Physics Practical 2025-2026

Section A – Experiments
1. To determine resistivity of two/three wires by plotting a graph for potential
difference versus current.
2. To find resistance of a given wire/standard resistor using metre bridge
3. To verify the laws of combination (Series) of resistances using a meter bridge
4. To verify the laws of combination (Parallel) of resistances using a meter bridge
5. To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find
its figure of merit

Section A – Activities
1. To assemble a household circuit comprising three bulbs, three (on/off)
switches, a fuse and a power source.
2. To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit
3. To draw the diagram of a given open circuit comprising at least a battery,
resistor/rheostat, key, ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the components that are
not connected in proper order and correct the circuit and also the circuit
diagram.
Section B – Experiments
1. To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v or
between 1/u and 1/v.
2. To determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.
3. To find the refractive index of a liquid by using convex lens and plane mirror.
4. To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward bias and reverse
bias.
Section B – Activities
1. To identify a diode, an LED, a resistor and a capacitor form a mixed collection of
such items.
2. To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on
a glass slab.
3. To study the nature and size of the image formed by a convex lens on a screen by
using a candle and a screen (for different distances of the candles from the lens

1
 EXPERIMENT–1

Aim: To determine resistivity of two/three wire by plotting a graph of potential

difference versus current

Apparatus: A resistance wire (of different material such as copper, iron, constantan, etc.,) a
voltmeter (0-3)V and an ammeter(0-3)A of appropriate range, a battery(battery eliminator),
a rheostat, a meter scale, one-way key, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper

Formula: The resistivity (𝜌) of the given wire is given by

𝜋𝐷2 𝑅
𝜌= ohm − meter
4𝐿
Where, π = 3.14
D = Diameter of the wire (meter)
R = Resistance of the conductor (ohm)
L = Length of the wire (meter)
Circuit Diagram:

Observations:
1. Length
Length of the resistance wire l =40 cm
2. Range
Range of the given ammeter = 0-5mA
Range of the given voltmeter = 0-5V

2
3. Least count
Least count of ammeter =Nil
Least count of voltmeter =Nil
4. Zero error
Zero error in ammeter, e1 = 40mA
Zero error in voltmeter, e2 =75mV
5. Zero correction
Zero correction for ammeter, C1 = - e1 = -40mA
Zero correction for ammeter, C2 = - e2 = -75mV

Procedure:
1. Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as given in the arrangement diagram.
2. Clean the ends of the connecting wire with sand paper to remove the insulations,
if any.
3. Make neat, clean and tight connection according to the circuit diagram. While
making connections ensure that +ve marked terminals of voltmeter and ammeter
are joined towards the +ve terminal of the battery.
4. Determine the least count of voltmeter and ammeter, and also note the zero error,
if any.
5. Insert the key K, slide the rheostat contact and see the ammeter and voltmeter are
working properly.
6. Adjust the sliding contact of the rheostat such that a measurable current passes
through the resistance coil or the resistance wire.
7. Note down the value of potential difference V from voltmeter and current I from
ammeter.
8. Shift the rheostat contact slightly so that both ammeter and voltmeter show full
divisions readings and not in fraction.
9. Record the readings of the voltmeter and ammeter.
10. Take a least three sets of independent observations.
11. Cut the resistance wire at the points where it leaves the terminals stretch it and find
its length by the meter scale.
12. Record your observations.
13. Next repeat the above steps by taking other wires.

3
Table for Ammeter and Voltmeter Readings:

S.No Ammeter Reading I(m A) Voltmeter Reading, V (m V) 𝑽

Observed Corrected Observed Corrected 𝑹= 𝑰
𝑰𝟎 𝑰 = 𝑰𝟎 + 𝑪𝟏 𝑽𝟎 𝑽 = 𝑽𝟎 + 𝑪𝟏 (ohm)

1 90 50 185 110 2.20

2 100 60 205 130 2.16
3 110 70 225 150 2.14
4 120 80 245 170 2.13
5 130 90 265 190 2.11
6 140 100 285 210 2.10
Mean(R) =2.14𝛀(ohm)

Model Graph:

𝐴𝐵 ∆𝐼
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = =
𝐶𝐵 ∆𝑉
𝐶𝐵 ∆𝑉
𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃 = =
𝐴𝐵 ∆𝐼

∆𝑉 150 − 130 20 𝑥 10−3

𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃 = 𝑅 = = = =2 Ω
∆𝐼 70 − 60 10 𝑥 10−3

4
Calculation:
π = 3.14
D = 0.85 × 10−3 (meter)
R= 2.14 (ohm)
L = 40 × 10−2 (meter)
𝜋𝐷2 𝑅
𝜌=
4𝐿
3.14 × (0.85 × 10−3 )2 × 2.14
𝜌=
4 × 40 × 10−2
𝝆 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟑𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 Ohm meter

By Graphical method
π = 3.14
D = 0.85 × 10−3 (meter)
R = 2 (ohm)
L = 40 × 10−2 (meter)
𝜋𝐷2 𝑅
𝜌=
4𝐿
3.14 × (0.85 × 10−3 )2 × 2
𝜌=
4 × 40 × 10−2
𝝆 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 Ohm meter

Result:
(i) Resistivity of the wire is 𝝆 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟑𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 Ohm meter.
(ii) The graph between V and I is a straight line.

5
 EXPERIMENT–2

Aim: To find resistance of a given wire using meter bridge.

Apparatus: A meter bridge, leclanche cell, a galvanometer, a resistance box, a jockey,

two resistances wires, set square, sand paper and connecting wires.

Formula:
The unknown resistance (r) of a resistance wire or coil is given by
(100 − 𝑙 )𝑅
𝑟= 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝑙
Where, R –known resistance from the resistance box in the left gap(𝑜ℎ𝑚)
L – Length of the meter bridge wire from zero ends up to balance point. (Meter)

6
Observations:

Table for length (l) and unknown resistance (r)

Resistance
Resistance
from Length Mean
Length
Resistance resistance BC=100–l (100 − 𝑙 )𝑅 Resistan
S. AB= l(cm) 𝑟=
Coil box, (cm) ce (ohm)
No. 𝑙
R (ohm) (ohm)

1 2 41 59 2.87
r = 2.685
2 4 60 40 2.66
r only (ohm)
3 6 69 31 2.69

4 8 76 24 2.52

Calculations:
(100 − 𝑙 )𝑅
𝑟= 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝑙
(100 − 𝑙 )𝑅
𝑟1 =
𝑙
(100 − 59) 𝑥 2
𝑟1 =
41
𝑟1 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟕(𝒐𝒉𝒎)
Mean
𝒓𝟏 +𝒓𝟐 +𝒓𝟑 +𝒓𝟒 𝟐.𝟖𝟕+𝟐.𝟔𝟔+𝟐.𝟔𝟗+𝟐.𝟓𝟐
𝒓= = = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟖𝟓 (𝐨𝐡𝐦)
𝟒 𝟒

Procedure:
1. Arrange the apparatus as shown in the diagram.
2. Connect the resistance wire whose resistance is to be determined I the right gap
between C and B. Take care that no parts of the forms a loop.
3. Connect resistance box of low range in the left hand gap between A and B.
4. Make all the other connections a shown in the circuit diagram.
5. Take out some resistance (say 2 ohms) from the resistance box, plug the key K.
6. Touch the jockey gently first at left end and then at right end of the bridge wire.
7. Note the deflections in the galvanometer. If the galvanometer shows deflections in

7
 the opposite directions, the connections are correct. If the deflection is one side
only, then there is some fault in the circuit. Check or take help of your teacher and
rectify the fault.
8. Move (slide) the jockey gently along the wire from left to right till galvanometer
gives zero deflection. The point where the jockey is touching the wire is null point
D.
9. Choose an appropriate value of R from the resistance box such that there is no
deflection in the galvanometer =when the jockey is nearly in the middle fo the wire
(i.e between 45 to 55 cm)
10. Note position of point D (with the help of a set square) to know balancing length,
AD = l.
11. Take at least four sets of observations in the same by changing the value of R in
steps.
12. Record your observations.

Result:
The value of unknown resistance r = 2.685 (ohm)

8
 EXPERIMENT–3

Aim: To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistances using meter bridge

Apparatus: A meter bridge, leclanche cell, a galvanometer, a resistance box, a jockey,

two resistances wires, set square, sand paper and connecting wires.

Formula:
(i) The resistance (r) of a resistance wire or coil is given by
(100 − 𝑙 )𝑅
𝑟= 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝑙
Where, R – resistance from the resistance box in the left gap
L – Length of the meter bridge wire from zero end up to balance point.

(ii) When two resistances r1 and r2 are connected in series, then their combined
resistance,
𝑅𝑠 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 𝑜ℎ𝑚

Where, R – known resistance (ohm)

r1&r2 – unknown resistance of the coils in series (ohm)
l – Length of the meter bridge wire from zero end up to balance point (cm)

9
Observations:

Table for length (l) and unknown resistance (r)

Resistanc
Resistance Length e
Length Mean
from BC=100 𝒓
Resistan AB = Resistanc
resistance box, –l (𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝒍)𝑹
ce Coil S.No. R (ohm) l(cm)
=
e (ohm)
(cm) 𝒍
(ohm)
1 1 60 40 0.66

2 3 67 33 1.47
𝒓𝟏 1.36
3 5 72 28 1.94

1 1 57 43 0.75

2 3 65 35 1.61
1.19
𝒓𝟐
3 5 70 30 2.14

1 1 19.5 80.5 4.12

2 3 30.5 69.5 6.83

𝒓𝟏 &𝒓𝟐 2.67
𝑺𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔
3 5 39.5 60.5 7.65

Procedure:
For Resistance
1. Arrange the apparatus as shown in the diagram.
2. Connect the resistance wire whose resistance is to be determined I the right gap
between C and B. Take care that no parts of the forms a loop.
3. Connect resistance box of low range in the left hand ga between A and B.
4. Make all the other connections a shown in the circuit diagram.
5. Take out some resistance (say 2 ohms) from the resistance box, plug the key K.
6. Touch the jockey gently first at left end and then at right end of the bridge wire.
7. Note the deflections in the galvanometer. F the galvanometer shows deflections in
the opposite directions, the connections are correct. If the deflection is one side

10
 only, then there is some fault in the circuit. Check or take help of your teacher and
rectify the fault.
8. Move (slide) the jockey gently along the wire from left to right till galvanometer
gives zero deflection. The point where the jockey is touching the wire is null point
D.
9. Choose an appropriate value of R from the resistance box such that there is no
deflection in the galvanometer =when the jockey is nearly in the middle of the wire
(i.e between 45 to 55 cm)
10. Note position of point D (with the help of a set square) to know balancing length,
AD = l.
11. Take at least four sets of observations in the same by changing the value of R in
steps and Record your observations for each resistances.
12. Mark the two resistance coils as r1 and r2
13. To find r1 and r2 proceed same way as above mentioned method.
14. Connect the two coils r1 and r2in series as shown in figure in the right gap of Meter
Bridge and find the resistance of this combination. Take at least three sets of
observations.
15. Record your observations as follows.

Calculations:
(100 − 𝑙 )𝑅
𝑟= 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝑙
(100 − 60) 𝑥 1
𝑟1 =
40
𝑟1 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔 (𝒐𝒉𝒎)
Resistance in series
(100 − 80.5) 𝑥 1
𝑟𝑠 =
19.5
𝑟𝑠 = 𝟒. 𝟏𝟐 (𝒐𝒉𝒎)
(By experimental)
𝒓𝟏+𝒓𝟐 +𝒓𝟑 𝟒.𝟏𝟐+𝟔.𝟖𝟑+𝟕.𝟔𝟓
𝑟𝑠 = = = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟕(𝐨𝐡𝐦)
𝟑 𝟑

11
Mean Resistance in series
𝑅𝑠 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝑹𝒔 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟔 + 𝟏. 𝟏𝟗 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟒 𝒐𝒉𝒎 (By theoretical)

Result:
Experimental and theoretical values of Rs are nearest value. Hence law of resistances in
series is verified.

12
 EXPERIMENT–4

Aim: To verify the laws of combination (Parallel) of resistances using meter bridge

Apparatus: A meter bridge, leclanche cell, a galvanometer, a resistance box, a jockey,

two resistances wires, set square, sand paper and connecting wires.

Formula:
(i) The resistance (r) of a resistance wire or coil is given by
(100 − 𝑙 )𝑅
𝑟= 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝑙
Where, R – resistance from the resistance box in the left gap
L – Length of the meter bridge wire from zero ends up to balance point.

(ii) When two resistances r1 and r2 are connected in parallel, then their combined
resistance
1 1
𝑅𝑝 = + 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝑟1 𝑟2

Where, R – known resistance (ohm)

r1&r2 – unknown resistance of the coils in Parallel (ohm)
l – Length of the meter bridge wire from zero end up to balance point (cm)

13
Observations:

Table for length (l) and unknown resistance (r)

Resistance from Length Resistance Mean

Length (100 − 𝑙 )𝑅
Resistanc resistance box, BC=100–l Resistance
AB = l(cm) 𝑟=
e Coil S.No. R (ohm) (cm) 𝑙 (ohm)
(ohm)
1 1 60 40 0.66

2 3 67 33 1.47
r1 only 1.36
3 5 72 28 1.94

1 1 57 43 0.75

2 3 65 35 1.61
1.19
r2 only
3 5 70 30 2.14

1 1 70 30 0.428

2 3 77 23 0.896
r1 and r2 0.81
(parallel)
3 5 82.5 18.5 1.12

Calculations:
Theoretical method:
(100 − 𝑙 )𝑅
𝑟= 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝑙
(100 − 60) 𝑥 1
𝑟 = 𝑟1 =
40
𝑟1 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔 (𝒐𝒉𝒎)
(100 − 57) 𝑥 1
𝑟2 =
43
𝑟1 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓(𝒐𝒉𝒎)
Resistance connected in parallel circuit:
1 1 1
= + 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝑅𝑝 𝑟1 𝑟2

14
1 1 1
= + 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝑅𝑝 1.36 1.19

𝑹𝒑 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟏𝟑 𝒐𝒉𝒎 (𝑩𝒚 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏)

Resistance in parallel (Experimental method)

(100 − 70) 𝑥 1
𝑟𝑝 =
30
𝑟𝑝 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐𝟖 (𝒐𝒉𝒎)

(By experimental)
𝒓𝟏+𝒓𝟐 +𝒓𝟑 𝟎.𝟒𝟐𝟖 + 𝟎.𝟖𝟗𝟔+ 𝟏.𝟏𝟐
𝑟𝑠 = = = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟏(𝐨𝐡𝐦)
𝟑 𝟑

Procedure:
1. Mark the two resistance coils as r1 and r2
2. To find r1 and r2. Arrange the apparatus as shown in the diagram.
3. Connect the resistance wire whose resistance is to be determined I the right gap
between C and B. Take care that no parts of the forms a loop.
4. Connect resistance box of low range in the left hand gap between A and B.
5. Connect the two coils r1 and r2 in parallel as shown in figure in the right gap of
meter Bridge and find the resistance of this combination.
6. Make all the other connections a shown in the circuit diagram.
7. Take out some resistance (say 2 ohms) from the resistance box, plug the key K.
8. Touch the jockey gently first at left end and then at right end of the bridge wire.
9. Note the deflections in the galvanometer. If the galvanometer shows deflections in
the opposite directions, the connections are correct. If the deflection is one side
only, then there is some fault in the circuit. Check or take help of your teacher and
rectify the fault.
10. Move (slide) the jockey gently along the wire from left to right till galvanometer
gives zero deflection. The point where the jockey is touching the wire is null point
D.
11. Choose an appropriate value of R from the resistance box such that there is no
deflection in the galvanometer = when the jockey is nearly in the middle fo the
wire (i.e between 45 to 55 cm)

15
 12. Note position of point D (with the help of a set square) to know balancing length,
AD = l.
13. Take at least four sets of observations in the same by changing the value of R in
steps and Record your observations.
14. Mark the two resistance coils as r1 and r2
15. To find r1 and r2 proceed same way as above mentioned method.
16. Connect the two coils r1 and r2 in Parallel as shown in figure in the right gap of
Meter Bridge and find the resistance of this combination. Take at least three sets
of observations.
17. Record your observations as follows.

Result:
Experimental and theoretical vales of R p are same. Hence law of resistances in parallel is
verified.

16
 EXPERIMENT–5

Aim: To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method & to find

its figure of merit.

Apparatus: A Weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery, a rheostat, two resistance

boxes (10,000 Ω and 200 Ω), two one-way keys, a screw gauge, a meter scale, connecting
wires and a piece of sandpaper

Circuit Diagram

Formula:

(i) The resistance of the given galvanometer as found by half-deflection method is

given by

𝑹×𝑺
𝑮 = 𝑹−𝑺 (ohm)
Where, R – resistance connected in series with the galvanometer
S – Shunt resistance

(ii) The figure of merit is given by

𝑬
𝑲 = (𝑹+𝑮)𝜽 (A/div)

Where, E –emf of the cell

θ – Deflection produced with resistance R (division)

17
(i) Table for resistance of the galvanometer by half-deflection method

Galvanometer
Resistance R Deflection in the Shunt Half
resistance
S.No (𝛀) Galvanometer resistance S deflection 𝑹×𝑺
𝜽 𝑮 = 𝑹−𝑺 (ohm)
(θ) (𝛀) 𝟐

1 5500 24 90 12 91.49
2 6000 20 90 10 91.37
3 6500 18 90 9 91.26
4 7000 16 90 8 91.17
5 7500 14 90 7 91.09

Mean 𝐆 = 𝟗𝟏. 𝟐𝟕 (𝒐𝒉𝒎)

(ii) Table for figure of merit

S.No Number of Emf of the cell Resistance Deflection
cells (battery E(volts) or from R.B. θ (div) Figure of merit
eliminator) reading of the R(ohm) 𝑬
𝑲 = (𝑹+𝑮)𝜽
battery
eliminator (A/div)

1 1 3 5500 24 2.23X10-5
2 1 3 6000 20 2.46 X10-5
3 1 3 6500 18 2.53X10-5
4 1 3 7000 16 2.64 X10-5

𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒏 𝒌 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 (A/div)

Calculations

(i) Resistance of Galvanometer:

𝑹×𝑺 𝟓𝟓𝟎𝟎 × 𝟗𝟎 𝟒𝟗𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎

𝑮= = = = 𝟗𝟏. 𝟒𝟗 (ohm)
𝑹−𝑺 𝟓𝟓𝟎𝟎−𝟗𝟎 𝟓𝟒𝟏𝟎

𝑹×𝑺 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟗𝟎 𝟓𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎

𝑮 = = = = 𝟗𝟏. 𝟑𝟕(ohm)
𝑹−𝑺 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎−𝟗𝟎 𝟓𝟗𝟏𝟎

𝑹×𝑺 𝟔𝟓𝟎𝟎 × 𝟗𝟎 𝟓𝟖𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎

𝑮 = = = = 𝟗𝟏. 𝟐𝟔 (ohm)
𝑹−𝑺 𝟔𝟓𝟎𝟎−𝟗𝟎 𝟔𝟒𝟏𝟎

𝑹×𝑺 𝟕𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟗𝟎 𝟔𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎

𝑮 = = = = 𝟗𝟏. 𝟏𝟕 (ohm)
𝑹−𝑺 𝟕𝟎𝟎𝟎−𝟗𝟎 𝟔𝟗𝟏𝟎

18
 𝑹×𝑺 𝟕𝟓𝟎𝟎 × 𝟗𝟎 𝟔𝟕𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑮 = = = = 𝟗𝟏. 𝟎𝟗 (ohm)
𝑹−𝑺 𝟕𝟓𝟎𝟎−𝟗𝟎 𝟕𝟒𝟏𝟎

𝟗𝟏. 𝟒𝟗 + 𝟗𝟏. 𝟑𝟕 + 𝟗𝟏. 𝟐𝟔 + 𝟗𝟏. 𝟏𝟕 + 𝟗𝟏. 𝟎𝟗

𝑮 =
𝟓

𝑮 = 𝟗𝟏. 𝟐𝟕 (𝛀 𝒐𝒉𝒎)

(ii) Figure of merit of the galvanometer:

𝑬 𝟑 𝟑
(i) 𝑲 = (𝑹+𝑮)𝜽 = (𝟓𝟓𝟎𝟎+𝟗𝟏.𝟐𝟕)𝟐𝟒 = 𝟏𝟑𝟒𝟏𝟗𝟎.𝟒𝟖 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝑨/𝑫𝒊𝒗

𝑬 𝟑 𝟑
(ii) 𝑲 = = (𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎+𝟗𝟏.𝟐𝟕)𝟐𝟎 = = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝑨/𝑫𝒊𝒗
(𝑹+𝑮)𝜽 𝟏𝟐𝟏𝟖𝟐𝟓.𝟒𝟎

𝑬 𝟑 𝟑
(iii) 𝑲 = (𝑹+𝑮)𝜽 = (𝟔𝟓𝟎𝟎+𝟗𝟏.𝟐𝟕)𝟏𝟖 = 𝟏𝟏𝟖𝟔𝟒𝟐.𝟖𝟔 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝑨/𝑫𝒊𝒗

𝑬 𝟑 𝟑
(iv) 𝑲 = (𝑹+𝑮)𝜽 = (𝟕𝟎𝟎𝟎+𝟗𝟏.𝟐𝟕)𝟏𝟔 = 𝟏𝟏𝟑𝟒𝟔𝟎.𝟑𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝑨/𝑫𝒊𝒗

𝟐. 𝟐𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 + 𝟐. 𝟒𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 + 𝟐. 𝟓𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 + 𝟐. 𝟔𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓

𝑲 =
𝟒

𝑲 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝑨𝒎𝒑/𝒅𝒊𝒗

Procedure:

(i) Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method:

1. Make the connections accordingly as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. See that all plugs of the resistance boxes are tight
3. Take out the high resistance (say 2000 ohm) from the resistance box R and insert
the key K1 only
4. Adjust the value of R so that deflection is maximum, even in number and within the
scale.
5. Note the deflection. Let it be θ
6. Insert the key K2 also and without changing the value of R, adjust the value of S,
such that deflection in the galvanometer reduces to exactly half the value obtained
in step 5 i.e., θ/2.
7. Note the value of resistance S

19
 8. Repeat steps 4 to 7 three times taking out different values of R and adjusting S every
time.
(ii) Figure of merit
9. Take one cell of the battery (battery eliminator) and find its E.M.F by a voltmeter
by connecting +ve of the voltmeter with +ve of the cell and –ve of voltmeter with
–ve of the cell. Let it be E.
10. Make connections as in circuit diagram.
11. Adjust the value of R to obtain a certain deflection θ (say 30 divisions) when the
circuit is closed.
12. Note the values of resistance R and deflection θ.
13. Now change the value of R and note the galvanometer deflection again.
14. Repeat the steps 9 to 13 with both cells of the battery with difference voltages like
2,4,6,8 volts from battery eliminator.
15. Find the figure of merit k using the formula.

Result:

(i) Resistance of given galvanometer = 91.27 (ohm)

(ii) Figure of merit of given galvanometer = 2.46 ×10-5 𝑨/𝑫𝒊𝒗

20
 EXPERIMENT–6

Aim: To determine the refractive index of a glass using travelling microscope

Apparatus: Travelling microscope, glass slab, chalk powder, marker, white paper sheet, etc.,

Diagram:

The arrangement of the travelling microscope with slab &lycopodium powder

Formula:

Refractive index of glass slab is given by

𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉
𝝁=
𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉
𝑹𝟑 − 𝑹𝟏
𝝁= (No unit)
𝑹𝟑 − 𝑹𝟐

Where, Real depth = 𝑹𝟑 − 𝑹𝟏

Apparent depth = 𝑹𝟑 − 𝑹𝟐

21
Observations:

 Least count of travelling microscope = 0.001cm or 0.001 × 10−2 𝑚

 Range of main scale = 15cm
 Total no. of division in main scale = 300
15
 Minimum reading of main scale = 300 = 0.05cm

 Total no. of division in vernier scale = 50

Table: Reading of Microscope focused on:

Apparen
Reading on the microscope Real
Position t Refractive
thicknes
S. of cross thicknes Index
VSR= s 𝑅3 − 𝑅1
No. mark and MSR VSC TR (R3-R1)
s
𝜇=
slab VSC×L (R3-R2) 𝑅3 − 𝑅2
(cm) (cm) (cm) cm
C (cm) cm
6.6 7 0.07 6.607 2.141 1.342 1.59
Cross-mark
1 without slab 6.8 2 0.02 6.802 2.056 1.302 1.57
(R1)
6.7 4 0.04 6.704 2.049 1.295 1.59
7.4 6 0.06 7.406
Cross-mark 7.55 6 0.06 7.556
2
with slab (R2)
7.45 8 0.08 7.458
Cross-mark
8.7 48 0.48 8.748
with slab and
3 lycopodium 8.85 8 0.08 8.858
powder (R3)
8.75 3 0.03 8.753
Mean 𝝁 = 1.58 (no unit)

Calculations:

(i) Real depth = (R3-R1) = 8.748-6.607 = 2.141

Apparent depth = (R3-R2) =8.748-7.406 = 1.342

𝑹𝟑 − 𝑹𝟏 𝟐.𝟏𝟒𝟏
Refractive index, 𝝁 = = = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟗 (𝒏𝒐 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕)
𝑹𝟑 − 𝑹𝟐 𝟏.𝟑𝟒𝟐

(ii) Real depth = (R3-R1) = 8.858-6.802 = 2.056

Apparent depth = (R3-R2) =8.858-7.556 = 1.302

𝑹𝟑 − 𝑹𝟏 𝟐.𝟎𝟓𝟔
Refractive index, 𝝁 = = = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟕 (𝒏𝒐 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕)
𝑹𝟑 − 𝑹𝟐 𝟏.𝟑𝟎𝟐

22
 (iii) Real depth = (R3-R1) = 8.753-6.704 = 2.049
Apparent depth = (R3-R2) =8.753-7.406 = 1.295

𝑹𝟑 − 𝑹𝟏 𝟐.𝟎𝟒𝟗
Refractive index, 𝝁 = = = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟗 (𝒏𝒐 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕)
𝑹𝟑 − 𝑹𝟐 𝟏.𝟐𝟗𝟓
𝟏.𝟓𝟗+𝟏.𝟓𝟕+𝟏.𝟓𝟗
Refractive index, 𝝁 = = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟖(𝒏𝒐 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕)
𝟑

Procedure:
Adjustment of travelling microscope
1. Place the travelling microscope (M) on the table near a window so that sufficient light
falls on it.
2. Adjust the leveling screws so that the base of the microscope becomes horizontal
3. Make microscope horizontal. Adjust the position of the eye piece so that the cross-wires
are clearly visible.
4. Determine the vernier constant of the vertical scale of the microscope.
Other steps
5. Make a black-ink cross-mark on the base of the microscope. The mark will serve as point
P.
6. Make the microscope vertical and focus it on the cross at P, so that there is no parallax
between the cross-wires and the image of the mark P.
7. Note the main scale and the vernier scale readings (R1) on the vertical scale.
8. Place the glass slab of least thickness over the mark P.
9. Raise the microscope upwards and focus it on the image P1 of the cross – mark.
10. Note the reading (R2) on the vertical scale as before (step 7).
11. Sprinkle a few particles of lycopodium powder on the surface of the slab
12. Raise the microscope further upward and focus it on the particle near S
13. Note the reading (R3) on the vertical scale again (Steps 7)
14. Repeat above steps with other glass slab of more thicknesses.
15. Record observations in tabular form as given below.

Result:

𝑅3 − 𝑅1
(i) The ratio is constant.
𝑅3 − 𝑅2

(ii) The refractive index of the glass slab by using travelling microscope is determined
as 𝝁 = 1.58 (no unit)

23
 EXPERIMENT–7

Aim: To find the refractive index of a liquid by using convex lens and plane mirror
Apparatus: A convex lens, a plane mirror, clean transparent liquid in a beaker, an optical
needle, an iron stand with base and clamp arrangement, plum line, plane glass slab, a
spherometer, half meter scale etc.,

Formula:
(i) The focal length F of the combination of lens is given by
1 1 1
= + 𝑓 cm
𝐹 𝑓1 2

Where, f1 – focal length of the glass convex lens

f2 – focal length of the liquid lens
Liquid lens formed is a Plano concave lens with R 1 = R (radius of
curvature of convex lens surface) R2=∞

(ii) Lens maker’s formula is given by

1 1 1
= (𝑛 − 1) [𝑅 − 𝑅 ] cm
𝑓2 1 2

1 (𝑛−1)
=
𝑓2 𝑅1

𝑅
𝑛 = 1 + 𝑓 cm
2

Where, n = refractive index of the lens

Diagram

Refractive index of a liquid by using convex lens and plane mirror

24
Table : For distance of needle tip from lens and mirror:

Distance of needle tip

S.No. Arrange Mean Focal length
From the From the lens
𝒙 +𝒙
ment lens surface surface 𝒙= 𝟏𝟐 𝟐 𝒙 (cm)
𝒙𝟏 (cm) 𝒙𝟐 (cm) (cm)
Without 10.1 10.9 10.5
1 f1 = 10.4
liquid 10.0 10.8 10.4
With 15.3 16.1 15.7
2 F = 15.55
liquid 15.0 15.8 15.4

Rough focal length of convex lens f = 10.2 cm

Radius of curvature R = 2f
R = 20.4 cm
Calculations:
1 1 1
= −
𝑓2 𝐹 𝑓1
1 1 1
= −
𝑓2 15.55 10.4

1
= 0.0643 − 0.0962 = −0.0319
𝑓2
𝑅
𝑛 = 1 + 𝑓 cm
2

𝑛 = 1 + (−20.4)(−0.0319) cm
𝒏 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟓 𝒄𝒎

Procedure

(a) For focal length of convex lens

1. Take any one convex lens and find its rough focal length
2. Take a plane mirror and place it on the horizontal base of the iron stand
3. Place the convex lens on the mirror
4. Screw tight the optical needle in the clamp of the stand and hold it horizontally
above the lens at distance equal to tits rough focal length.

25
 5. Bring the tip of the needle at the vertical principle axis of the lens, so the tip of the
needle appears touching tip of its rough of its image.
6. Move the needle up and down and remove the parallax between tips of the needle
and its image.
7. Measure the distance between tip and upper surface of the lens by using a plumb
line and half meter scale.
8. Also measure the distance between tip and the surface of its plane mirror.

(b) For focal length of the combination

9. Take a few drops of transparent liquid on the plane mirror and put the convex lens
over it with its same face above as before (A plano concave lens is formed between
plane mirror and convex lens)
10. Repeat steps 6, 7 and 8.
11. Record your observation as below.

(c) For radius of curvature of convex lens surface.

Result
The refractive index of a liquid by using convex lens and plane mirror n = 1.65 cm

26
 Experiment-8

Aim: To find the focal length of a convex lens by pltting graphs between u and v or
between 1/u and 1/v.
Apparatus Required: An optical bench with three uprights, Central upright fixed, Two
outer uprights with lateral mopvement, A convex lens with lens holder, Two optical
needles cone thin, one thick, A knitting needle, Half meter scale.
Formula:
(i) The relation between u, v and f for a convex lens is
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
=𝒗− cm-1
𝒇 𝒖

(ii) The focal length of a convex lens is given by

𝒖𝒗
𝒇= 𝒄𝒎
𝒖−𝒗
Where,
f - focal length of convex lens
u - distance of object neddle form optical centre of the lens.
v - distance of image needle from optical centre of the lens.

Ray diagram:

Object between F and 2F

27
Model graph diagram:

Observations:
Rough or approximate focal length of the convex lens f = 10 cm
Real length of the index needle x = 15 cm
Observed distance between the lens and the object needle when the index needle is
positioned between them, y = 15.2 cm
Observed distance between the lens and the image needle when the index needle is
positioned between them, z = 14.1 cm
Corrected distance for the object distance ‘u’, x-y = -0.2 cm
Corrected distance for the image distance ‘v’, x-z = +0.9 cm

Table for u-v method:

Position of: (cm) Observed distance Corrected distance

S.No. u v
Object Image OA = u OB = v
Lens (cm) (cm)
needle needle (cm) (cm)
1 66 50 26 16 24 15.8 24.9

2 67 50 27 17 23 16.8 23.9
3 68 50 28 18 22 17.8 22.9
4 70 50 30 20 20 19.8 20.9
5 75 50 33 23 17 22.8 17.9
6 80 50 34 24 16 23.8 16.9

28
Calculation of focal length by graphical method:

u-v graph: The graph is a rectangular hyperbola:

Scale: X axis: 1 cm = 5 cm of u and Y axis: 1 cm = 5 cm of v

AB = AC = 2f or OC = OB = 2f

𝑶𝑩 𝑶𝑪
∴𝒇= 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂𝒍𝒔𝒐 𝒇 =
𝟐 𝟐

∴ 𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒏 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟏 𝒄𝒎

By Theoretical method:

𝒖𝒗
𝒇= 𝒄𝒎
𝒖−𝒗
𝒖𝒗 −𝟏𝟓.𝟖 ×𝟐𝟒.𝟗 −𝟑𝟗𝟑.𝟒𝟐
1. 𝒇𝟏 = 𝒖−𝒗 = = = 𝟗. 𝟕 𝒄𝒎
−𝟐𝟒.𝟗−𝟏𝟓.𝟖 −𝟒𝟎.𝟕
𝒖𝒗 −𝟏𝟔.𝟖 ×𝟐𝟑.𝟗 −𝟒𝟎𝟏.𝟓𝟐
2. 𝒇𝟏 = 𝒖−𝒗 = = = 𝟗. 𝟗 𝒄𝒎
−𝟐𝟑.𝟗−𝟏𝟔.𝟖 −𝟒𝟎.𝟕
𝒖𝒗 −𝟏𝟕.𝟖 ×𝟐𝟒.𝟗 −𝟒𝟎𝟕.𝟔𝟐
3. 𝒇𝟏 = = = = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟎 𝒄𝒎
𝒖−𝒗 −𝟐𝟒.𝟗−𝟏𝟕.𝟖 −𝟒𝟎.𝟕
𝒖𝒗 −𝟏𝟗.𝟖 ×𝟐𝟒.𝟗 −𝟑𝟗𝟑.𝟒𝟐
4. 𝒇𝟏 = 𝒖−𝒗 = = = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟐 𝒄𝒎
−𝟐𝟒.𝟗−𝟏𝟗.𝟖 −𝟒𝟎.𝟕
𝒖𝒗 −𝟐𝟐.𝟖 ×𝟏𝟕.𝟗 −𝟒𝟎𝟖.𝟏𝟐
5. 𝒇𝟏 = 𝒖−𝒗 = = = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟎 𝒄𝒎
−𝟐𝟐.𝟖−𝟏𝟕.𝟗 −𝟒𝟎.𝟕
𝒖𝒗 −𝟐𝟑.𝟖 ×𝟏𝟔.𝟗 −𝟑𝟗𝟑.𝟒𝟐
6. 𝒇𝟏 = = = = 𝟗. 𝟗 𝒄𝒎
𝒖−𝒗 −𝟐𝟑.𝟖−𝟏𝟔.𝟗 −𝟒𝟎.𝟕

𝟗.𝟕+𝟗.𝟗+𝟏𝟎.𝟎+𝟏𝟎.𝟐+𝟏𝟎.𝟎+𝟗.𝟗
Mean focal length, f = = 𝟗. 𝟗𝟒 𝒄𝒎
𝟔

29
 𝟏 𝟏
Table for 𝒖 & method:
𝒗

Position of: (cm) Observed distance Corrected distance

S.No. u v 1/u 1/v
Object Image OA = u OB = v
Lens (cm) (cm) -1
(cm ) (cm-1)
needle needle (cm) (cm)
1 66 50 26 16 24 15.8 24.9 0.063 0.040
2 67 50 27 17 23 16.8 23.9 0.060 0.042
3 68 50 28 18 22 17.8 22.9 0.056 0.044
4 70 50 30 20 20 19.8 20.9 0.051 0.048
5 75 50 33 23 17 22.8 17.9 0.044 0.056
6 80 50 34 24 16 23.8 16.9 0.042 0.059

Calculation of focal length by graphical method:

𝟏 𝟏
(ii) 𝒖 & Graph: The graph is a straight line
𝒗

𝟏 𝟏
Scale: X axis: 1 cm = 0.01 cm-1 of and Y axis: 1 cm = 0.01 cm-1 of
𝒖 𝒗

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
∴𝒇= = =
𝑶𝑷 𝑶𝑸 𝟕𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑

= 𝟏𝟑. 𝟑 𝒄𝒎

Procedure
To determine rough focal length
1. Mount the convex lens in lens holder
2. Go out in the open and face the lens towards a distant tree or a building.
3. Obtain the image of the tree or the building on a white painted wall (screen) and move
the lens forward and backward to get a sharp image on the wall.
4. Measure the distance between the lens and the wall (screen). This will be equal to rough
focal length of the lens.

30
To set the lens
5. Clamp the holder with lens in a fixed upright and keep the upright at 50cm mark.
6. Adjust the lens such that its surface is vertical and perpendicular to the length of the
optical bench.
7. Keep the upright fixed in this position throughout.

To set the object needle

8. Take the thin optical needle as object needle (o). Mount it in outer laterally moveable
upright near zero end.
9. Move the object needle upright and clamp it at a distance (in full cm) nearly 1.5 times
the obtained focal length of the lens.
10. Adjust the height of the object needle to make its tip lie on horizontal line through the
optical center of the lens.
11. Note the position of the index mark on the base of the object needle upright.

To set the image needle

12. With left eye closed, see the right open eye from the other end of the optical bench. An
inverted and enlarged image of the object needle will be seen. Tip of the image must
lie in the middle of the lens.
13. Mount the thick optical needle (image needle) in the upright near the other end of the
optical bench.
14. Adjust the height of the image needle so that the tip is seen in line with the tio of the
image when seen with right open eye,
15. Move the eye towards right. The tips will get separated. The image tip and the image
needle tip have parallax.
16. Remove the Parallax tip to tip
17. Note the position of index mark on base of the image needle upright.
18. Record the position of the index marks on the base of upright of the lens, the object
needle and the image needle in the table against observation 2.

31
To determine the index correction
19. Find the index correction for the distance between optical center of lens and the tip of
the object needle and also for distance between optical center of the lens and tip of the
image needle as described.

To get more observations.

20. Move object needle upright towards lens in steps of 1 cm to get observation 2 and 1.
Repeat the experiment.
21. Move object needle upright away from lens (from position of observation 2 in steps of
1 cm to get observation 4, 5 and 6. Repeat the experiment.
22. Record all the observation as given ahead.

Result:

The focal length of the given convex lens as determined from

𝒖𝒗
(i) Focal length, 𝒇 = 𝒖−𝒗 = 𝟗. 𝟗𝟒 𝒄𝒎

(ii) u and v graph f = 10.1 cm

𝟏 𝟏
(iii) & graph, f = 13.3 cm
𝒖 𝒗

32
 EXPERIMENT–9

Aim: To draw the I –V characteristics curve of p-n junction in forward bias & reverse bias.

Apparatus: A P-N junction diode, a 3-volt battery, a 50-volt battery, a high resistance rheostat,
One 0-3 volt voltmeter, One 0-50 volt voltmeter, One 0-100 mA ammeter, One 0-100 μA
ammeter, One way key, Connecting wires, Piece of sandpaper

Circuit Diagram:

33
Model graph:

Formula:

In a p-n junction diode, Junction Resistance is calculated by

∆𝑽
𝑹= (Ohm)
∆𝑰

Where,

R – Junction resistance in (ohm)

∆𝑽 – Change in voltage (Volts)

∆𝑰 – Change in current (ampere)

Observations

For forward bias

Range of voltmeter = 0 – 1 V

Least count of the voltmeter = 0.05 & 1 V/div (optional)

Zero error of voltmeter = Nil V

Range of milli-ammeter = 0-5 mA

Least count of milli-ammeter = 0.5 mA/div (optional)

Zero error of milli-ammeter = Nil mA

34
Table for forward bias voltage and forward current

S.No. Forward bias voltage VF in V Forward current IF in mA

1 0 0
2 0.05 0
3 0.1 0
4 0.15 0
5 0.2 0
6 0.25 0
7 0.3 0
8 0.35 0
9 0.4 0
10 0.45 0
11 0.5 0.5
12 0.55 1
13 0.6 2

For reverse bias

Range of voltmeter = 0-10 (V)

Least count of the voltmeter = 1 (V)
Zero error of voltmeter = Nil (V)
Range of micro-ammeter = 0 - 5 (μA)
Least count of micro-ammeter = 2μA/div (optional)
Zero error of micro-ammeter = Nil (μA)

Table for reverse bias voltage and reverse current

S.No Reverse bias voltage VR in V Reverse current IR in μA

1 0 0
2 1 0.5
3 2 1
4 3 1
5 4 2
6 5 2.5
7 6 3
8 7 3.5
9 8 4
10 9 4.5

35
Procedure

For forward bias

1. The circuit connections should be as shown in the diagram.

2. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.
3. For voltmeter (V) and milli-ammeter (mA), the least count and zero error should be
noted.
4. To get the zero reading from the voltmeter and milli-ammeter, rheostat should be
brought near the negative end by inserting the key K.
5. To apply the forward bias voltage (VF) of 0.1V, the contact should be moved towards
the positive end. The current remains zero.
6. Keeping current zero, increase the forward bias voltage up to 0.3 V for Ge diode.
7. To record a small current using milli-ammeter, increase the VF to 0.4 V.
8. Increase the VF by 0.2 V and record the corresponding current. When the V F becomes
0.7 V, the current will increase rapidly.
9. When VF = 0.72 V, the current increases suddenly and this is known as forward
breakdown stage.
10. Take out the key if the forward current won’t change as V F increased beyond forward
breakdown.
11. Record the observations.

36
For reverse bias

1. The circuit connections should be as shown in the diagram.

2. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.
3. Note the least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and micro-ammeter (μA).
4. To get zero reading from the voltmeter V and micro-ammeter μA, insert the key K and
bring the rheostat near the positive end.
5. To apply reverse bias voltage (VR) of 0.5 V, move the rheostat to the negative end so
as to flow the reverse current.
6. Increase VR by 0.2 V and record the corresponding current. When VR becomes 20 V,
the current will increase rapidly.
7. When VR = 25 V, the current increases suddenly and this is known as reverse
breakdown stage. Record the current reading and take off the key.
8. Record the observations.

Calculations:

For Forward bias:

∆𝑽 𝟎.𝟎𝟓
𝑹= =𝟎.𝟓 ×𝟏𝟎−𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑
∆𝑰

𝑹 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝛀

For Reverse bias:

∆𝑽 𝟏
𝑹= = 𝟎.𝟓 ×𝟏𝟎−𝟔 = 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔
∆𝑰

𝑹 = 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝛀

Result:

The I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward and reverse bias is drawn.

(i) Junction resistance for forward bias, R= 100 (ohm)

(ii) Junction resistance for reverse bias, R = 2 x 106 (ohm)

37
 Activity – 1

Aim: To assemble a household circuit comprising three bulbs, three (on/off) switches, a fuse
and a power source.

Apparatus and material

Apparatus: No apparatus required in assembling a circuit.
Material: Three bulbs (6 V, 1W) each, fuse of 0.6 A, main switch a power supply (battery.
eliminator), three (on/off) switches flexible connecting wire with red and black plastic
covering, a fuse wire.
Supplementary: Main electric board with a two-pin socket and main switch.

Theory
Electricity supplied to us for domestic purposes is 220 V A.C. and 50 Hz. The
household circuit, all appliances are connected in “parallel” with mains. The switches are
connected in series with each appliances in live wire. 5 A switches are required for normal
appliances like, bulbs, fluorescent tubes fans etc. 15 A sockets and switches are required for
heavy load appliances ‘ like, refrigerator, air conditioner, geyser, hot plates etc. All appliances
must have three wires called live, neutral and the earth. Total power consumption ‘P’ at a time

P = P1 + P2 + P3 +………..

where P1, P2, P3 are the powers drawn by appliances.

To protect the appliances from damage when unduly high currents are drawn fuse of
little higher rating, 10 to 20% higher than the current normally drawn by all appliances. For
further safety, a suitable value MAINS FUSE like rating 32 A is connected in series with supply
source.

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Diagram:

Procedure

1. Connect the bulbs B1, B2 and B3 in series with switches S1, S2 and S3 respectively and
connect each set of B-S in parallel with each other.
2. Connect main supply to a step-down transformer (battery eliminator) to get required
voltage from 0 to 10 V (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 V).
3. Connect the mains fuse M.S. in series with the power supply (battery eliminator).
4. Connect an A.C. ammeter in series with the B-S set.
5. Connect one end of power supply to one end of B-S set.
6. Check the circuit one again to ensure that household circuit is complete.
7. Gradually increase the current to 0.75 A, the fuse must bum off at about 0.6 A.

39
 Activity – 2

Aim: To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.

Apparatus and material

Apparatus: A voltmeter and an ammeter of appropriate range, a battery, a rheostat, one way
key.
Material: An unknown resistance or resistance coil, connecting wires, a piece of sand paper.

Diagram:

Procedure

1. Connect the components (Resistors, inductors etc.) in series with each other as shown
in diagram and then in series with the battery.
2. Connect the ammeter in series with the circuit, to measure the current.
3. Connect the voltmeter in parallel to the resistor, to measure the potential difference.
4. Connect the switch in series with the battery.
5. Assembly of the electrical components in electric circuit is complete.

Utility:
It is used for measuring an unknown resistance (studied in the meter bridge experiments)

40
 Activity-3
Aim: To draw the diagram of a given open circuit comprising at least a battery,
resistor/rheostat, key, ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the components that are not connected in
proper order and correct the circuit and also the circuit diagram.
Apparatus and material
A battery eliminator or a battery (0 to 6 V), rheostat, resistance box (0 to 100 £2), two or one
way key. D.C. ammeter (0-3) A and a D.C. voltmeter (0-3) V.
Theory
An open circuit is the combination of primary components of electric circuit in a such a manner
that on closing the circuit no current is drawn from the battery.

Diagram:

If the circuit is not working, it can have many causes. Some of them are:
(i) Broken or fuse wires
(ii) Loose connections
(iii) Exhausted battery
(iv) Improper connection of components

(a) Given set of circuit components (b) Circuit diagram with wrong connection

41
 (a) Circuit diagram with proper components connected in correct order
(b) Given set of circuit components connected in corrected order

Procedure
Ammeter: It should be connected in series, with the battery eliminator.
Voltmeter: It should be connected in parallel to the resistor.
Rheostat: It should be connected in series (in place of resistance coil) with the battery
eliminator.
Resistance coil: It should be connected in parallel (in place of rheostat).
One way key: It should be connected in series to the battery eliminator.
Correct circuit diagram: (Components connected in proper order shown in figure)

42
 Activity- 4

Aim: To identify a diode, an LED, a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed collection of such
items.

Apparatus and material

Apparatus: Multimeter.
Material: Above mixed collection of items.

Theory:
For identification, appearance and working of each item will have to be considered.

1. A diode is a two terminal device. It conducts when forward biased and does not conduct
when reverse biased. It does not emit light while conducting. Hence, it does not glow.
2. A LED (light emitting diode) is also a two terminal device. It also conducts when
forward biased and does not conduct when reverse biased. It emits light while
conducting. Hence, it glows.
3. A resistor is a two terminal device. It conducts when either forward biased or reverse
biased. (In fact there is no forward or reverse bias for a resistor). It conducts even when
operated with A.C. voltage.
4. A capacitor is also a two terminal device. It does not conduct when either forward biased
or reverse biased. When a capacitor is connected to a D.C. source, then multimeter shows
full scale current initially but it decay to zero quickly. It is because that initially a capacitor
draw a charge.

The components to be identified are shown in figure.

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Procedure

1. If the item has two terminals, it may be diode, a LED, a resistor or a capacitor.

To differentiate proceed as ahead

Put the selector on resistance R of multimeter for checking the continuity. The probe
metal ends are inserted in terminal marked on the multimeter as common and P (or +
ve). If such that the black one is in common and red probe is in P (or + ve). On touching
the two ends of the device to the two other metal ends of probes.
(i) If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and does not move when reversed
and there is no light emission, the item is a diode.
(ii) If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and does not move when re-versed
and there is light emission, the item is a LED.
(iii) If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and also when reversed, the item
is a resistor.
(iv) If pointer does not move when voltage is applied in one way and also when reversed,
the item is a capacitor.

Observations:

Table 1:

S.No. Number of legs Name of device

1 Two Capacitor, Diode, LED
or resistor

Table 2:

S.No. Possible current Name of device

flow
1 Unidirectional Diode
emits no light
2 Unidirectional LED
emits light
3 Both directions Resistor
(steady)
4 Initially high but Capacitor
decays to zero

44
 Activity – 5

Aim: To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on a
glass slab.

Apparatus
Glass slab, drawing board, white paper sheet, drawing pins, office pins, protractor.

Theory
When a ray of light (PQ) incident on the face AB of glass slab, then it bends towards
the normal since refraction takes place from rarer to dense medium. The refracted ray (QR)
travel along straight line and incident on face DC of slab and bends away from the normal since
refraction takes place from denser to rarer medium. The ray(RS) out through face DC is called
emergent ray.

From the following diagram

1. The incident ray is parallel to the emergent ray i.e. ∠i = ∠e.

2. The emergent ray is laterally deviated from its original path (incident ray) by a distance
d = t sec r sin (i – r).

Procedure

1. Fix a white paper sheet by drawing pins on a drawing board.

2. Take a glass slab and put it symmetrically in the middle of the paper and mark its
boundary ABCD.

45
 3. Draw a normal at point Q on face AB and draw a line PQ making an angle i with the
normal. PQ will represent an incident ray.
4. Fix two pins at points 1 and 2 on the line PQ at distances 1 cm or more between
themselves.
5. See images of these pins through face DC and fix two more pins at points 3 and 4 (1 cm
or more apart) such that these two pins cover the images of first two pins, all being along
a straight line.
6. Remove the glass slab. Draw straight line RS through points 3 and 4 to represent
emergent ray. Join QR to represent refracted ray.
7. Draw normal at point R on face DC and measure angle e. It comes to be equal to
angle i.
8. Produce PQ forward to cut DC at T. Draw TU perpendicular to RS. TU measures lateral
displacement d.
9. Now take another set for different angle of incident and measure the lateral displacement.
10. Make small circles around each pin-pricks on the drawing sheet.
11. Start with a value of 30° for ∠i and repeat the process for 35°, 40°, 45° and 50° for ∠i.
12. The process can be repeated for glass slabs of different thickness.

Observations:

Least count of protractor = 1°

Least count of meter scale = 1 mm or 0.1 cm

S.No. Angle of incidence, ∠𝒊 Angle of Difference (i-e)

(degree) emergence, ∠e
(degree)
1 30° 30° 0°
2 45° 45° 0°

Result:

1. The angle of incidence (i) = Angle of emergence (e).

2. The lateral displacement increases with the increase in the thickness of the slab.
3. The lateral displacement increases with the angle of incidence (i).

46
 Activity – 6

Aim: To study the nature and size of the image formed by a convex lens on a screen by using
a candle and a screen (for different distances of the candle from the lens).

Apparatus: An optical bench with three uprights, a convex lens with holder, a burning candle,
a card-board screen.

Diagrams:

Theory:

The nature and size of the image formed by a convex lens depends on the position of object.
1 1 1
From the lens formula, 𝑓 = −𝑢
𝑣

For u = ∞, 𝑣 = 𝑓

For u = −2𝑓, 𝑣 = 2𝑓

For u = -f, 𝑣 = ∞

For u < (−𝑓), 𝑣 becomes negative (image becomes virtual)

47
Hence as the object (burning candle) is moved from infinity towards the convex lens, its image
(position of screen) moves away from the focus of the lens towards infinity.

For candle distance less than the focal length, image becomes virtual and does not appear on
the screen.

Procedure:

1. Find rough focal length of the convex lens by usual method.

2. Mount the convex lens in holder in central upright and keep it in the middle of the
optical bench.
3. Mount the card-board screen on another upright and keep it at distance equal to rough
focal length of the lens, from the central upright.
4. Mount the burning candle in third upright and keep it on the other side of the central
upright and near the end of the optical bench.
5. Adjust heights so that the inverted image of erect flame of burning candle is formed on
screen. Move the screen to make the image sharp. The screen will be nearly at the focus
of the convex lens.
6. The image will be real inverted and much more diminished.
7. As the burning candle is moved towards the lens on one side, the screen has to be moved
away from the lens on other side, for getting sharp flame image. The inverted image size
increases.
8. When the position of the candle is at distance 2f from the lens, the screen is also at same
distance on the other side. The image size will be equal to the actual flame size.
9. Move the candle further nearer to the lens. The screen has to be moved away for getting
an enlarged inverted real image on screen.
10. As the candle reaches the focus of the lens, the screen may not be able to get its image
which will be at infinity i.e. beyond the ends of the optical bench

Observations:

Nature, size and position of image by convex lens:

S.no Position of the Position of the Relative size of the Nature of

object image image the image
1 At 2F1 At 2F2 Same size Real and
inverted
2 Between F1 and 2F1 Beyond 2F2 Enlarged Real and
inverted

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 3 Beyond 2F1 Between F2 and 2F2 Diminished Real and
inverted
4 At focus F1 At infinity Infinitely large or Real and
highly enlarged inverted
5 Between focus On the same side of Enlarged Virtual and
F1 and optical center the lens as the object erect
O
6 At infinity At focus F2 Highly diminished, Real and
point-sized inverted

Result:

The nature and size of the images formed by a convex lens is according to theoretical
predictions.

49