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Infrastructure Engineering Winter 2022
1. Define permanent way and explain the components of a permanent way with sketch.
Ans. . It consists of two parallel rails having specified distance in between and fastened
to sleepers, which are embedded in a layer of ballast of specified thickness spread over
the formation. The rails are joined each other by fish-plates and bolts (in case of fish-
plated tracks) or by welding (in case of S.W.R, LW.R. and C.W. R. as discussed later) and
these are fastened to sleepers by various fittings like keys and spikes etc. The sleepers
are spaced at a specified distance and are held in position by embedding in ballast.
. Each component of the track has a basic function to perform. The rails act a
girders to transmit the wheel loads of trains to the sleepers. The sleepers hold the rails
in proper position and provide a correct gauge and transfer the loads to the ballast.
The ballast is placed on level ground known as formation.
. The sleepers are embedded in ballast, which gives a uniform level surface, provide
drainage and transfer the load to a larger area of formation. The formation gives a
level surface, where the ballast rests and takes the total load of the track and trains
moving on it. The description of above components of track are described in coming
chapters. Fig. 1.1 shows various components of track.
Components Of Permanat way :
(i) Sub-grade or formation (ii) Ballast (iii) Sleepers (iv) Rails (v) Fixture and Fastening In a
permanent way, rails are joined either by welding or by using fish plates and are fixed with
sleepers by using different types of fastenings.
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2. Define rail. State its functions and Explain types of rails with suitable diagram.
Ans. Rails are the members of the track laid in two parallel lines to provide an unchanging,
continuous, and level surface for the movement of trains. To be able to withstand stresses, they
are made of high-carbon steel. through sleepers and the ballast.
Functions Of Rails
• Rails provide a continuous and level surface for the movement of the trains with
minimum friction with steel wheels of the rolling stock
• Rails provide strength, durability and lateral guidance to the track
• Rails transmit the axle load to sleepers, which transfer the same load to the underlying
ballast and formation
• Rails bear the stresses developed due to heavy vertical loads, breaking forces and
temperature variance.
• In the railway components section, the function of rails is to enhance efficiency and
longevity. Properly maintained rails improve the overall performance of the rail track
system.
3. Define Airport and Airport Engineering. Explain components of airport.
Ans. Airport Defination : a place where aircraft regularly take off and land, with buildings for
passengers to wait in.
Airport Engineering : The planning, design, construction, and operation and maintenance
of facilities providing for the landing and takeoff, loading and unloading, servicing,
maintenance, and storage of aircraft.
Components Of Airports: 1.Runway, 2. Taxiway, 3.Apron, 4. Terminal Building, 5.Control Tower,
6.Hanger, 7. Parking
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A. Runway : A runway is the area of an airport where an aircraft can land or takeoff. Their
length is determined by the size of the airport and the type of aircraft expected to land
there. Runways are oriented to the direction of the wind that blows the most in the area.
B. Taxiway : A taxiway is a path for aircraft at an airport connecting runways with aprons,
hangars, terminals and other facilities. They mostly have a hard surface such as asphalt or
concrete, although smaller general aviation airports sometimes use gravel or grass.
Taxi time is the total time of an aircraft's movement on the ground. Taxi time can be the
time it takes an aircraft to go from a hangar or terminal to the runway until cleared for
takeoff, or the aircraft's going from exiting the runway back to the hanger or terminal.
C. Apron : Apron is a place which is used as parking place for aircrafts. It is also used for
loading and unloading of aircrafts. Apron is generally paved and is located in front of
terminal building or adjacent to hangers. The size of area to be allotted for apron and
design of apron is generally governed by the number of aircrafts expected in the airport.
The aircraft characteristics also considered while design. Proper drainage facilities should
be provided with suitable slope of pavement. Sufficient clearances must be provided for
aircrafts to bypass each other.
D. Terminal Building : Terminal building is a place where airport administration facilities takes
place. In this building, pre-journey and post journey checking’s of passengers takes place.
Lounges, cafes etc. are provided for the passengers. Passengers can directly enter the plane
from terminal buildings through sky bridge, walkways etc. Similarly, the passengers from
plane also directly enter into the terminal building.
E. Control Tower : The control tower is a place where aircrafts under a particular zone is
controlled whether they are in land or in air. The observation is done by the controller
through radars and information is carried through radio. The controller from the control
tower observes all the aircrafts with in that zone and informs pilots about their airport
traffic, landing routes, visibility, wind speeds, runway details, etc. based on which the pilot
decides and attempts safe landing. So, control tower is like nerve system of an airport.
F. Hanger : Hanger is a place where repairing and servicing of aircrafts is done. Taxiway
connects the hanger with runway so, when a repair needed for an aircraft it can be moved
to hanger easily. It is constructed in the form of large shed using steel trusses and frames.
Large area should be provided for Hanger for comfortable movement of aircrafts.
G. Parking : This is a place provided for parking the vehicles of airport staff or passengers
which is outside the terminal building or sometimes under the ground of terminal building.
4. Define
a. Coning of wheel : The rim or flanges of the wheels are never made flat but they are in the
shape of a cone with a slope of about 1 to 20. This is known as coning of wheels. The
coning of wheels is manly done to maintain the vehicle in the central position with respect
to the track.
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b. Adzing of sleeper : To reduce these demerits, i.e. wear and tear and lateral stresses,
the rails are tilted at a slope of 1 in 20, which is also the slope of the wheel cone.
This is called "Tilting of Rails." This tilting of rail is provided by adzing the wooden
sleeper or by providing canted bearing plates as in This is called "Adzing of
Sleeper."
c. Tilting of Rails : Rails are tilted inward at an angle of 1 in 20 to reduce wear and tear on the
rails as well as on the tread of the wheels. As the pressure of the wheel acts near the inner
edge of the rail, there is heavy wear and tear on the rail. The tilting of rails can be achieved
by
d. Station : ATu
e. Gauge : To gauge is to measure or test. The verb gauge means to estimate or measure,
while the noun gauge is a tool you can use to make such a measurement.
f. Ballast : A ballast refers to the layer of crushed stones or rocks that is laid on the trackbed
to provide stability, drainage, and support to the railway tracks. It serves as a foundation
for the tracks, keeping them aligned, maintaining proper drainage, and distributing the
loads exerted by trains.The ballast layer is typically made up of hard, durable materials like
granite, basalt, or limestone, which are crushed into specific sizes and shapes.
5. Draw layout for simple turnout and explain any four components of Turnout.
1. Railroad Switch:
One set of railroad switch includes 2 stock rails, 2 switch rails and a switch machine. It is
used to change the position of switch rails by switch machine to ensure the turnout open
direction.
Stock Rail
Stock rail refers to the steel rail that made from standard rail profile, with one side straight
and the other side curved. To avoid stock rail from moving, rail braces are installed on the
outer side. The top of stock rails are always quenched to improve surface hardness and
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wear resistance.
Point Rail
Point rails, also named switch rail or point blades, which lie between the diverging stock
rails, are movable and direct the trains coming from the rail points towards either the
straight or the diverging track.
2. Connection Parts
Connection parts consist of 2 straight rails and 2 curve guide rails, which are help to
connect the switch rail with frog and guard rail as a complete railway turnout.
3. Frog and Guard Rail
This part is made up of guard rail, wing rail and railway frog to ensure the safety trains
passing through the junction of two routes.
Guard Rail
Guard rail, or called check rail, is a short rail fixed alongside the outer rail and opposite the
frog to guide the trail wheels passing through the appropriate flange way and avoid
derailing. Guard rails are placed in pairs, in other words, each frog require two check rails.
6. Explain types of railways crossing with neat labelled diagram.
7. Describe the full-face method of Tunneling in hard rock with neat labelled dia gram.
Ans. This method is suitable for small tunnels through stable and self-supporting rocks.
Since the fullsection is tackled in one continuous operation, additional units of tunneling
equipment and man poweris needed.The present day method of shield tunneling and
Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM) are very suitable forfull face method.The full face method is
a particularly useful for small tunnels having diameter below 6 m and facearea below 19
m2.The entire section is drilled, and the holes are loaded and the explosives are
discharged. The debris or broken rocks are collected through mucking equipmentIn case of
larger diameters the full face area increases above these limits and the equipment costs
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andsupport problems make the operation uneconomical. In the case of poor ground
conditions the problem becomes all the more difficult.
This method has the following advantages :
-The operation is simple and minimum quantity of equipment is needed.
-Total ground disturbances and settlement are minimum.
-Simplicity of work.
-In situations where multi-face excavation cannot be adopted this system provides
definiteadvantage.
-Mucking truck can be positioned once and for further mucking the position is shifted
inaccording to the progress of the work.
8. Sketch the various types of tunnels cross-section. State under what conditions each is
adopted.
The following shapes are generally used for tunnel cross-section :
1. Circular section
2. D shaped section
3. Horse-shoe section and Modified horse-shoesection
4. Egg shaped section and Egglipse section.
5. Rectangular section.
1. Circular Shape
. Tunnels with circular shape are the best for resisting external as well as internal pressure, hence
are used for tunnels carrying water under pressure.
. These tunnels can be easily constructed in soft soil and coft rocks.
.For constant perimeter, of all the shapes, circular shape offers maximum cross-sectional
area.Invert portion of the tunnel (i.e. bottom portion of circular tunnel) is required to be filled to
obtain a level surface, as such, a portion of tunnel is not utilized. The wastage is quite appreciable,
especially when tunnel for more than two traffic lanes is to be provided. Under such
circumstances, rectangular section becomes more economical.
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2. D Shaped Tunnel :
. Here, the width and height of tunnel is sufficient to accommodate operation equipment. Roof
consists of semi-circular or segmental arch. Side walls are vertical. Rock bolts are provided in roof
and side walls to increase stability. This section is suitable when firm to hard rock is encountered.
. D Section : D section would be found suitable in tunnels located in massive igneous, hard, quality
sedimentary rocks where the external pressure due to water or unsound strata upon the lining is
light and also where the lining is not required to be designed against internal pressure. The
principal advantages the section over horse-shoe section are the added width of the invert which
gives more working floor space in the heading during driving and the flatter invert which helps to
eliminate the tendency of wet concrete to slump and draw away from the tunnel sides after it has
been spread. compacted. Metamorphic and good
3. Horse-Shoe and Modified Horse-Shoe Section :
. Horse-shoe shape tunnels have semi-circular shape in crown roof portion, curved surface, curved
portion in side walls/below springing level and nearly flat portion in the invert/bottom portion.
The curved portion in the roof and sides help in resisting internal and external pressure, whereas
bottom portion provides nearly level surface required for railway and highway tunnels. This
section is also adopted in tunnels conveying water through hard soils and soft rock.
These sections are a compromise between circular and D sections. These sections are strong in
their resistance to external pressures. Quality of rock and adequate rock cover in terms of the
internal pressure to which the tunnel is subjected govern the use of thesesections. Modified horse-
shoe section offers the advantage of flat base for constructional ease and change over to circular
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section with minimum additional expenditure in reaches of inadequate rock cover and poor rock
formations.
4. Egg Shaped and Egglipse Section :
. Where the rock is stratified, soft and very closely laminated (as laminated sand stones, micaceous
schists, etc) and where the external pressure and tensile forces in the crown are likely to be high so
as to cause serious rock falls, egg shaped and egglipse sections should be considered. In the case of
these sections there is not much velocity reduction with reduction in discharge. Therefore, these
sections afford advantage in case of sewage tunnels and tunnels carrying sediments. Egglipse has
advantage over egg shaped section as it has a smoother curvature and is hydraulically more
efficient.
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5. Rectangular or Box Type Tunnels :
. The rectangular tunnels are small in depth and full use of cross-section can be made.
. Small rectangular tunnels are provided to house instrument to observe performance of main
tunnel with reference to settlement, pressure etc.
. When tunnel is to be designed for more than two traffic lanes, then providing circular tunnel
becomes uneconomical, since unnecessarily a very large volume of earth is required to be
removed. This increases cost of excavation etc. substantially.
9. Define the following terms related with tunnel Engineering
a. Crown : Definition. Crown. The configuration of the upper portion of a tunnel
section above the springline .
b. Drift : A drift is a small tunnel measuring 3 m x 3 m, which is driven into the rocks
and whose section is expanded in the later processes till it acquire the size of the
tunnel.
c. Invert : The lowest section of a tunnel , i.e., the floor . On a circular configuration, it
is approximately the bottom 90 degree of the arc of the tunnel. On a square-
bottom configuration, it is the bottom of the tunnel.
d. Heading : Heading is the digging of a smaller tunnel ahead of the main tunnel.
Heading during tunneling is carried out by excavation, support of excavated cavity
and removal of excavated earth. Heading proceeds in small sections ranging
between 0.5 to 1-m in soft ground.
e. Portal : Tunnel portals act as a marker or gateway for the wider city, encompassing
the character of the area in which they are placed, and are a point of transition
above or below ground. Tunnel portals often delineate suburban with urban and
give a sense of embrace on arrival and release on departure.
f. Spring line : The point where the curved portion of a tunnel roof meets the top of
the wall. In a circular tunnel the springlines are at the opposite ends of the
horizontal centerline.
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10. Define : a) Docks b) Harbour .State factors affecting on site selection for docks and harbour.
Air
11. Draw a sketch showing components of harbour. Define any two of them.
Ans. Harbour components
·Break waters ·Jetties .Pier heads .Entrance channels .Wharves
·Docking platforms .Piers .Quays
Breakwater:
. Breakwater are the structures constructed to enclose the harbours to protect them from the
effect of wind generated waves by reflecting and dissipating their force or energy.
· Classification of Breakwaters:
> Vertical wall breakwater.
> Heap or mound breakwater.
> Mound with super structure.
Vertical wall breakwater:
The construction of vertical breakwater is found advantageous under the following situations
>The depth of water is sufficiently large to prevent the breaking of waves.
> Sea bed is resistant to erosion. Foundations are not subject to uneven settlement.
ARMOUR UNITS
. Concrete armour units are generally applied in breakwaters and shore protections.
The units are placed in a single layer as the outer layer of the coastal structure. This outer
layer is called the armour layer.
JETTIES
· A jetty is a narrow structure projecting from the shore into the water with berths one or both
sides and sometimes at the end also.
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These are structures in the form of piles projections. They are built from the shore to the
deep water. They may be constructed in the sea or in a navigable river.
In the sea, jetties are provided at places where harbour entrance is affected by the sea is
shallow for a long distance. The jetties extend from the shore to the deep sea to receive the
ship.
-BERTHING AND TURNING BASINS
Berthing basins are used for the parking of ships
>While turning for the turning of ships
ENTRANCE CHANNEL:
>Depth and width are kept more at entrance
>Width depends upon density of traffic and no: of
Entrances
12. Explain any six components of bridge.
1. Deck :Deck is the portion that carries all the traffic.
2. Superstructure : The portion supports the deck slab and girder and connects
one sub-structure to the other. That means all the elements of the bridge
attached to a supporting system can be categorized as superstructure.
3. Sub-Structure : The parts of the bridge which support the superstructure and
transmit all the structural loads of the bridge to the foundations. For
example, piers, abutments, etc.
4. Foundation : Foundation is the portion that transmits loads to the bearing
strata. Foundation is required to support the piers, bridge towers, and portal
frames. Generally, piles and well foundations such as H-pile, bore piles, pipe
piles, or precast concrete piles are adopted.
5. Girder Or Beam : The beam or girder is the part of the superstructure which
bends along the span. The deck is supported by beams.
6. Bridge Tower : It is the vertical supporting part used for cable-stayed or
suspension bridges. High-strength concrete and Insitu method are adopted to
construct the bridge tower.
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7. Piers : Pier is the part of the substructure that supports the superstructure and
transfers loads of superstructure to the foundations. Pier is suitable for spanned
bridges with a maximum width of deck up to 8 m (2 traffic lanes).
The shape and size of the pier mainly depend on aesthetics, site, space, and
economic constraints of the construction. Usually, bridge pier is constructed
by in situ method with large panel formwork.
8. Pier Cap : Pier cap is the topmost part of a pier that transfers loads from the
superstructure to the pier. It is also known as headstock. It provides sufficient
seating for the girders and distributes the loads from the bearings to the
piers.
9. Bearing : Bearing is a device which supports the parts of superstructure and
transfers loads and movements from the deck to the substructure and foundation.
The main purpose of providing a bearing is to permit controlled movement
and decrease the stress involved.
10. Pile cap : Pile is a slender member driven into the surrounding soil to resist
the loads. Pile cap is a thick reinforced concrete slab cast on top of the group
piles to distribute loads.
13. Define tide. Explain types of tide and state uses of tides.
Ans . Run
Types Of Tide :
• High tide: when the sea water reaches its greatest height within the tide cycle. They are
shown in blue on the tide tables.
• Low tide: when the sea water reaches its lowest height within the tide cycle. They are
shown in red on the tide tables.
Mixed Tide
o Tides of varying heights are referred to as mixed tides. These tides are common along the
west coast of North America and on numerous Pacific Ocean islands.
o It occurs when two high tides and two low tides occur on the same lunar day, yet the
difference between the tides is generally significant. The tidal range refers to the height
difference between high and low tides.
Neap Tides
o The Sun and Moon are at right angles to each other seven days following a spring tide. The
bulge of the water created by the Sun somewhat balances out the bulge caused by the
Moon when this happens.
o This results in neap tides, which are moderate tides with slightly lower high tides and
slightly higher low tides than typical.
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o Neap tides occur between the first and third quarters of the Moon when the Moon seems
"half full."
o When the Moon is in its first and final quarters, the ocean waves are dragged in diagonally
opposed directions by the Sun and Earth's gravitational pull. This results in low tides.
Spring Tides
o The name spring tides are derived from the concept of the tide "springing forth." Spring
tides happen twice a month throughout the year, regardless of the season.
o The name "Spring" comes from the notion of the tide "springing forth." It happens on the
full Moon and new moon days when the Sun, Moon, and Earth are in the same line two
times when it is a lunar month.
Use Of Tide : Tides are useful, especially to the people belonging to the coastal
communities and such related areas. High tides help in navigation. Tides also bring in a lot
more fish closer to the shores, making it easier for the fishermen. Tides can also be
harnessed to generate energy.
14. State requirements of good harbour and explain classification of harbour based on utility
and location.
Requirements Of Harbour :
. A careful consideration and survey of the area with a view of ascertaining what type of
stones, gravel etc. are present and also the water.
. Provisions of good beaching ground, ample quay space easily accessible by road or rail is
important especially in smaller classes of harbour.
. The entrance of the harbour, the depth and width should be sufficient to cope up with the
density of traffic, degree of protection and the basic purpose of the harbour.
. The depth of water in the approach channel must be sufficient for navigation of vessel.
However, when such ideal conditions do not persist, proper considerations in the designing
must be done.
. The tuming basin, in which manoeuvring of the ship takes place, should be of area so that
the vessel can turn with continuous headway without the help of tug
. The harbour area must be clam and thereby contribute to safety of vessel by providing
breakwaters.
. Good holding ground and secure anchorage at various depths for all commercial purposes
including fishing and small squadron of war ships.
. Port and Harbour management should include measures to prevent serious harm to
people and protection for the marine environment.
Classification of Harbours based upon the Utility :
1 Harbours of refuge,
2. Commercial harbours,
3. Fishery harbours,
4. Military harbours and
5. Marina harbours.
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1. Harbours of Refuge : Naval ships or ships with aircrafts need refuge in emergency and
hence such harbours are provided. For example, Vizhinjam, India is a harbour of refuge.
2. Commercial Harbour : The harbour is used for loading and unloading cargos. Good and
emergency repair can also take place. These harbours are situated near coasts of estuaries
and or inland river coast. Kolkata is a commercial harbour.
3. Fishery Harbour : Harbour used specially for loading and unloading the catch is called as
fishery harbour. Fishery harbour should have refrigeration stores with plenty of storing
space for preserving the catch. Mangalore is a fishery harbour.
4. Military Harbour : It is a harbour to cater the needs of naval vessels. They serve as
depots too. Mumbai harbour is a military harbour.
5. Marina Harbours : These are the harbours which provide facilities like food, fuel,
telephone, etc. for owners of small boat. These types of harbours are having temporary or
permanent berths.
The harbours are classified, based upon the location as
follows :
1. Coastal Natural,
2. Coastal Breakwater,
3. Coastal Tide gates,
4. River Natural,
5. River Basins,
6. River Tide Hates.
7. Canal or Lake and
8. Open Roadstead.
1. Coastal Natural : Represents a sheltered site theoutcome of a natural profile of the
coast, creating a natural barrier such as a cape, a reef or an island. The above image
depicts the harbour of Kingston, Jamaica. About 2,100 (46.0%) ports are in this category.
underlining that the selection of a port site is dominantly influenced by the quality of the
harbour.
3. Coastal Tide Gates : A harbour behind a set of locks or other mechanical devices built to
insure sufficient water leveis in the harbour for all tide levels. In many cases, ships can
enter or exit the port only at certain times of the day when water levels are adequate.
Only 39 (0.8%) such ports exist, such as Mumbai port.
4. River Natural : A harbour located along a river where water is not retained in any
artificial means. Tne harbour often consists of quays or wharves parallel to the river banks.
Piers may also extend into the river. About 850 (18.5%) such ports exist, such as
acksonville, Florida.
S. River Basins : A river harbour where basins have been excavated to accommodate ships,
often parallel to the fow of the river. This confers the advantage of additional berth space
without impeding fluvial navigation. 77 (1.6%) such ports exist, including Bremen,
Germany.
6. River Tide Gates : A river harbour behind a set of locks or other mechanical devices built
to insure sufficient water levels in the harbour for all tide levels. Such harbours tend to be
located close to the ocean, such as in a river delta or estuary for the case of Bremenhaven,
Germany (estuary of the river Weser). Only 47 (1.0%) such ports exist
7. Canal or Lake : A harbour located aiong an artificial canal or by a river accessible through
a navigable waterway. 67 (1.4%) such ports exist, including Brugge, Belgium.
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15. What is Airport and explain the characteristics of Aircraft and Explain types of runways
with sketches.
Ans. . . Air Transportation is the fastest mode of transport.
. It carries goods and passengers through airways by using different aircrafts like passenger
aircraft, cargo aircraft, helicopters etc.
Besides passengers it generally carries goods that are less bulky or of high value. In hilly and
mountainous areas where other mode of transport is not accessible, air transport is an
important as well as convenient mode.
It is mostly used for transporting goods and passengers during natural calamities like
earthquake and floods etc. During war, air transport plays an important role in carrying
soldiers as well as supplies to the required areas.
. Air transport may be classified as domestic and international air transport.
. While domestic air transport mainly facilitates movement within the country, international air
transport is used for carrying goods and passengers between different countrics.
. Air transport is carried out in fixed air routes, which connect almost all the countries.
. An airport is an aerodrome with extended facilities. mostly for commercial air transport.
. Airports often have facilities to store and maintain aircraft, and a control tower.
. An airport consists of a landing area, which comprises an aerially accessible open space including
at least one operationally active surface such as a runway for a plane to take off or a helipad, and
often includes adjacent utility buildings such as control towers, hangars and terminals.
Larger airports may have airport aprons, taxiway ,bridges, air traffic control centre's, passenger
facilities
such as restaurants and lounges, and emergency services.
Characterstics Of Aircraft :
Aircraft characteristics are of prime importance to the airport planner and designer. The
following characteristics need to be studied
1. Type of propulsion, 2. Size of aircraft, 3. Minimum turning radius, 4. Minimum circling radius
5. Speed of aircraft, 6. Capacity of aircraft, 7. Aircraft weight , 8. Jet blast, 9. Fuel spillage ,10. Noise
Types Of Runway :
A. Runway : A runway is the area of an airport where an aircraft can land or takeoff. Their
length is determined by the size of the airport and the type of aircraft expected to land
there. Runways are oriented to the direction of the wind that blows the most in the area.
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B. Taxiway : A taxiway is a path for aircraft at an airport connecting runways with aprons,
hangars, terminals and other facilities. They mostly have a hard surface such as asphalt or
concrete, although smaller general aviation airports sometimes use gravel or grass.
Taxi time is the total time of an aircraft's movement on the ground. Taxi time can be the
time it takes an aircraft to go from a hangar or terminal to the runway until cleared for
takeoff, or the aircraft's going from exiting the runway back to the hanger or terminal.
C. Apron : Apron is a place which is used as parking place for aircrafts. It is also used for
loading and unloading of aircrafts. Apron is generally paved and is located in front of
terminal building or adjacent to hangers. The size of area to be allotted for apron and
design of apron is generally governed by the number of aircrafts expected in the airport.
The aircraft characteristics also considered while design. Proper drainage facilities should
be provided with suitable slope of pavement. Sufficient clearances must be provided for
aircrafts to bypass each other.
D. Terminal Building : Terminal building is a place where airport administration facilities takes
place. In this building, pre-journey and post journey checking’s of passengers takes place.
Lounges, cafes etc. are provided for the passengers. Passengers can directly enter the plane
from terminal buildings through sky bridge, walkways etc. Similarly, the passengers from
plane also directly enter into the terminal building.
E. Control Tower : The control tower is a place where aircrafts under a particular zone is
controlled whether they are in land or in air. The observation is done by the controller
through radars and information is carried through radio. The controller from the control
tower observes all the aircrafts with in that zone and informs pilots about their airport
traffic, landing routes, visibility, wind speeds, runway details, etc. based on which the pilot
decides and attempts safe landing. So, control tower is like nerve system of an airport.
F. Hanger : Hanger is a place where repairing and servicing of aircrafts is done. Taxiway
connects the hanger with runway so, when a repair needed for an aircraft it can be moved
to hanger easily. It is constructed in the form of large shed using steel trusses and frames.
Large area should be provided for Hanger for comfortable movement of aircrafts.
G. Parking : This is a place provided for parking the vehicles of airport staff or passengers
which is outside the terminal building or sometimes under the ground of terminal building.
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