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Summer 2022 Infrastructure Engineering

1. Illustrate the term permanent way and Explain the Components of a permanent
way.
Ans. It consists of two parallel rails having specified distance in between and fastened
to sleepers, which are embedded in a layer of ballast of specified thickness spread over
the formation. The rails are joined each other by fish-plates and bolts (in case of fish-
plated tracks) or by welding (in case of S.W.R, LW.R. and C.W. R. as discussed later) and
these are fastened to sleepers by various fittings like keys and spikes etc. The sleepers
are spaced at a specified distance and are held in position by embedding in ballast.
. Each component of the track has a basic function to perform. The rails act a
girders to transmit the wheel loads of trains to the sleepers. The sleepers hold the rails
in proper position and provide a correct gauge and transfer the loads to the ballast.
The ballast is placed on level ground known as formation.
. The sleepers are embedded in ballast, which gives a uniform level surface, provide
drainage and transfer the load to a larger area of formation. The formation gives a
level surface, where the ballast rests and takes the total load of the track and trains
moving on it. The description of above components of track are described in coming
chapters. Fig. 1.1 shows various components of track.
Components Of Permanat way :
(i) Sub-grade or formation (ii) Ballast (iii) Sleepers (iv) Rails (v) Fixture and
Fastening In a permanent way, rails are joined either by welding or by
using fish plates and are fixed with sleepers by using different types of
fastenings.
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2. Write Short notes on Fixture & Fastening.

Ans. . a) Fixture : something that is fixed or attached (as to a building) as a permanent
appendage or as a structural part
b) Fastening : A f fastening is a hardware device that mechanically joins or affixes two
or more objects together. In general, fasteners are used to create non-permanent joints;
that is, joints that can be removed or dismantled without damaging the joining
components.

Types Of fastening :
Screws: An externally threaded fastener with high durability and better grip strength
· Bolts: A partially threaded fastener that holds two parts together also called threaded
bolts
· Nuts: It is internally threaded and fits into a bolt for securing objects and preventing
loosening
· Rivets: It forms permanent joints between objects, also contains pop rivets
· Washers: A flat disc that is used with a nut and bolt for load distribution
· Nails: A long and thin piece of metal used for joining objects
· Anchors: it is used for fixing objects to concrete surfaces

Types Of Fixtures :
1.Turning Fixtures:
These fixtures are generally mounted on the nose of the machine spindle or a faceplate,
and the workpieces hold them. The fixture may have to be provided with a counterweight
or balance the unbalance fixture whenever necessary.
2. Milling Fixtures:
Milling fixtures are typically mounted on the nose of the machine spindle or a faceplate,
and the workpieces hold them. The table is shifted and set in the proper position about
the cutter. The workpieces are located in the base of the fixture and clamped before
starting the operation.
3. Broaching Fixtures:
Broaching fixtures are used on different broaching machines to locate, hold and support
the workpieces during the operations, such as keyway broaching operations, such as
keyway broaching, hole broaching, etc.
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+4. Indexing Fixtures:

Several components need machining on different surfaces such that their machined
surface surfaces or forms are evenly spaced. Such elements must be indexed equally as
many as the number of surfaces to be machined. The holding devices (jigs or fixtures) used
are made to carry a suitable indexing mechanism. A fixture having such a device is known
as an indexing fixture
5. Tapping Fixtures:
Tapping fixtures are specially designed to position and firmly secure identical workpieces
to cut internal threads in drilled holes. Odd-shaped and unbalanced components will
always need such fixtures, especially when the tapping operation is to be carried out
repeatedly on a mass scale on such parts.
6. Duplex Fixtures:
It is the name given to the fixture which holds two similar components simultaneously and
facilitates simultaneously machining of these components at two separate stations.
Welding Fixtures:

Welding fixtures are carefully designed to hold and support the various components
welded in proper locations and prevent distortions in welded structures. For this, the
locating element needs to be careful; clamping has to be light but firm, and the
placement of clamping elements has to be clear of the welding area. The fixture must
be pretty stable and rigid to withstand the welding stresses.

3. State necessity for geometric design of Rail way track.

Ans. Most of the train derailments occur due to following reasons.

a.Track defects, b Vehicular defects, c. Operational defects

The Civil Engineer is mainly concerned with track defects. In order that no
derailment takes place, he should be aware of the track defects and how to remove
them. Railway track should be so designed, suiting to load and speed of the train
and meeting the safety and economy requirements.

A train may derail on straight track due to following reasons.

A) Defective cross levels, B) Defective alignment, C) Defective gauge,

D) Low joints,
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On curved tracks, in addition to this, derailments occur due

to following reasons :

. Improper super-elevation,

. Improper radius of the curve,

. Improper speed,

. Unequal distribution of loads on two rails.

. Over turnouts and points and crossings, the derailments may cccur to following
causes.

. Gaping points,

. Lifting of toe of switch due to inadequate fittings,

. Improper assembly of crossing, loose crossing bolts or wing rails than the
crossing nose.

. Excessive wear in switches.

. Tight gauge and defective check clearances at the nose of crossing.

Hence, the possibility of derailment due to defects in the track can be avoided, if
all the above elements are properly designed. Cross levels, gauges, rail joints,
elements of turnouts have already been discussed in previous chapters. In this
chapter, following elements of a Railway track are discussed.

. Gradients, types and grade compensation,

· Alignment,

. Curves, and

. Speeds on curves.
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4. Define. 1) Coning of Wheel 2) Adzing of sleeper 3) Tilting Of Rail

4) Staition Yard

Ans. 1) Coning o Wheel :

. The distance between the inside edges of the wheel flanges is generally kept
less than the gauge. So, there is a gap between the inside edge of flange and the
running face of the rail nearly equal to 10 mm on either side.

. The thread of the wheels of a railway vehicle are not made flat, but sloped like a cone
in order to enable these vehicles to move smoothly on curves as well as on straight
track. (Coning of wheels). The wheels generally, remain central on a straight and level
surface and the circumferences of the threads of both the vehicles are equal as can
be seen

. The problem, however, arises in case of a curve, when the outer wheel has to
negotiate more distance on a curve compared to the inner wheel. Due to centrifugal
force, the vehicle on a curve tends to move out and the circumference of the thread of
outer wheel thus becomes greater than that of inner wheel. This helps the outer wheel
to travel longer than the inner wheel.

. The wheels of the railway vehicles are connected by axles, which in turn are fixed on
a rigid frame. Due to rigidity of the frame, the rear axle has a tendency to move towards
inner rail and this does not permit the leading axle to take full advantage of the coning.
The rigidity of the frame, however, helps to bring the vehicle back in the central position
and thus works as a balancing factor.

. Hence, it is seen that either the wheel must slip equal to the difference of length or
the axle must slightly move outwards to provide a thread of longer diameter over the
outer rail and smaller diameter over the inner rail

2) Adzing of sleeper :
To reduce these demerits, i.e. wear and tear and lateral stresses, the rails are tilted at a
slope of 1 in 20, which is also the slope of the wheel cone. This is called "Tilting of
Rails." This tilting of rail is provided by adzing the wooden sleeper or by providing
canted bearing plates as in This is called "Adzing of Sleeper."
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3) Tilting Of rail :
: Rails are tilted inward at an angle of 1 in 20 to reduce wear and tear on the rails
as well as on the tread of the wheels. As the pressure of the wheel acts near the
inner edge of the rail, there is heavy wear and tear on the rail. The tilting of rails
can be achieved by

4) Station Yard :
. the place or position in which something or someone stands or is assigned to
stand or remain. ,
any of the places in a manufacturing operation at which one part of the work is
done

5. Draw layout for simple turnout and explain any four components of Turnout.

Ans.
1. Railroad Switch:
One set of railroad switch includes 2 stock rails, 2 switch rails and a switch machine. It is
used to change the position of switch rails by switch machine to ensure the turnout open
direction.

Stock Rail
Stock rail refers to the steel rail that made from standard rail profile, with one side straight
and the other side curved. To avoid stock rail from moving, rail braces are installed on the
outer side. The top of stock rails are always quenched to improve surface hardness and
wear resistance.

Point Rail
Point rails, also named switch rail or point blades, which lie between the diverging stock
rails, are movable and direct the trains coming from the rail points towards either the
straight or the diverging track.
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2. Connection Parts
Connection parts consist of 2 straight rails and 2 curve guide rails, which are help to
connect the switch rail with frog and guard rail as a complete railway turnout.

3. Frog and Guard Rail

This part is made up of guard rail, wing rail and railway frog to ensure the safety trains
passing through the junction of two routes.

Guard Rail
Guard rail, or called check rail, is a short rail fixed alongside the outer rail and opposite the
frog to guide the trail wheels passing through the appropriate flange way and avoid
derailing. Guard rails are placed in pairs, in other words, each frog require two check rails.

6. Enlist Types Of station and Explain in details.

Ans.

1) Block Stations :

A block station is a station at which the driver has to obtain an 'authority to proceed' in order
to enter the next block section. In a railway system that is inclusive of block stations, the entire
railway line is divided into convenient block sections of 5 to 10 km and a block station is
provided at the end of each block. This system ensures that a suitable 'space interval' is
provided between running trains so that there are no collisions and accidents. There are three
types of block stations.

2) A class station :

A class stations are normally provided on double-line sections. At such stations a 'line clear'
signal cannot be granted at the rear of a station unless the line on which a train is to be
received is clear and the facing points set and locked. No shunting can be done after line clear
has been granted.

A class stations are suitable for sections where traffic passes rapidly. It is essential for the
driver of the train to have an advance knowledge of the layout of the block station. The typical
layout of an A class station with two-aspect signalling

3) B class station :

This is the most common type of station and is provided on single-line as well as double-line
sections. At a B class station , the line has to be clear up to an adequate distance beyond the
outer signal before 'permission to approach' can be given to a train. The minimum signals
required at a B class station are as follows.
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4) The C class station :

The C class station (Fig. 26.3) is only a block hut where no booking of passengers is done. It is
basically provided to split a long block section so that the interval between successive trains is
reduced. No train normally stops at these stations. The minimum signals required are as
follows.

5) 2 Non-block Stations or D Class Stations :

D class or non-block stations are located between two block stations and do not form the
boundary of any block section. No signals are provided at D class stations.

A D class station that serves an outlying siding is called a DK station. At such a station, the
siding takes off through a crossover, which can be operated only with the help of a key, which
in turn is released with the help of a ball token. A D class station that serves no siding is called
a flag station.

6) 3 Functional Classification of Stations :

The layout of stations varies in size and importance according to the type and volume of traffic
handled and according to their locations with respect to cities or industrial areas. Broadly
speaking, the layouts required for passenger stations and their yards can be divided into the
following categories for the purpose of study.

7) Halt

A halt (Fig. 26.4) is the simplest station where trains can stop on a railway line. A halt usually
has only a rail level platform with a name board at either end. Sometimes a small waiting shed
is also provided, which also serves as a booking office. There is no yard or station building or
staff provided for such types of stations. Some selected trains are allotted a stoppage line of a
minute or two at such stations to enable passengers to entrain or detrain. The booking of
passengers is done by travelling ticket examiners or booking clerks. A notable example of the
halt is a Gurhmukteshwar bridge halt, which is situated on the bank or river Ganga.

8) Flag station

A flag station (Fig. 26.5) is more important as a stop-over for trains than a halt and is provided
with a station building and staff. On controlled sections, a flag station is equipped with either a
Morse telegraph or a control phone, which is connected to one of the stations on either side to
facilitate easy communication. A flag station is usually provided with a small waiting hall and
booking office, platforms and benches, and arrangements for drinking water. Sometimes a flag
station is also provided with a siding for stabling wagons booked for that station.

9)Wayside or crossing station

After a flag station comes the wayside or crossing station. While a flag station has
arrangements for dealing with traffic but none for controlling the movement of the trains, a
crossing station has arrangements for controlling the movement of trains on block sections.
The idea of a crossing station was initially conceived for single-line sections, to facilitate the
crossing of trains going in opposite directions so that there may be a more rapid movement of
trains.
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10) Junction stations

A junction station is the meeting point of three or more lines emerging from different
directions. Normally at junctions, trains arrive on branch lines and return to the same station
from where they started or proceed to other stations from where they again return to their
originating stations.

The typical layout of a junction station with a single main line and a single branch line is
shown in Fig. 26.9. The important features of junction stations are as follows.

11) Terminal station

The station at which a railway line or one of its branches terminates is known as a terminal
station or a terminal junction (Fig. 26.11). The reception line terminates in a dead end and
there is provision for the engine of an incoming train to turn around and move from the front
to the rear of the train at such a station. In addition, a terminal station may need to be
equipped with facilities for watering, cleaning, coaling, fuelling, and stabling the engines;
storing, inspecting, washing and charging the carriages; and such other works.

7. Describe the full-face method of Tunneling in hard rock with neat labelled dia
gram.
Ans. This method is suitable for small tunnels through stable and self-supporting
rocks. Since the fullsection is tackled in one continuous operation, additional units
of tunneling equipment and man poweris needed.The present day method of
shield tunneling and Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM) are very suitable forfull face
method.The full face method is a particularly useful for small tunnels having
diameter below 6 m and facearea below 19 m2.The entire section is drilled, and the
holes are loaded and the explosives are discharged. The debris or broken rocks are
collected through mucking equipmentIn case of larger diameters the full face area
increases above these limits and the equipment costs andsupport problems make
the operation uneconomical. In the case of poor ground conditions the problem
becomes all the more difficult.
This method has the following advantages :
-The operation is simple and minimum quantity of equipment is needed.
-Total ground disturbances and settlement are minimum.
-Simplicity of work.
-In situations where multi-face excavation cannot be adopted this system provides
definiteadvantage.
-Mucking truck can be positioned once and for further mucking the position is
shifted inaccording to the progress of the work.
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8. Sketch the various types of tunnels cross-section. State under what conditions each
is adopted.
Ans. 1. Circular section
2. D shaped section

3. Horse-shoe section and Modified horse-shoesection

4. Egg shaped section and Egglipse section.

5. Rectangular section.

1. Circular Shape

. Tunnels with circular shape are the best for resisting external as well as internal pressure, hence
are used for tunnels carrying water under pressure.

. These tunnels can be easily constructed in soft soil and coft rocks.

.For constant perimeter, of all the shapes, circular shape offers maximum cross-sectional
area.Invert portion of the tunnel (i.e. bottom portion of circular tunnel) is required to be filled
to obtain a level surface, as such, a portion of tunnel is not utilized. The wastage is quite
appreciable, especially when tunnel for more than two traffic lanes is to be provided. Under
such circumstances, rectangular section becomes more economical.

2. D Shaped Tunnel :

. Here, the width and height of tunnel is sufficient to accommodate operation equipment. Roof
consists of semi-circular or segmental arch. Side walls are vertical. Rock bolts are provided in roof
and side walls to increase stability. This section is suitable when firm to hard rock is encountered.

. D Section : D section would be found suitable in tunnels located in massive igneous, hard, quality
sedimentary rocks where the external pressure due to water or unsound strata upon the lining is
light and also where the lining is not required to be designed against internal pressure. The
principal advantages the section over horse-shoe section are the added width of the invert which
gives more working floor space in the heading during driving and the flatter invert which helps to
eliminate the tendency of wet concrete to slump and draw away from the tunnel sides after it has
been spread. compacted. Metamorphic and good
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3. Horse-Shoe and Modified Horse-Shoe Section :

. Horse-shoe shape tunnels have semi-circular shape in crown roof portion, curved surface, curved
portion in side walls/below springing level and nearly flat portion in the invert/bottom portion.
The curved portion in the roof and sides help in resisting internal and external pressure, whereas
bottom portion provides nearly level surface required for railway and highway tunnels. This
section is also adopted in tunnels conveying water through hard soils and soft rock.

These sections are a compromise between circular and D sections. These sections are strong in
their resistance to external pressures. Quality of rock and adequate rock cover in terms of the
internal pressure to which the tunnel is subjected govern the use of thesesections. Modified horse-
shoe section offers the advantage of flat base for constructional ease and change over to circular
section with minimum additional expenditure in reaches of inadequate rock cover and poor rock

formations.
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4. Egg Shaped and Egglipse Section :

. Where the rock is stratified, soft and very closely laminated (as laminated sand stones, micaceous
schists, etc) and where the external pressure and tensile forces in the crown are likely to be high so
as to cause serious rock falls, egg shaped and egglipse sections should be considered. In the case of
these sections there is not much velocity reduction with reduction in discharge. Therefore, these
sections afford advantage in case of sewage tunnels and tunnels carrying sediments. Egglipse has
advantage over egg shaped section as it has a smoother curvature and is hydraulically more
efficient.

5. Rectangular or Box Type Tunnels :

. The rectangular tunnels are small in depth and full use of cross-section can be made.

. Small rectangular tunnels are provided to house instrument to observe performance of main
tunnel with reference to settlement, pressure etc.

. When tunnel is to be designed for more than two traffic lanes, then providing circular tunnel
becomes uneconomical, since unnecessarily a very large volume of earth is required to be
removed. This increases cost of excavation etc. substantially.

1. Define the following terms related with tunnel Engineering

a. Crown : Definition. Crown. The configuration of the upper portion of a tunnel
section above the springline .
b. Drift : A drift is a small tunnel measuring 3 m x 3 m, which is driven into the rocks
and whose section is expanded in the later processes till it acquire the size of the
tunnel.
c. Invert : The lowest section of a tunnel , i.e., the floor . On a circular configuration, it
is approximately the bottom 90 degree of the arc of the tunnel. On a square-
bottom configuration, it is the bottom of the tunnel.
d. Heading : Heading is the digging of a smaller tunnel ahead of the main tunnel.
Heading during tunneling is carried out by excavation, support of excavated cavity
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and removal of excavated earth. Heading proceeds in small sections ranging

between 0.5 to 1-m in soft ground.
e. Portal : Tunnel portals act as a marker or gateway for the wider city, encompassing
the character of the area in which they are placed, and are a point of transition
above or below ground. Tunnel portals often delineate suburban with urban and
give a sense of embrace on arrival and release on departure.
f. Spring line : The point where the curved portion of a tunnel roof meets the top of
the wall. In a circular tunnel the springlines are at the opposite ends of the
horizontal centerline.

9. Explain Any Four types of Explosive used in Tunnel Construction.

Ans. In general, an explosive has four basic characteristics:
. It is a chemical compound or mixture ignited by heat, shock, impact, friction, or a
combination of these conditions
. Upon ignition, it decomposes rapidly in a detonation;
. There is a rapid release of heat and large quantities of high-pressure gases that
expand rapidly with sufficient force to overcome confining forces
The energy released by the detonation of explosives produces four basic effects:
1. Rock fragmentation
2. Rock displacement
3. Ground vibration
4. Air blast
Classification of explosives
Low Explosives
. Low explosives deflagrate rather than detonate. Their reaction velocities are 2000 to less
than 3000 feet per second
High Explosives
. A high explosive is any chemical mixture that detonates with a reaction velocity of over
5000 feet per second .. High explosives are
· Straight Dynamite · Ammonia Dynamite
· Gelatin Dynamite · Semi-gelatin Dynamite

Ammonia Dynamite is used for tunneling in soft rocks.

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10.State factors affecting on site selection for docks and harbour.

a. Ans. Docks : Dock is an enclosed area of water used for loading. unloading, building
or repairing ships. Such a dock may be created by building enclosing harbour walls into
an existing natural water space, or by excavation within what would otherwise be dry
land.
. Ships often require a range of services when they dock and an assortment of firms
offer those services, sometimes at a premium in obscure ports.

b. Harbour : Large vessels are economic means of transport of cargo and goods. However
to unload this cargo the vessel needs to be protected from the fury of sea. And this is
done in a harbour where ships, boats, and barges can seek shelter from stormy
weather, in navigable waters well protected naturally or artificially and is situated
along sea shore or river estuary or lake or canal connected to sea.

Factors Affecting On Site selection For

1. Harbour :

Optimization of planning, site selection and design processes are essential, as mitigation or
restoration during or after construction can be prohibitively expensive. While socio-economic
factors are important determinants in site selection, environmental aspects must also be
considered.

Following factors are required to be considered for

selection of site for harbour :

. Port facilities not only require large areas of coastal land and waters for their construction,
conversion ur extension, but also for the operation of all port installations, accompanying
industrial and commercial installations and transport systems.

. Connections to land transportation such as highways, railways and pipelines.

. Facilitics capable containerships require long berth lengths, large cranes and railway or highway
access.

. Specific attention should be given to the potential loss of critical habitat and to morphological
changes including coastal erosion and degradation of water quality.

. Careful site selection may reduce the potentially hazardous environmental impacts and the cost
of mitigation and/or restoration, as well as lessen public controversy.

. Depending upon the type of harbour, the type of vessel visiting the harbour, the depth for draft of
the vessel must be decided.

. A clear survey about the strata available must be done.

. The site must be selected in such a way that it must be able to provide maximum facilities to all
the vessels of accommodating large.
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11.Write Short note on Inland Water Transport in India.

Ans. Earlier, waterways were the main mode of transport in India, as it
was the cheapest and easiest way to move from one place to another. But
in the present scenario, railways and roadways are preferred more than
waterways.
Inland water transportation is available in only a few states of India,
mainly in Kerala, Gujarat, West Bengal and Assam. It is difficult for other
states to avail of this mode of transport as the rivers are unnavigable most
of the time due to the low water depth.
The Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) has identified 111
waterways in India, including rivers, canals, backwaters and creeks. Of
these, only 16 waterways have been declared National Waterways by the
Government of India. These national waterways are maintained by the
Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI), a statutory body established
in 1986 under the Ministry of Shipping, Road Transport & Highways
(MOSRTH). Inland water transportation is also called Inland shipping
Waterborne transportation or Inland Navigation Domestic Navigation or
Inland Trade.
Inland Waterways Authority of India
The Inland Waterways Authority of India(IWAI) was constituted in October
1986 to develop and regulate inland waterways for shipping and
navigation. The Inland Waterways Authority of India primarily undertakes
projects about developing and maintaining IWT infrastructure on national
waterways through grants from the Ministry of Shipping. IWAI is chaired
by the Minister for Shipping (India). Its headquarters is located in Noida,
and it has regional offices at Patna, Kolkata, Guwahati, Allahabad and
Kochi.
The authority is responsible for developing and maintaining the inland
waterways for shipping and navigation. The authority is currently trying to
expand the country’s waterways network. The authority has completed
making the river Ganga from Varanasi to Haldia navigable. It has also
made Brahmaputra’s Dhubri-Sadiya stretch navigable. Some parts of the
river Brahmaputra have been made navigable, and some parts of river
Barak in Assam.
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The main objective is to increase freight traffic for domestic cargo

movement to reduce road congestion and improve inland water transport
systems, which could play a significant role in economic development.
Conclusion
Inland waterways have numerous benefits. Many of these benefits are
related to freight transportation. The major advantage is that it will save
us money. It also helps us reduce traffic levels and climate change
throughout the globe. Since it does not produce any pollution, it is
considered a better option than the other modes of transportation
available. They can also transport passengers, and this is commonly
known as canal boat cruises. In the end, we can say that the transport
system is becoming more efficient by using inland waterways for a safer
and faster journey.

12.What are the different stages of Bridge Planning & Write a short note
on standard specification of Bridge.
Ans.
1. Identifying the need for the bridge
2. Assessment of traffic possible and required in the area proposed to
construct the bridge
3. Study the location
4. Study of all possible alternatives
5. Refining and short listing all possible alternatives
6. Identifying conceptual plans for the alternatives. This involves finding
the materials, the arrangement of the span and the form.
7. Preliminary design and the cost estimation
8. Evaluating the alternatives, its risk and the final choice of decision
9. Resource source identification by detailed surveying
10.Implementation with the help of bidding documents. This is followed
by carrying out by fixing the agency, the construction details, and their
commissioning.
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Stages of Bridge Planning :

1. Study on need for Bridge
The decision of having a new bridge in an area is taken as a part of
development of the society. This facilitates the feasibility of linking the
cities and towns, which gain more importance in the overall growth of a
nation. Their need is studied based on the socio-economic viabilities.
2. Traffic Assessment for Bridge Construction
An assessment of the traffic type and its quantum is necessary to decide
the following factors:
• Number of lanes on the road or the railway tracks
• The geometric design parameters
• Benefits acquired by the society
The data collection for this must be done carefully so that a proper idea on
how the traffic pattern, the growth strategies such as agricultural,
industrial as well commercial developments are influenced. The bridge
construction has a huge investment at the initial stages. Once completed,
a small variation or renovation is not recommended. So, it is advised to
bring a design that considers the future capacity requirements and traffic
factors. The traffic assessment study should be considered the following
factors into consideration. This mainly is carried out with the help of a
traffic planner or an Economist.
• The traffic composition, in terms of light and the heavy vehicles
• The maximum and the minimum speed requirements
• The annual growth rate and their variations
• The design life of the bridge
3. Location Study for Bridge Construction
While having a location study and fixing the location of the bridge, it is
very essential to consider the need and the location of cross drainage
works if any. The cross-drainage work is said to have 15 to 20 % of the
overall project cost if it must be implemented. Hence before choosing the
alignment for bridge construction, it is necessary to determine all the
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possible CD works and its effect. The following factors are considered
reliable in fixing the location of the bridge.
• Location chosen over a stream with no bends or meanders. It will be
straight in reach.
• A stream with no branches or tributaries
• The location being confined with properly defined banks
• If the bridge or the culvert is with the road approach, on either side
having maximum extent
• If the crossing is normal to the alignment of the road and angle of skew
is necessary, limit it.
4. Reconnaissance Survey for Bridge Construction
This is a pre-feasibility study, which studies the entire reach of the river,
that must be crossed; to find out best and suitable position for bridge
location. The factors each site satisfies are taken as lists and each is
analyzed individually, from which the best consideration is chosen. The
final number of feasible sites must be refined down to three or four, this
can be done only by going in detail of each site and refining the most
suitable ones. During this stage, maps are used to locate theses feasible
sites. The direct assessment of the site is made to understand the location
features (local criteria), studying the existing and growth of traffic with the
help of surveys, knowing information from the people residing, simple
routes and short cuts in the area, river flow and its spread are also
studied. A feasibility study on the economy of cost, the duration of
construction, the sources of resources are also assessed. Now the whole
information is gathered and a comparison is made. Based on the
discussion and refinement, the best feasible site for implementation is
chosen.
5. Preliminary Engineering for Bridge Construction
This stage of planning can be called as a techno-economic feasibility study.
Here, the technical details related to the bridge construction is studied in a
detailed manner, to bring all possible alternatives to proceed the
construction. Mainly it is found that the total cost of the project is plus or
minus 15% of the cost that is estimated at this stage of planning. To
process the technical study, minimum level of field study and
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measurements, the location study, and related parameters must be

done. This study carried out at the bridge construction site should bring
the following tabulated content details:
1. The total length of the bridge
2. The length of approaches
3. If detours are present, their respective savings
4. The anticipated volume of traffic
5. The distance to the nearby city or town from the site
6. Expected bridge project period
7. The nature of stream flowing into the site
8. The nature and behavior of soil strata for foundation
9. The construction problems existing with bridges or approaches
10.Maintenance for the bridges or approaches if any
11.The internal rate of return or the cost benefit ratio
12.The impact on the environment
For each element that is noted, must be assigned with a certain amount of
scoring and weightage, that would finally help in choosing the best site.
7. Detailed Project Report of Bridge Construction Planning
This stage is the final stage of planning in the bridge construction, before
the commencement of the construction work. Full investigation from the
roots is taken and documented. The investigations conducted are:
• Ground survey
• Soil exploration- foundation details
• Hydrological data
• Model studies and analysis
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13. What is Airport and explain the characteristics of Aircraft and Explain types of runways
with sketches.

Ans. . . Air Transportation is the fastest mode of transport.

. It carries goods and passengers through airways by using different aircrafts like passenger
aircraft, cargo aircraft, helicopters etc.

Besides passengers it generally carries goods that are less bulky or of high value. In hilly and
mountainous areas where other mode of transport is not accessible, air transport is an
important as well as convenient mode.

It is mostly used for transporting goods and passengers during natural calamities like
earthquake and floods etc. During war, air transport plays an important role in carrying
soldiers as well as supplies to the required areas.

. Air transport may be classified as domestic and international air transport.

. While domestic air transport mainly facilitates movement within the country, international air

transport is used for carrying goods and passengers between different countrics.

. Air transport is carried out in fixed air routes, which connect almost all the countries.

. An airport is an aerodrome with extended facilities. mostly for commercial air transport.

. Airports often have facilities to store and maintain aircraft, and a control tower.

. An airport consists of a landing area, which comprises an aerially accessible open space including
at least one operationally active surface such as a runway for a plane to take off or a helipad, and
often includes adjacent utility buildings such as control towers, hangars and terminals.

Larger airports may have airport aprons, taxiway ,bridges, air traffic control centre's, passenger
facilities

such as restaurants and lounges, and emergency services.

Characterstics Of Aircraft :

Aircraft characteristics are of prime importance to the airport planner and designer. The

following characteristics need to be studied

1. Type of propulsion, 2. Size of aircraft, 3. Minimum turning radius, 4. Minimum circling radius

5. Speed of aircraft, 6. Capacity of aircraft, 7. Aircraft weight , 8. Jet blast, 9. Fuel spillage ,10. Noise

Types Of Runway :

A. Runway : A runway is the area of an airport where an aircraft can land or takeoff. Their
length is determined by the size of the airport and the type of aircraft expected to land
there. Runways are oriented to the direction of the wind that blows the most in the area.
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B. Taxiway : A taxiway is a path for aircraft at an airport connecting runways with aprons,
hangars, terminals and other facilities. They mostly have a hard surface such as asphalt or
concrete, although smaller general aviation airports sometimes use gravel or grass.
Taxi time is the total time of an aircraft's movement on the ground. Taxi time can be the
time it takes an aircraft to go from a hangar or terminal to the runway until cleared for
takeoff, or the aircraft's going from exiting the runway back to the hanger or terminal.
C. Apron : Apron is a place which is used as parking place for aircrafts. It is also used for
loading and unloading of aircrafts. Apron is generally paved and is located in front of
terminal building or adjacent to hangers. The size of area to be allotted for apron and
design of apron is generally governed by the number of aircrafts expected in the airport.
The aircraft characteristics also considered while design. Proper drainage facilities should
be provided with suitable slope of pavement. Sufficient clearances must be provided for
aircrafts to bypass each other.
D. Terminal Building : Terminal building is a place where airport administration facilities takes
place. In this building, pre-journey and post journey checking’s of passengers takes place.
Lounges, cafes etc. are provided for the passengers. Passengers can directly enter the plane
from terminal buildings through sky bridge, walkways etc. Similarly, the passengers from
plane also directly enter into the terminal building.

E. Control Tower : The control tower is a place where aircrafts under a particular zone is
controlled whether they are in land or in air. The observation is done by the controller
through radars and information is carried through radio. The controller from the control
tower observes all the aircrafts with in that zone and informs pilots about their airport
traffic, landing routes, visibility, wind speeds, runway details, etc. based on which the pilot
decides and attempts safe landing. So, control tower is like nerve system of an airport.

F. Hanger : Hanger is a place where repairing and servicing of aircrafts is done. Taxiway
connects the hanger with runway so, when a repair needed for an aircraft it can be moved
to hanger easily. It is constructed in the form of large shed using steel trusses and frames.
Large area should be provided for Hanger for comfortable movement of aircrafts.

G. Parking : This is a place provided for parking the vehicles of airport staff or passengers
which is outside the terminal building or sometimes under the ground of terminal building.
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