Arrow

Arrows are used for marking and are made up of hardened, and
tempered steel wire of good quality. 10 arrows are usually sold
with a chain. Its length is about 25-50 cm. One of its ends is
sharpened while the other end is bent into a circular loop.

4. Peg

Pegs are mostly made of timber. They are also used to mark out
the locations on the ground at terminal points or the end of the
survey line. They are 2.5-3 square centimetre and are of 15
centimetre length with a tapered end. A hammer is used to drive
the peg into the ground.
5. Ranging Rods

Ranging rods are 2-3 metres in length and are painted with alternate bands of two colors like
white and black, red and white in succession. Each band is kept at a length of 20 centimeters.
Ranging rods are made of well-seasoned timber. Their cross-section is kept either circular or
octagonal with 3 cm nominal diameter. They are used to range an intermediate point on a survey
line.

A red, yellow, or white flag is tied at its top while carrying out longer surveys because the rod is
not visible beyond 200 metre distance.

Offset Rods

It is similar to a ranging rod but is of 3-meter length. They are also wooden
rods, circular in cross-section. Its one end is pointed with an iron shoe and
at the other, a notch or hook is provided.

It is used to take rough offsets in the nearby regions. Also, the right angles
can be set out with its help as it has two narrow slots at its centre.

Plumb Bob

It is used to transfer the points to the ground on a slope while chaining. It is

also used to make the ranging poles vertical.

In theodolites, compass, plane table, and other surveying instruments, it is

used for centring purpose.

B. Instruments for Setting out Right Angles

1. Cross Staff

It is the simplest instrument for setting out right angles on a survey line. It
has a frame containing two pairs of opposite slits mounted on a pole. The
pole can be used to fix the instrument on the ground.
Cross Staff has three types

➢ Open cross-staff: Two pairs of vertical slits are present which gives two lines of sight at right
angles.
➢ French cross-staff: It has a hollow octagonal box set up on a pole. On each face, vertical slits
are cut in the middle for sighting. The lines of sight are at an angle of 45° to one another.
➢ Adjustable cross-staff: It has two cylinders of equal diameter with sighting slits placed on
each other. The upper box can be rotated and is provided with a vernier to take measurements.
The lower box has graduations of degrees and its subdivision. Any angle can be set out with
the help of this instrument.

2. Optical Square

It is more accurate than a cross-staff. Also, it is convenient to

use for setting out right angles. It has a circular box with three
slits.

The instrument is set on the line whose perpendicular is to be set

out. Two slits point towards the ranging rod at the end of the
survey line.

Then another ranging rod is to be set at such a point that the two
images coincide with each other. This point is on the
perpendicular of the initial line.

3. Prism Square

The principle of prism square is similar to that of the optical square. However,
it is more precise as compared to the optical square.

It can be used in a similar manner as an optical square. Unlike the optical

square, adjustment is not required, as the angle between the reflecting surfaces
does not vary.

4. Site Square

It has a cylindrical metal case and two telescopes fixed at 90°. It is used to set out offset lines at
right angles.
C. Instruments for Setting out Directions:

Note: When the direction is established with respect to each other, it is called an angle. If the
direction is established with respect to a meridian, it is called bearing.

1. Prismatic Compass

It is a magnetic compass that measures the magnetic meridian. It

is portable and hence convenient too. It can be either used in the
palm or fixed on a tripod.

It comprises a magnetic needle attached to a graduated circular

ring made up of aluminium. The needle orients itself to the
magnetic meridian if it is on the pivot. Object vane and eye slit
are attached to the compass box and help in locating the line of
sight.

2. Surveyor’s Compass

The graduated ring is directly attached to the box instead of the

needle in the surveyor’s compass. The needle is allowed to float
freely over the pivot, but it does not orient itself to the magnetic
meridian as in the case of a prismatic compass.

D. Instruments for Setting out Angles

1. Theodolite

It is the most precise instrument for the measurement of horizontal and

vertical angles. It is popular in various surveying applications.

There are two types of theodolite- transit and non-transit. Non-transit

theodolites have become obsolete these days.

Transit theodolite is such theodolite in which the telescope can be

revolved by 180° in the vertical plane.
A theodolite can be used to,
✓ Measure the magnetic bearing of a line
✓ Measure direct angles
✓ Measure deflection angles
✓ Extend a straight line
✓ Establish a straight line between two points
✓ Locating point of intersection between two straight lines
✓ Setting out a horizontal angle
✓ Setting out an angle by repetition
✓ Establish grade
✓ Measure the difference in elevation
✓ Setting out curves

Repetition method or Reiteration methods can be employed for setting out horizontal angles to
obtain more precise results.

2. Total Station

It is an electronic transit theodolite with an electronic distance

meter (EDM).

The crosshairs on the reflector of TS are aligned to the ranging rod

and the vertical and horizontal angles are measured along with
slope distances simultaneously.

It is used to take the measurement of the following:

✓ Horizontal angles: The rotation of the optical axis of TS from the instrument north in a
horizontal plane gives the horizontal angle.
✓ Vertical angle: The inclination of the optical axis of TS from the local vertical gives a
vertical angle.
✓ Slope distance: The distance between TS and target gives the slope distance.

Total Station can store data too as some have inbuilt internal electronic data storage, which can be
uploaded to the computer, and the data analysis can be done with the help of various applications.
E. Instruments for Plane Table Surveying

1.Tripod

A tripod with a device for levelling and controlling its orientation is used in the plane table
surveying.

2. Plane Table

Three types of plane tables are commonly used,

• Traverse table: It consists of a small drawing board mounted on a light tripod so that the board
can be rotated about the vertical axis and then clamped in the desired position. The table is
levelled via tripod legs by eye-estimation.
• Johnson table: It consists of a drawing board of size 45 * 60 cm or 60 * 75 cm. The head has
a ball and socket joint while on its underside, a vertical spindle with thumbscrews is present.
After loosening the upper screw, the table can be tilted via ball and socket joint and the
levelling is done. Then the clamp is tightened so that the board is fixed in the horizontal
position. The lower screw is loosened to fix the orientation of the table by moving it about the
vertical axis.
• Coast Survey table: This survey table is used for high precision works and is more accurate
than the previous two. There are three-foot screws for accurate leveling. A clamp and tangent
screw are also provided for moving the table about the vertical axis.
3. Alidade

It is a straight edge with some sort of sighting device.

• Plain alidade:

It is made up of metal or timber rule having vanes at each

end, which are folded down on the rule when the alidade is
not in use. The vanes are to be kept perpendicular to the
paper surface. A narrow slit is provided at one vane while
the other vane has a hair or thin wire.

Both slits can thus give a line of sight, which is oriented

towards the object to be sighted. Alidade can be rotated
about the point corresponding to the station point. After
sighting the object, a line is drawn against the working edge
of the alidade. It is not suitable for hilly regions.

• Telescopic alidade:

It is employed to take inclined sights. It is more accurate and

provides a larger range as compared to plain alidade. It has a
small telescope with a level tube and a graduated arc fixed
on the horizontal axis. The horizontal axis is along the A-
frame comprising of verniers as in transit.

4. Plumbing Fork

It is used for centring in large-scale works at the station

point. It is composed of a hair pin-shaped light metal frame
with arms of equal length. A plumb bob is suspended from
the lower arm.

It is also used for transforming the ground point on the sheet

at the beginning of the survey so that the plotted point and
ground station are in the same vertical line.

The upper arm is set on the table while the plumb bob on the
lower arm corresponds to the ground point.
5.Spirit Level

It is used to ensure that the table is levelled properly. The spirit

level is placed at two perpendicular positions to ascertain that it
is levelled.

It is either of tubular or circular type. Its base is flat so that it can

be easily placed on the table. The table is levelled if the bubble is
at the centre.

6.Trough Compass

It is used for the orientation of the plane table towards the

magnetic north.

In plane table surveying, a trough compass is used in which

longer sides of the compass are flat and parallel. The sides can be
used as rulers or can be used to coincide with a line already drawn
on the paper.

7.Drawing Paper

A superior quality drawing paper is used that has a minimum

effect of humidity of the atmosphere. Otherwise, the scale is
disturbed.

Fibreglass sheets or paper with a backing of aluminium is used

for high precision works.

F. Instruments for Direct Levelling

Barometric levelling, trigonometric levelling, and spirit levelling are the three principal methods
employed for levelling.
Instruments used in spirit levelling are discussed below:

1. Level

It is used to provide a horizontal line of sight. A horizontal line can be established with the help of
a level. It is the line perpendicular to the plumb line. Telescope, level tube, levelling head, and
tripod are the main parts present in every level.

Temporary adjustments or station adjustments are to be made each time the level is set up include
setting up the level, levelling up and elimination of parallax. Differential levelling, profile
levelling, cross-sectioning, reciprocal levelling, and precise levelling are some of the methods of
precise levelling that can be carried out by a level.

There are four types of levels:

Dumpy level

In this level, a telescope is firmly attached to two collars, which

can be fixed by adjusting screws carried by a vertical spindle.
The movement of the spindle about the vertical axis is
regulated by a clamp screw. A tangent screw is used for precise
movements. Two parallel plates are fixed on either three or
four-foot screws in levelling head.

Wye/Y Level

In this machine level, the telescope is carried on two vertical

wye supports. Wye supports are in the form of curved clips.
The telescope can be rotated or removed by raising the
wyes. By fixing the wyes, the movement of the telescope is
restricted.

The bubble tube is attached to either telescope or the stage

that has wyes. Levelling head is similar to the dumpy level.
Adjustments are done easily with accuracy in the case of Y
level, unlike the dumpy level.
Reversible Level

It is a combination of dumpy level and Y level. The telescope

is fixed into two rigid sockets connected to the spindle with
the help of a stage. After pushing the telescope in the socket
through either end and tightening the screw, it acts like a
dumpy level.

Tilting level

In the tilting level, the line of sight can be tilted slightly without
tilting the vertical axis. Hence, this level facilitates quick
leveling. The vertical axis is made roughly vertical with the
help of the foot screws and bubble tube. The line of sight is
made exactly horizontal when the staff is sighted by centering
the bubble with the help of a fine pitched tilting screw with
respect to vertical.

Levelling Staff

It is a straight rod with graduation marks with zero from the

bottom. It helps in determining how much above or below is
the station from the line of sight. There are two types of
levelling staffs- self-reading staff and target staff.

• Self-reading staff: It can be read directly by the instrument

man. The readings are always taken from the telescope hence
appear inverted. Therefore, readings are taken from
downwards.
• Solid Staff– The smallest division is 5 mm. its length is
about 3 metres.
• Folding Staff- Its length is 10 feet and it is hinged at the
middle. It can be folded about the hinge when not in use for
convenience.
• Telescopic Staff- It has three telescopic lengths of 1.5, 1.5,
and 2 meters when stretched out fully. Normally, its total
length is 5 metres. A circular bubble is also installed at the
back in a suitable case.
• Target staff: It has a moving target against which readings are
taken by the staff man. The sliding target comes along with the
vernier.