CRYSTAL STRUCTURE (ER INTRODUCTION There are in nl four ptates Some other states like Bose-Einstein condensate gluon plasma also occur in extreme low temperature, extrem colour charged matter situations. The first four states a states whereas degenerate matter, Boxe-Einntein condensate mutter and Fermionic condensate aro high-energy states or © giuon plasma is very high energy state in which elementary and able to move independently in 4 sea of subatomic par and fixed volume. Liquid volume but are comp + tendency lid, liquid, gos and plume. matter and: quarks nd very high energy or phases of matter, viz neutron di nite shape but fixed ible fluids which to expand to fill the have no Solids have a definite volume. Gases do not have dofinit conform to the shape of its cont container Plasmas have free charged particles usually in equ «. Usually plasmas respond strongly to electromugnetic forces. The study of physics that deals with solids is knew” 8 solid state physics, Basically, solid state phy main branch of condensed matter physics which deals with solids as well as liquids sely to know what was special about the interior Many scientists have contributed im: f solids. Nicolaus Steno (1638-1686), o di ch seivntist was the Grst to study in 1669 that whatever was tho shape and size of the crystals, the angle between the corresponding faces was the same. He used quartz crystals and this work w carried further by Leeuwenhook (1682-1723) a dutch scientist an 1695, Domenico Gugleilimini (1655-1710) in 1688 published the same with other crystals. The observations of Nicolaus Steno were confirmed by Rome Delisie (1736-1790) in 1772. Abbe Hauy (1743-1822), a French Scientist in 1784 studied in detail the fundamental building bi of the crystals. He cut off calcite crystals in different directons and concluded that the smallest building block is a rhombohedral piece which iss uilding block was independent. of the crystul from which it was obtained, This smallest bi termed as unit cell, shape ax ya eeTT CRYSTAL StRUCTHny (a) ii) Hydrogen bonded molecular solids conta particles which are bonded wiqy hydrogen bond like water, NH>. HF vtec. Due to_ strong hydrogen bond thigy Molecules have a high melting and boiling F ‘nts. They exist ax volatile Liquid gp pak solids nt room temperature and pressure nt or Network solids are the solids cons! elements connected to each othior by covalent bond. H Farmed throughout the crystal and they form a giant mol carbide (SiC) ote. are some examples of nt wolids have high melting and boiling points. Covalent wolids graphite ax graphite bias n free fourth electron tn its Metallic solids are the solids consisting of atoms. ‘The attractive force between the charged metal ion and mobile valence electron is known aa metallic bond which ‘tallic bonds, metals can maintain isting of atomm of the same or differen sa network of covalent bondk jy 1. Diamond, graphite and silicon ¢ solids ure hard, brittle and he exception of Covale: a sulators with t r ahell positivel fialds the motal ions together. Due to the strong oe id have high melting and boiling points ‘The possess high are malleable and ductile. They have regular structure electrical and thermal conductivity bright lustre and colour due to free olectrons. Mellalic soli ‘Metal is a sea of mobile electrons. ; When the constituent atoms of a solid are not arranged in ‘arranged in a random manner, then the solid is called an Amorphous Solids definite geometrical pattern but a amorphous solid. Glass, cement, polymers, rubber talc pow » are some examples of amorphous solids. "The Greek word amorphous means without any form. The amorphous solids are also “called glassy solids ‘The properties of amorphous solids are () Amorphous solids do not possess definite geometrical shape Gi) Amorphous solids are not bounded by flat surfaces Gi) Amorphous solids do not have equally strong bonds (iv) There may be short range order in the structure of amorphous solids ie. the manner upto a small region. only. particles are arranged in a regular () Amorphous solids do not have sharp melting point Le. these solids first soften and then finally melt. ature i.e. their physical properties remain inall (vi) Amorphous solids are isotropic in n directions. (vii) Amorphous solids ore considered as s\ (viii) Amorphous solids are not considered as uper cooled liquids of high viscosity. ones a hous solids may be crystalline and rest m true solids, Due to short range ay be non-crystalline. pee ‘are known as pseudo solids. (ix) Unlike crystalline solid, amorphous solids d ive a clean surface after cleavit Uh cling so vgs cxmreguarteakags- —_FEREN ovenacroM OFXAAYSBY CRYSTALS aa ible i "Secay cam be acted by cevaale in the eae 70) Laege ha ke tat om oe, Ln a ae, (18791960) ‘a German physicist who won the cen Pipes in 1914 for this discovery. Osment us loctromagm ich w eae Sommerfeld (1868-1951) estimated that Xray form port of the ot rfeld (1 tical properties of X-rays, Sommerfel ere ee im. Crystallographere has estimated from a knowledge y wavelength of X-ray is about to" - density and molecular mass that apacing between two Inttice points im a crystal 18 also aboy 10""m. From those two physical facta it occurred to Max Von Laue that crystals serve y, diffraction gratings for X-rays and abow the phenomena of diffraction. He took the help of hy collongues Friedrich (1889-1968) and Knipping (1883-1935), x were used for demonstration of diffraction in erystals due to the fact that pivaactts of Xerays is comparnble to the interatomic spacing in actual erystals. For in sodium chloride (NaCl) crystal the atomic spacing is 2.8 x 10 m. Only X-rays have wavelength close to 10" m can show diffraction. Visible or ultraviolet light has largm ‘wavelengths and radiations of shorter wavelength like y-rays are diffracted through very small angles which ure difficult to measure. Thus, a crystal diffracts X-rays because X-rays are scattered elastically without change ol wavelength by the charged particles of the atoms in the crystal ‘When X-rays fall on a crystal, the electrons present in the atoms start vibrating with ‘frequency equal to that of incident X-ray beam under the effect of the electric field of the radiation. These electrons undergo acceleration and the accelerated electrons emit radiations of the same frequency as that of the incident X-rays. The secondary X- d inall directions, When X-rayn have large wavelength equal to that of the atomic dimensia all the radiations emitted by the electrons shall be in phase. On the other hand, if incident X-rays have the aume order of wavelength as that of the atomic dimensions, then: ‘radiations emitted by the electrons are out of phase with one another. These radiations m therefore exibit constructive or destructive interference ‘ing maxima or certain directions. Thus, crystal show diffraction pattern when X-rays fall on the cry f “There are two methods of calculating the conditions of diffraction in crystals. ita Qp+aRend c Now from the Fig. 1 62, QB=BR=dain? reflection which is called tlanggg whore @ in the angle of incidence as well a8 the angle ol angle. Thus, Qdsino=nAd where n =1, 2 3.4, = 2, wo have second order maxima and so on. The aboy If n= 1 it is first order. For n = 2 equation is known ax Braye’ Law The composition of basis determines the relative intensity of the various orders of diffraction from a given set of paralle! planes. From Bragg’s law it 18 obvious that in order to get diffraction effects, 4 < 2d otherwise the Inw will not hold good. Hence, with long Brage’s reflection with wavelength the Bragg'’s law does not operate Because of this the visible light is not possible. The maximum value of d is the lattice parameter a which is of the: order of 4 X 10-19 m. WERE) EXPERIMENTAL X-RAY DIFFRACTION METHODS 4 When X-rays fall on a single crystal, then Brage’s law requires that wavelength 2 and glancing angle @ must be matched. Thus to satisfy Bragg’s law it is necessary to change either A or 6. There are three important methods of crystal structure analysis, These methods are @ Laue method (ii) Rotating crystal method and (iii) Powder method Tn the first eae theta single crystals are used and in the third method, we use (i) Laue Method : In this method a single i ionary i [ crystal is kept statior the of of continuous eee. The crystal will select out and diffract discreta cath Picea ‘Spacing d and the incident angle @ such that Bragg law is ss dimensions oe crystal are 1 mm x 1 mm x 1mm. ind the wavelength of X-rays vai a aoe flat photographic film to receive either the transmitted oF experimental ce ena Nig, 165. The G