Table of Content

1.0 – Introduction
There are many types of transportation nowadays such as cars, trains, planes and
boats. Besides of cars and trains, planes are the most popular ways for people to travel at a
long distance from places to places.

Rail transport is a means of transferring of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles

running on rails, also known as tracks. It is also commonly referred to as train transport. In
contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a prepared flat surface, rail vehicles (rolling
stock) are directionally guided by the tracks on which they run. Tracks usually consist
of steel rails, installed on ties (sleepers) and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted
with metal wheels, moves.

Railway transport is capable of high levels of passenger and cargo utilization and
energy efficiency but is often less flexible and more capital-intensive than road transport,
when lower traffic levels are considered.

Runway is defined as rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing
and takeoff of aircraft. Runway may be man-made surface, either from asphalt, concrete or a
mixture of both or a natural surface.

Besides, increasing numbers of airport or upgrading airport infrastructure brings

negative impact to the environment such as creating noise, pollution and taking up vast area
of land. Hence, constructing an airport infrastructure or runways takes an extremely long time
and a careful planning.

Air configuration such as runway orientation, runway length and runway lightning
and site selection must be plan and design specifically to suit the site so that the runway
constructed is able to fulfill its designed purposes and function.

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2.0 – Background
2.1 - Railway
A railway consists of rails which are laid on sleepers that are embedded in ballast or concrete
on top of a subgrade. Points and crossings, consisting of rails and machined parts allow trains
to move from one track to another. Railways are a climate-smart and efficient way to
move people and freight (World Bank, 2018).

Figure 1: Railway (World Bank. 2018) 

2.2 – Runway
Defined as a strip of rectangular hard ground area on a land aerodrome prepared for
the landing and takeoff of aircraft. Runway may be a man-made surface which made of
asphalt and concrete. It also may be a natural surface which can be made of grass, dirt, gravel
and etc.

Figure 2: Runway (The Telegraph, 2018)

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3.0 – Construction Processes
3.1 – Railway Construction Processes
The structure of rail way track is separated into two main structure elements: substructure and
superstructure. The combination of natural soil, subgrade and sub-ballast is called as railway
substructure. On the other hand, the combination of ballast, sleepers, fastening system and
rails is called as railway superstructure (Isites.info, 2007).

Pre-construction activities

Step 1 - Earthwork

Earthwork is carried out to create the track bed.

Figure 3: excavation by using excavator (Railway Technology, 2018)

Step 2 - Underground System Construction

The installation of underground electrical ductwork and manholes are required to complete
(Track Design, 2012). Besides, the subgrade drainage is a system that used to prevent the
railway from water logging. Therefore, it is necessary to install drainage before laying the
track.

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Figure 4: Track drainage (Track Design, 2012)

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Substructure

Step 3 – Subgrade

The subgrade is the top of the earthworks on which the sub-ballast layer rests. On an
embankment, the subgrade will be formed of imported soil, whereas in a cut, it will be the
naturally occurring soil (Hsr.ca.gov, 2009).

Figure 5: Subgrade preparation

Step 4 – Track foundation: Laying Bottom ballast / Sub-ballast

Figure 4: Spreader box (Uship.com, 2015) Figure 5: Vibrator roller (Power, 2017)

Ballast bed is the foundation for railway track. Sub-ballast is made up of full crushed
graduate gravel. It is an intermediate layer situated between the ballast and the subgrade
layers. It protects the top of the embankment against erosion, ensures a better distribution of
loads, and provides a leveled surface suitable for track laying (Hsr.ca.gov, 2009). The
placement of the sub-ballast layer is typically performed using a spreader box. The sub-
ballast needs to be compacted to the specified density and compaction is usually done with a
vibrator roller. (Track Design, 201

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Superstructure

Step 4 - Place Sleeper

Rail sleepers are placed along the rail alignment as a base support for the rail.

There are many types of sleeper & beds for railway. For example: -

(i) Concrete Sleeper. A concrete sleeper can weigh up to 385kg. Therefore, placing
concrete ties requires equipment. There are “boom trucks” or sometimes called “log
trucks” equipped with grapples can handle the concrete sleeper. Moreover, a front-end
loader with forks can be used and track-laying machines have conveyance systems to
correctly place and space the sleeper on a prepared layer of ballast.

Figure 8 Track Laying machine (Plasseramerican.com, n.d.)

(ii) Timber sleeper. Wood sleeper is much lighter than concrete. It can be handled much
more easily, including manually by workers using tie tongs. Besides, a log truck with
a grapple is a popular method for handling wood sleepers. Wood sleepers can be
roughly spaced on a prepared ballast layer by the log truck and then properly spaced
using tie tongs.

Figure 6: Tie tongs Figure 7: Log truck (Hulcher.com, 2016)

(Railtec.illinois.edu, 2018)

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Step 5 - Install & fasten rails

The rail is placed on top of the sleepers and clipped into place by either a track mountable
machine or by hand. The rail is then welded together using ‘flash butt-welding’ which melts
two rail pieces together forming a seamless rail track (Railway-fasteners.com, 2018).

Figure 8 Install and fastened rails (Railway-fasteners.com, 2018)

Step 6 – Laying of Top Ballast

A ballast machine rides the new tracks and places the ballast over the sleepers and between
the tracks.

Figure 9 Laying top ballast (CivilDigital, n.d.)

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Step 7 - Settling the rail

A tamping machine rides along the new track and vibrate the ballast into place. It then sets
the track into its final position. This method is repeated numerous times to ensure the rail line
settles and is ready for operation.

Figure 10 tamping machine (Gleisbaumaschinen, 2014)

Step 8 - Installing over-head equipment

masts are installed along the rail alignment to support the equipment which provides
electricity to operate trains. Signaling structures are also installed along the rail route.

Figure 11over-head equipment for rail (Balfourbeattyus.com, n.d.)

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3.2 – Runway Construction Processes
Step 1 – Earthwork

Removing the tree, shrubs and bushes. Removing large quantity of soil and rock. Earthwork
including excavation, trenching, haulage, backfilling and compaction.

Step 2 – Drainage work

Box drain will be installed in order to prevent the road from flooding.

Figure 12 Box drain (Tendersontime.com, 2015)

Step 3 – Subgrade

Sub-grade will be prepared as the formation soil is not in good quality. Subgrade must be
properly compacted by using the vibration roller.

Step 4 – Laying Sub base course

Subbase is the soil layer between the subgrade and pavement. The subbase improves
uniformity of the supporting medium, and it also provides a firm surface that will support the
operation of construction equipment. In some cases, the weight and track characteristics of
the construction equipment may control the thickness and quality of the subbase
(Foundationperformance.org, n.d.).

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Step 5 – Laying Crushed aggregate base course

Crushed aggregate base course is produced by the accurate portioning and blending four
aggregates sizes and water using an aggregate stabilizer batching plant. The mixed aggregate
base course is delivered by tipper trucks to the job site and tipped into the pavers hopper and
is applied in layers not exceeding 150mm in compacted thickness. The aggregate base course
is spread using tracked pavers.

Figure 13: Tracked paver

Step 6 – Asphalt pavement

Asphalt pavement is made up of small aggregate, sand and soil. The aggregates are crushed
to proper size using crushers and cutters. The aggregates are all mixed in the asphalt batch
mix plants and transported to site. The polymer modified bitumen asphalt mix is laid with
two tracked pavers equipped with extending screed tamper (Works, n.d.).

Figure 14: screed tamper (Finning.com, 2017)

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Step 7 – Pavement marking

Pavement marking to runway using an emulsion paint by using the road marking machine
(Faa.gov, n.d.).

Figure 15: Road marking machine

Step 8 – Ground light

The holes are cord through the asphalt for the runway and taxiway centerline inset lights. The
lights are used at night and in poor visibility to guide the aircraft.

Figure 16: Ground light (AeroSavvy, 2016)

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4.0 – Construction Design and Materials
4.1 - Railway
4.1.1 - Track
Railway is a system of track which trains run and travel along. Railway track laid on
ground to provide plat for train. Different scientific calculation methods are available for the
design of the track bed thickness. Generally, the thickness is influenced by the characteristics
of the subgrade and the traffic condition. (Sujay, 2018)

Two types of track are available: ballasted track and non-ballasted track (as known as
slab track), which differences in components, investment cost, maintenance frequency, life-
span and pollution level. Traditional ballasted track has been improved over the decades.
Anyhow, the popularity of slab track has grown around the world. (Ballast or slab, 2017).

Non-ballasted track

Non-ballasted track is the railway track whose bed is

composed of concrete and bituminous mixture or asphalt.
Generally, it is made up of steel rail, railway fasteners and
slab. The investment cost is high, and it is restricted to be
laid on certain area such as clay deep cutting, soft dirt and
earthquake area. However, it requires less maintenance such
as no ballast cleaning or tamping is needed. It has long
service life of about 50-60 years. Non-ballasted track has
Figure 17: Non-ballasted track
high train speed and reduce the dust level. (Agrico group, (Agrico group, 2017)
2017)

Ballasted track

Ballasted track is a type of traditional railway tracks.

Ballasted track is commonly composed of steel rail, railroad
tie, railway fasteners and ballast bed. Different materials may
serve as an adequate ballast layer. It requires low investment
cost, easy to lay and has good drainage performance.
However, it requires frequent and costly maintenance as it is
easy to be deformed. It has poor life expectation of about Figure 2: Ballasted track
(Agrico group, 2017)
30-40 years. Speed of train run on the ballasted tracks

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limited. Ballasted track produces more pollution by releasing dust from ballast. (Agrico
group, 2017)

The pro and cons of the materials used in ballasted track are listed in Table 1. (Ballast, 2015)

Advantages Disadvantages
Broken - It can serve high speeds equally well - It is expensive in its initial cost
stone and holds the track in position
- It is good for heavy traffic
Gravel - Cost cheaper than broken stone - Easily rolls down under the vibration
- It has excellent drainage properties, if - Requires screening before use as size
properly cleaned variation is considerable
Ashes - This material can be handled easily - Highly corrosive and cannot be used
- Cost is very low where steel sleepers are fixed.
- It can be used in repairing as well as - Soft and easily become powder
for packing of track in case of under vibration and hence the track
emergency such as flood become dusty.
Sand - Drain off water immediately - Easily disturbed under vibration and
- Produces very silent track and suitable renew frequently as washed off easily
for packing cast iron pot sleepers. - Sand can get into the moving parts
of the vehicles and produces friction.
Kankar - Good for light traffic on metre and - Soft, easily become powder, dusty
narrow gauges and difficult in maintenance.
Mooru - Act as soiling when broken stone are - Soft, easily become powder, dusty
m laid afterwards. and difficult in maintenance.
Brick - Excellent in drainage properties. - Dusty when brickbats turn to powder
and difficult in maintenance
Table 1 Advantages and disadvantages of ballasted material

4.1.2 - Sleepers
Sleepers are laid to support the rails by transmitting
the wheel load from rails to the ballast. It must be capable of
resisting vibrations and shocks caused by the passage of
moving trains. The typical dimensions of sleepers is 2.0 –
2.5m (length) x 200-250mm (width) x 150-250mm
(thickness). (Sleepers intro, 2018) Figure 3: Sleepers (Indiamart, 2018)

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Longitudinal sleepers

Longitudinal sleepers are the early form of sleepers which consists of slabs of stones
or pieces of woods placed parallel to and underneath the rails. To maintain correct gauge of
the track, cross pieces are provided at regular intervals. At present this type of sleepers are
discarded mainly because running of the train is not smooth when this type of sleepers is
used. Besides, noise created by the track is considerable and the cost is high. (Sleepers, 2015)

Transverse sleepers

Transverse sleeper is universally used now due to economical, silent in operation and
smooth running of the train over sleepers. It is classified according to material. Life span of
timber sleepers is 10-12 years; steel sleepers 20-25 years, cast iron 50-60 years and concrete
sleepers 40-50 years. Pros and cons of the materials are listed in the Table 2. (Sleepers, 2015)

Advantages Disadvantages
Timber - Useful for heavy and high speeds - Liable to be attacked by vermin
- Able to accommodate any gauge - Liable to catch fire
- Handled and placed easily - Do not resist creep
- Not corroded and cheaper - Affected by dry or wet rot
Steel - Free from decay and creep resistance -Liable to corrosion by moisture
- Connection between rail and sleeper is - Costly and can badly damage under
stronger and simple derailments
- Good lateral rigidity and easy handing - Rail seat is weaker
Cast iron - Provided sufficient bearing area - Not suitable for track circuited
- Stronger at rail seat portions of railways
- Prevent and check creep of rail - Can badly damage under derailment
- Does not attack by vermin - Expensive and difficult to handle
Concrete - Better lateral stability to the track - Difficult in handling
- Good insulators low maintenance cost - Difficult in manufactured in
- Free from corrosion, vermin and different sizes
decay and efficiently prevent buckling - Can be damage easily when loading
- Inflammable and fire resistant and unloading
Table 2: Advantages and disadvantages of transverse sleepers

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4.1.3 - Rails
There will be a pair of rails on sleeper. Clear distance
between the rails, known as gauge follows the standard
practice. The gauge can be broad, meter or narrow depends
on the economic, traffic and terrain considerations. The
length of the rails is governed by the convenience in
manufacturing, transporting and handling, besides the Figure 4: Section of rails
expansion gap considerations at the end. (Rails, 2015) (D.Gubler, 2018)

Rails consist of three part. Disign of rails are different as

the size of the upper (head) and lower (foot) part different. Double headed rails can be placed
upside down when one site is worn out because both part are in same size. Bull headed rails
has larger head size and the foot is designed only to furnish necessary strength and stiffness
to rails. Flat footed rails is the most common type in which its’ foot is spread out to from a
base. (Rails, 2015)

The material for the railway will be different based on the situation of the site and the
availability of material. The most common materials and design used in Malaysia is ballasted
track with broken stone and cast iron or steel sleepers as adopted by KTM railway.

4.1.4 - Alignment
A railway can be divided according to the number of tracks mainly depends on the
availability of land and the level of traffic flow. It can be single, double, triple or quadruple
track railway. The width and distance between tracks shall all in accordance to the standards.

A straight and flat railway is the ideal route that connect

between two points as the alignment provides the most
economical operations and the lease amount of maintenance.
However, railway design usually the design is difficult to be
realize d in the actual site situation because of the land issues
(Railway Track Design, 2003). Therefore, it requires grades to
compensate for changes in elevation and curves to reorient in
direction of the tracks. Curves and ascending grades add resistant
on train relation to constant-speed movement whereas Figure 10: Straight railway
(M. Bakhsh, 2014)
descending grades increased fuel consumptions.

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 Curves are measured in degrees and often used to avoid undesirably heavy grades
(Robert S.M, 2006). Gradient in railway includes ruling gradient, momentum gradient, pusher
gradient and gradient at stations. A train get momentum when moving in downgradient.
Pusher gradient is provided where extra engine is required to push the train. (Types of
gradient, 2018)

Figure 9: Horizontal curves (Hot Rails, 2018) Figure 10: Momentum gradient
(M. Bakhsh, 2014)

4.1.5 – Crossing and Turnouts

Railway track can cross each other. Diamond crossing is when the train crosses
another track, but it does not change its original route. Train travel A-D or B-C but cannot
change from A-D to C-D or vice versa as shown in the Figure 11. Turnout allows diverging
from one track to another. The direction of the train can be changed, and it can be guided
from one track to another by aligning the switch. There are different types of turnouts
designed to fit different track work situations. (R.Kolm, 2008)

Conventionally, the diverging route curves away from a straight track either in left
hand or right-hand side that allows the train to change from its original straight route. Wye
switch refers to when the two routes curve in opposite situation and the train will curve
towards left or right routes. Three-way switch provides the train three options of route when
it comes to junction as the two diverging routes curve in opposite direction from a center
tangent track. Double-slip switch allows multiple routings for a track in a cramped space.
Train from A or B can be routed to C or D and vice versa as shown in the Figure 12.
(R.Kolm, 2008)

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 A B
A
C

D
D C
B
Figure 12: Diamond Crossing Figure 13: Double slip switch
(Mumbai, 2015) (Double Slip Switch, 2013)

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4.2 - Runway

Design standards of the runway in Malaysia is regulates by Department of Civil

Aviation Malaysia. It published Airport Standards Directive 510 – Aerodrome physical
characteristic to indicate the standards on the number, orientation, actual length, width,
longitudinal and transverse slope, strength and surface.

The structure must be able to handle tropical weather and withstand the extreme force
of aircraft tire rubbing towards the surface of the runway. Skid resistance and roughness need
to be evaluated and compared with the specify standards. Drainage survey is carried out to
divert the water on the runway on a proper way. Runway must thick enough to withstand the
load. Data on soil strength and expected future load conditions have to be gathered from
several sources, such as traffic survey, commercial airline operation future schedule and
airport operating officials to forecast the future flow of air traffic. (Airport Survey, 2006)

4.2.1 – Pavements
The study of climate such as the rainfall data from meteorological survey help in the
design of pavement. The pavements in general are classified as flexible and rigid pavements
according to their structural action. The selection of the pavements depends on the condition
of the surface and type of soil. Soil survey is the sources to get the information of the subsoil
conditions (Airport Survey, 2006). The two pavements different in components, load
distribution, design main consideration, characteristics, advantages and weakness.

Flexible pavement

It can be defined as the one consisting of a mixture of

asphaltic or bituminous material and aggregates placed on a bed
of compacted granular material of appropriate quality in layer
over the subgrade. It functions by a way of load distribution
through the component layers. Flexible pavements have self-
healing properties due to heavier wheel loads are recoverable Figure 14: Flexible pavement
(Pavement Cross Section, 2018)
due to some extent.

It reflects the deformations of subgrade as the design is greatly influenced by the

subgrade strength. The strength of subgrade primarily influences the thickness of the flexible
pavement. Its stability depends upon the aggregate interlock, particle friction and cohesion.

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Temperature variations due to change in atmospheric conditions do not produce stresses in
flexible pavements (Mohammad H., 2013).

Flexible bitumen with polymer modified binder is the materials used in flexible
pavement as the upgrade from asphalt pavements. The modification improves the overall
structure by increasing the structure durability and cut the construction cost. However,
flexible bitumen with polymer modified binder at some point could no longer hold the engine
blast and loads transmitted by the aircraft. Flexible pavement requires higher maintenance
frequency due to cracking, rutting and depression. The way to produce the polymer modified
binder was also said to be complex because of the chemical properties of bitumen and
polymer that need special chemical procedure to produce (Mohammad H., 2013).

Rigid pavement

It consists of one layer of concrete slab that relatively

high flexural strength. It distributes load over a wide area of
subgrade because of its rigidity and high modulus of elasticity.
It distributes load over a wide area of subgrade because of its
rigidity and high modulus of elasticity. Any excessive
deformations occurring due to heavier wheel loads are not Figure 13: Rigid pavement
recoverable, i.e. settlements are permanent (Mohammad H., (Pavement Cross Section, 2018)

2013).

When the subgrade deflects beneath the rigid pavement, the concrete slab can bridge
over the localized failures and areas of inadequate support from subgrade as the structural
strength is provided by the pavement slab itself by its beam action. Flexural strength of
concrete is a major factor for design on the structural capacity of a rigid pavement.
Temperature changes induce heavy stresses in rigid pavements (Mohammad H., 2013).

Steel reinforce concrete is the materials used in rigid pavement as the upgrade from
conventional concrete. Material enhancement in concrete pavement makes the structure more
durable and reduce the maintenance frequency. Adequate amount of steel reinforcement
allows to maintain the crack within the desired limits However, Steel reinforce concrete
structure at some point might have a problem to handle such heavy and surprise situation that
usually occur on the airport runway. Cost of each maintenance is quite costly because of the
complex structure of the pavement. The time consumes are also longer considering the 28
days curing time for concrete (Mohammad H., 2013).

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 In Malaysia, flexible bitumen is used in the construction of runway. KLIA, for
instance, use in flexible bitumen with polymer modified binder to build their runway when it
is done couple of years ago.

4.2.2 – Orientations
Design on the number of runways will be based on the volume of air traffic while the
orientation of runway is depending on the wind. According to FAA standards, runway should
be oriented so that aircraft can take off and land without exceeding the allowable crosswind.
Wind data shows the direction, duration and intensity of wind should be in consideration
along the design. The density of the earth’s surface has direct impact on the length of runway.
Other considerations include the airspace availability, environmental factor, obstructions to
navigation, air traffic control visibility, wildlife hazards, terrain and soil considerations as
well as the natural and man-made obstruction. (Kaustubh.W, 2014)

Runway configuration refers to the layout or design of runway. In 21 st century, most

runway systems are arranged according to some combination of four basic configuration

The four basic configurations are single, which consist of one lone runway that
accommodates both takeoffs and landings; parallel, which consist of more than one runway is
present and situated at the same angle and classified into close, intermediate and far away
according to the spacing between runways; intersection, which consists of two or more
runways that cross paths and share ground with one another; and open-V, which consist of
runways in different directions that do not intersect and classified into converging and
diverging layout. A converging layout is one in which operations move towards the point at
which the runways make the V shape while the diverging runways are the opposite as
operations start at the end of the V shape and move outwards from each other. (Rachel J.K,
2015)

Figure 15: Single (Rachel J.K, 2015) Figure 16: Parallel (Rachel J.K, 2015)

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Figure 17: Intersection (Rachel J.K, 2015) Figure 18: Converging Open-V (Rachel J.K, 2015)

4.2.3 – Length
The length of the runway is calculated by the engineer using scientific calculation. It
is determined by the aircraft, maximum takeoff weights, and engine capabilities, landing and
braking capabilities, flap settings, and required safety factors. The runway length for landing
must be capable of permitting safe braking and it must be long enough to meet the obstacle-
free capability to permit each aircraft to take off with one engine out. (Airport Layout, 2009)

4.2.3 – Markings and Lightings

Airport Standards Directive 510 – Aerodrome physical characteristic published by
Department of civil aviation Malaysia indicates the application, location and characteristics
of the markings. Each runway markings and lightings are important to identify the location of
different parts on the runway. It provides a clearer direction for the pilot during take off and
land the aircraft. (Kaustubh.W, 2014)

Figure 19: Runway marking(May.J, 2015) Figure 20: Runway lighting (May.J, 2015)

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5.0 – Temporary Works
Sign board
The Contractor shall provide, erect, paint and maintain a project signboard in Bahasa Melayu
as shown in the relevant drawing. The signboard shall be erected at a prominent position at
the Site.

Figure 18: Sign board

Safety on site
The Contractor shall supply, erect and maintain for as long as is considered necessary
adequate fencing, hoarding, warning lamps and such other safety measures necessary to
ensure the safety of the public and others who may be on or within the vicinity of the Site.

Figure 19: Fencing Figure 20: Hoarding Figure 21:Warning lamps

Sides of Excavation

The Contractor shall ensure the sides of the excavation are maintained in a safe and stable
condition, and shall be responsible for the adequate provision of all shoring and strutting
including sheet piling required for this purpose.

Figure 22: temporary support

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6.0 – Maintenance
6.1 – Railway

Railway track is loaded with dynamic railway vehicles and always works in the exposed
natural environment, which may cause abrasion, deformation, damage of relevant parts and
change of geometry size. Therefore, with working hours increase, it is necessary to carry out
regular maintenance in order to ensure the quality of railway track and the integrity of the
equipment. In general, Maintenance of railway track is to take periodic repairing, mainly
including periodic updating, periodic comprehensive maintenance, regular inspection and key
repairing of track (AGICO GROUP, 2018) 

There are few types of maintenance for railway track such as Rail Grinding, Rail
Replacement, Tamping and Track Stabilization (AGICO GROUP, 2018). 

Rail Grinding – This comprises of pounding machines going along the track with crushing
stones, which are pivoting stones or stones wavering longitudinally, to rub surface of rail.
Rail grinding is conducted to correct rail corrugations, fatigue and metal flow and to re-
profile the rail.

Rail Replacement – This may be conducted to upgrade the track to a higher gauge rail or to
replace the same gauge rail due to defects, wear or derailment damage.

Tamping - This is conducted to correct longitudinal profile, cross level and alignment of
track. A number of sleepers at a time are lifted to the correct level with vibrating tamping
tines inserted into the ballast.

Track Stabilization - Track stabilizers vibrate the track in the lateral direction with a vertical
load to give controlled settlement. Tamping and compacting ballast underneath sleepers
reduces the lateral resistance of the track. Track stabilization can restore the lateral resistance
to the original level.

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6.2 – Runway
Airports need to provide maintenance to the facilities and assets to ensure serviceability and
operational safety for the continuity of the business and services. No matter the size of the
airport or aerodrome, runways are key infrastructures requiring their surfaces to be kept in
optimal conditions in order to maintain continuous and safe aircraft operations during landing
and departing. Airports may establish large or small maintenance organizations to cope with
this operational responsibility. The most common maintenance operations are:

 Removing rubber. When taking off or landing, aircraft often skid for a brief moment and
leave rubber on the runway. This greatly reduces the adherence of the runway, which has
a negative impact on stopping distances. This is usually done with high pressure water.
(Aviation Stack Exchange. 2018)
 Checking the quality of the approach light systems and other visual aids. Often, a truck
with optometric sensors drives down the runway and measures the luminosity. Sometimes
the lights need to be replaced. Airports usually have spares available for every type of
light that is used on the runway. (Aviation Stack Exchange. 2018)
 Evaluating the pavement and surveying the structural condition of the runway. Trucks are
equipped with all kinds of sensors and go up and down the runway. The measures are
used to make a map of the condition of the runway. Sometimes, the runway is divided
into sub-sections and a different section will be evaluated every month or every other
month, so that each section is inspected twice a year. (Aviation Stack Exchange. 2018)
 Repairing cracks and resealing joints on the runway. This is to prevent water infiltrations
that have long-term catastrophic consequences. A visual inspection of the runway is
performed daily to look for cracks. (Aviation Stack Exchange. 2018)

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7.0 – Case Study (Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA)
7.1 – Introduction

This picture shows Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA) layout.

Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA) is a premier gateway to Malaysia. KLIA

development began in early 1993 when the existing Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah International
Airport (formerly Subang International Airport) has limited expansion capability to meet the
rapid rise of population and future demand. The airport is part of a new national infrastructure
development that will enhance county’s potential to become regional hub and an international
gateway. It is to be developed in three phases, building up to a final capacity of 100 million
passengers per annum. This mega project worth RM9 billion took 25,000 workers from 52
countries and four years to complete.

KLIA is located at 50 Kilometers south of Kuala Lumpur in Sepang, Selangor with capacity
to handle 25 million passengers and 1.2 million tons of cargo a year. There are 2 runways
which is approximately 4000 meter long. They are built for modern and big aircraft to take-
off and landing. All of these runways can handle many types of commercial aircraft, ranging
from the small Cessna plan until the biggest commercial plane ever made, the Airbus A380.

An international competition was held by the government in order to appoint a design

architect for the main terminal. One Japanese and four British architects were invited to
submit proposals and presentations were held in London at the end of April 1992. Kisho
Kurokawa’s concept of a ‘symbiosis between architecture and the forest’ secured the project.
Work began with the local architect and master plan team in May 1992.Component id
fabricated locally if possible whereas technical expertise and raw material will be imported
from various countries. The construction period started in January 1995 and end at March
1998.

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7.2 – Materials
The advancement in engineering technology had been proven by using the flexible bitumen
with polymer modified binder at Kuala Lumpur International airport (KLIA) which is
different from the conventional asphalt pavement that is usually use for old runway. The
polymer modified binder had bring a lot of advantages such as improve the overall structure
and cut cost in making process.

Bituminous material is normally used because of their remarkable binding characteristics,

water proofing properties and low cost. In fact, bitumen itself is not able to create the
condition for long-term operation of pavement under the modern heavy duty traffic such as
airplane and adverse weather factor. Its natural properties such as poor adhesion, low
temperature which may cause the pavement crack.

One of the solutions is modification the commercial bitumen. The technician mix the
polymers with bitumen by mechanical mixing or chemical reaction. Bitumen with polymer
modified binder has been widely used in the transportation engineering for road and runway
construction of the KLIA. In airport, aircraft exhaust will produces high temperature and
velocity blast; high pressure tires on pavement during contact, and fuel spillage create
problems for the runway pavement. Thus, the polymer such as polyethylene, polypropylene,
ethylene-butyl acrylate and styrene-butadiene-styrene copolymer (SBS) will improve the
properties of the bitumen such as the strength of the runway pavement, increase the stiffness
at high temperatures, extra cracking resistance at low temperature and moisture resistance or
longer fatigue life.

8
7.3 – Process
Topsoil was first stripped to a depth of 12 inches and stockpile the volume of cuts until for
the main earthworks was about 5.5 million cubic yards. But because of the increased density
of the soil after compaction, a total of about 6 .75 million cubic yards was excavated. The fill
was compacted to formation level to an average dry density of 95% percent of British
standard heavy compaction. A concrete curb was placed on each side of the pavement to
provide a working and reference level for the pavement.

This picture shows the sections of granite hill.

Type 1 in the top 15 feet was used fulfill under pavements. Type 2 soil which is between 5
and 30 feet was used in the lime stabilization and type 3 from below 17 feet was used for fill
under turf areas. Site investigation and laboratory test had indicated a subgrade CBR 10%.
The construction was made up as follows.

First, a subbase of 4 inches of lime stabilized soil was laid on the formation. Next, a 12
inches bitumen bound base was cast in three times, 4 inches is laid each time. This material
was chosen to reduce delays due to bad weather which can seriously affect conventional
construction. The asphalt servicing was applied in two layers, 2.5 inches binder course and a
1.5 inches wearing course, totaling 4 inches. At the same time, drainage system will be
construct

8
Crushing strength test was carried out in the laboratory showed that 4% of lime was needed
for the subbase. First a representative specimen is rippled out from a bulk sample taken from
the site. After mixing the correct amount of material is weigh and compacted into a mould of
known volume. A cylindrical specimen of the required density and moisture content is
produced. In this case, 95% of British standard heavy compaction at optimum moisture
content. The specimen is sealed with paraffin wax and allowed to cure for seven days. After
curing, the specimen is stripped off wax. It’s placed in a compression testing machine and
loaded at a control rate.

There is a shed that filled with soil to a depth of 2 feet 6 inches and the top 6 inches
pulverized. Lime was spread over the soil and mixed by the poly mixer when it was
impractical to operate in the open. As soon as the formation dried sufficiently, this layer will
be stripped out and transported to the site. Occasionally water was added to the soil lime
mixture to ensure it was the correct moisture content during mixing. The lime and soil were
mixed together in another pass and after a delay of several minutes’ pulverization was
continued until 80% of the mix was smaller than 3/16 of an inches.

The mixed stabilized soil was excavated by track and excavator then loaded onto dumpers. It
was then tipped into a spreader and deposited in layers calculated to give a 4 inches
compacted thickness. After spreading and grading, the stabilized soil mixture was given
initial compaction with a few passes of a 2.5 tons smooth wheeled roller and ten passes of an
8 tons smooth wheeled roller. After compaction the dry density of both formation and the
layers of stabilized soil was checked by the sand replacement method whereas the moisture
content is check with a speedy moisture tester method. After the stabilized soil had cured for
7 days under a prime coat of cutback bitumen, the bitumen bound based was constructed.

The material was mixed using a mixing plant. The aggregate was made up with 40% crushed
granite of 1.5 inches nominal size with sand waste from local tin mines and 2% filler. A
bitumen content 3.3% was added to give a Marshall stability of at least 650 pounds. A
spreader was used to deposit 3’4 inches thick layer of the base material. The material was

8
mixed at 315 degrees Fahrenheit and laid at about 280 degrees Fahrenheit. The construction
was complete with a 2 layer surfacing comprising 2.5 inches layer with 4.2% bitumen and 1.5
inches layer with 5.4%. The maximum stone sizes were 1.5 inches and 3.75 inches
respectively.

When the runway construction is complete, the cleaning progress will start. The enginner go
through the checklist and carry out test on the runway. For instance, rolling straight edge was
use to test the smoothness of the runway pavement, sand patch test was carried out to test the
texture of the runway pavement. Then runway marking and airfiled ground light will be
install.

8
7.4 – Problem Statement
Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA) uses flexible bitumen with polymer modified
binder as the structure of the runway. This material was greatly used in the construction of
runway because of its low construction cost. However, the maintenance cost is high as it
needs to be maintained and repair time to time. In the long run, cracking, rutting and
depression will occur because of the loads, thrust and repetition of aircraft passes on the
runway.

The runway of KLIA is uneven and there is several sinking problems. Runway 2 of the
airport are temporary shut down after Malaysia Airline flight MH726 have two of its tyres
deflated after landing safely on the runway.

This picture shows two tyres of Airlines flight MH726 deflated after landing safely at the
Runway 2.

Talk is pilots are complaining that the runways at the KLIA are not even. The pilot said the
runway of KLIA are uneven and the reason being the tarmac is subsiding or sinking. As a
result, when planes land, the speed of the landing and hitting the "bumps" can make the tyres
explode. This will jeopardize the safety of the passenger on plane.

8
8.0 – Conclusion

Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA) uses flexible bitumen with polymer modified
binder as the structure of the runway. This material was greatly used in the construction of
runway because of its low construction cost. However, the maintenance cost is high as it
needs to be maintained and repair time to time. In the long run, cracking, rutting and
depression will occur because of the loads, thrust and repetition of aircraft passes on the
runway.

The runway of KLIA is uneven and there is several sinking problems. Runway 2 of the
airport are temporary shut down after Malaysia Airline flight MH726 have two of its tyres
deflated after landing safely on the runway.

This picture shows two tyres of Airlines flight MH726 deflated after landing safely at the
Runway 2.

Talk is pilots are complaining that the runways at the KLIA are not even. The pilot said the
runway of KLIA are uneven and the reason being the tarmac is subsiding or sinking. As a
result, when planes land, the speed of the landing and hitting the "bumps" can make the tyres
explode. This will jeopardize the safety of the passenger on plane.

8
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8
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