Term 2 Science

1. Matter
2. Energy
3. Chemistry
4. Force @TZ
5. LEVERS
6. STATIC ELECTRICITY
7. CURRENT ELECTRICITY
MATTER AND ENERGY
TOPIC 3.1: MATTER
 Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.
 Matter exists in three main states namely: solid, liquid and gas.
 Matter can be in any one of the states at any given time depending on the prevailing environmental
conditions.

Changes in the states of matter

1. Melting: the change from solid state to liquid state.
2. Freezing: is the change of state from liquid to solid.
3. Condensation is the change of state from gas to liquid.
4. Vaporization is the change of state from liquid to vapour (gas).
5. Evaporation is the process in which particles of a liquid escape from the surface of the liquid.

SOLID LIQUID GAS

1. The melting point of water

 Is the temperature at which ice changes to a liquid
 Melting point of pure water is 0℃
2. The freezing point if water
 Is the temperature at which a liquid changes to a solid
 the freezing point of pure water is 0℃
3. The boiling point of water
 Is the temperature at which a liquid changes to a gas.
 The boiling point of pure water is 100℃ at sea level

How impurities affect the boiling point and freezing point of water.
If a solute (impurity) dissolve in solvent (liquid), the boiling and melting point is affected.
A. Impurities on boiling point
Impurities make water boil at a higher temperature. If more of the substance is dissolved, the
higher the boiling point.

B. Impurities on freezing point

Impurities lower the freezing point of water. If more of the substance is dissolved, the lower the
freezing point.

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 Difference between boiling and evaporation
Boiling Evaporation
 Takes place at a fixed temperature called  Takes place at all temperatures.
boiling point.
 Takes place throughout the liquid.  Takes place at the surface of the liquid.
 Easy to observe when bubbles start forming.  Not easy to observe as there are no bubbles.

ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES

Classifying substance as elements, compounds or mixtures
All matter can be grouped into elements, compound and mixtures, be it a solid, liquid or gases.
1. An element
 Is a substance that is made up of one kind of atom.
 Is the simplest form of matter. There are many examples of elements that occur naturally. There
are 92 elements in nature.
Common elements and their symbols
 Oxygen O  Sodium Na  Chlorine Cl
 Hydrogen H  Lead Pb  Magnesium Mg
 Iron Fe  Iodine I  Iron Fe
 Copper Cu  Sulphur S  Gold Au
 Calcium Ca  Silver Ag  Mercury Hg
 Zinc Zn  Aluminum Al
 Carbon C  Nitrogen N

2. Compounds
 When two or more elements join together they form compounds.
 A compound can be a solid, a liquid or a gas.
 Compounds are not easily separated
 Compounds are new substances that are formed when elements react in a chemical reaction to
form a new substance. For example,
 Hydrogen (a gas) and Oxygen (a gas) form water (H2O)
 Carbon (a solid) and Oxygen (a gas) form Carbon dioxide gas (CO2)
 Sodium and chlorine form sodium Chloride (table salt),

Other compounds include

 Baking powder  Tartaric acid  Paraffin etc.

3. Mixtures
 A mixture is made when two or more elements and compounds joining together.
 A mixture can be easily separated into its original constituents.
 Substances that make up mixtures could be solids, liquids or gases.
Examples of mixtures include
A. Water and sand C. Salt and pepper
B. Sulphur and iron filings D. Water and soil

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 Separating mixtures using their physical properties
Substances that are physically bound are separated by physical means while those that are chemically
joined are separated by chemical means.

1. Filtration
It is used when solids are separated from liquids. A filter which is a porous barrier allows the liquid
(filtrate) to pass through and holds the solid particles (residue). Sand and water can be separated in this
manner.

2. Evaporation
This method can be used when the solid has dissolved in the liquid. Heat is made to drive the liquid out of
the mixture by evaporation, leaving behind the solid component of the mixture.
E.g. The mixture of salt and water can be separated by evaporation.
In some tropical/hot areas, salt from seawater is obtained in this manner.

3. Dissolution
When one of the solids in a mixture can dissolve in a certain liquid, the mixture can be added to the liquid
upon which the soluble solid will dissolve. The method of filtration and evaporation can later be
employed to separate the solvent and the insoluble solid.

4. Distillation
This method is used when a liquid is separated from a mixture. The mixture is heated until the liquid turns
into a gas. The gas is cooled and condenses into liquid. If it is a mixture of liquids with different boiling
points, this method can also be used. In this instance it is known as fractional distillation. The different
liquids obtained are known as fractions.

TOPIC 3.2: ENERGY

Energy is the ability to do work.

Sources of energy
 The Sun  Wind
 Fuels  Water

Energy conversions
 Energy cannot be created nor destroyed but can only be changed from on form to another.
 The more energy is converted, the more work is done.
 The amount of energy used is always equal the amount of to the energy produced

Examples of energy conversions

1) When people eat and then move about, the energy obtained from the food is being converted to
movement (kinetic) energy. The chemical potential energy in the food is converted to motion (kinetic)
energy in the moving person, the energy for keeping the body warm and for keeping body systems
working.

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2) When a fruit falls from a tree, potential energy is converted to kinetic energy.
3) When a moving bicycle is brought to a halt, the energy of motion (kinetic) is converted to heat (due to
friction).
4) In burning fuels, the chemical potential energy in the fuel is converted to heat and light.
5) Green plants change solar energy into chemical energy.
6) When switching on a television, electrical energy is changed in to light and sound energy.

The principle of conservation of energy

 This law states that energy can neither be made nor destroyed, but changed from one form to
another.

HEAT TRANSFER
Heat can be transferred (moved) in three main ways:
1) Convection 2) Conduction 3) Radiation.

1. Conduction
 This is the transfer of heat through matter from areas of high temperature to areas of low temperature
without the movement of matter itself.
 Solids are the best conductors
 Liquids are poor conductors
 Gases are the worst conductors.

2. Convection
 This is the transfer of heat through fluids by movement of the fluid itself.
 It only occurs in liquids and gases.
 No convection occurs in solids.

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3. Radiation:
 This is the transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves.
 Unlike the other two, it does not require a material medium for it to happen.
 Heat transfer by radiation can occur even in a vacuum.
 The Sun’s heat reaches the earth by radiation in spite of the existence of a vacuum between the
earth and the Sun.
 This is the method by which heat from the Sun reaches the Earth.

LIGHT
 Light is a form of energy that enables us to see and to do a lot of things.
 Light is the stimulus for the eye.
 Most objects do not produce their own light, so we see them when they reflect light into our eyes.

Characteristics of images formed by a plane mirror

 The images formed are virtual. This is, the images are formed behind the mirror.
 The image is the same distance as the object from the mirror.
 The images are laterally inverted. The right side appears to be the right side.
 The images are the same size as the object.
 The image is right way up (erect).

Reflection of light
Reflection of light means the bouncing back of light. When light falls on an object, some of the light is
absorbed while some of it bounces back to our eyes.

Applications of reflection of light

 Mirrors are used while grooming
 Mirrors are used while driving to see behind without looking back.
 Mirrors are used in periscopes (which are used in submarines and military tanks) to see what’s
happening outside. This is because submarines and military tanks have no windows.
 Mirrors are used to reflect in to a microscope which is used to view very small microorganisms.
 The moon reflects light from the Sun at night for people to see.

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Classifying objects as opaque, translucent and transparent
Transparent object Translucent objects Opaque objects
These objects let the whole light The objects let part of the light They do not let light to pass
to pass without disturbing it. to pass through them. They do through.
Examples not let the whole light to pass. Opaque objects form a shadow.
Clear glass Examples Examples
Clear window Painted widow A book
Clean water Painted glass Wood
Dirty water A wall
A human being

Refraction of light
 Refraction is the bending of light.
 The fact that light travels in a straight line is not nullified by refraction.
 Light travels in a straight line but only bends when it is moving from one medium to another. For
instance it will bend when entering water from air, entering glass from air or air from glass etc.
 The bending is caused by the fact that when light enters a different medium, its speed changes
resulting in change of direction.

Note that light maintains a straight line of travel in one medium and only changes direction at the point
of change form one medium to another.
Objects that use refraction of light
Many instruments/objects that are fitted with a lens use refraction of light to function properly. eg.
 Telescopes  binoculars
 cameras  microscope
 spectacles  magnifying glass

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A Mirage
 A mirage is a phenomenon/result of refraction.
 It is an optical illusion that results from a total internal
reflection of light in air. The temperature of air is not
uniform.
 Air is hottest nearest to the ground and becomes cool
with altitude.
 The difference in temperature also means the density of
air is varying, but lowest closest to the ground.
 The effect of mirage has made people in the deserts see
images of water and tree in the distance.
 Motorists on hot highways sometimes see what looks
like patches of water ahead of them even though the road
is dry.

SOUND
 Sound is a form of energy used by both people and other animals for communication.
 It is used in medicine, in mining and in the fishing industry.
 It travels from one point to another.
 Sound is stimulus for the ear.

Properties of sound
 Sound is caused by vibrations.
 Sound needs a material medium to travel.
 Sound cannot travel in a vacuum.

Comparing the speed of sound between solids, liquids and gases

The speed of sound is different in different states of matter because the particles are arranged in different
ways. For instance:
A. In solids particles are closely packed so that making one particle to vibrate immediately
causes the one next to it vibrate, causing the one next to it to also vibrate and within a
short time the vibration is felt far and wide; the speed of sound therefore is highest in
the solid state.
B. In liquids the particles are not so closely packed so that it takes some time for a vibrating
particle to cause another particle to vibrate. The speed of sound in liquids is therefore not
as fast.
C. In gasses particles are far apart so that there is no guarantee that a vibration of one
particle will affect another. Speed of sound is therefore slowest in gasses.

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TOPIC 3.3: CHEMISTRY
 Chemicals are substances made of elements or compounds.
 We use chemicals most of our lives and our bodies also produce some chemicals.
 Chemicals can be grouped into acids and bases.

Acids
Acids are all around us. For instance, a car battery, sour porridge, fizzy drink, tomato, pineapple, orange,
and the bee sting all contain a substance called acid.

Properties of acids
• turn blue litmus paper red
• taste sour (Never test if something is an acid by tasting)
 They produce electricity when dissolved in water e.g. car battery
Weak acids Strong acids
Weak acids are usually safe and some of them are Strong acids are very dangerous because they are
found in the food we eat. highly corrosive (they can eat away flesh) and
Examples should be handled with care.
1. Citric acid in fruits. Examples
2. Acetic acid in vinegar. 1. Hydrochloric acid (produced in the stomach).
3. Tartaric acid. 2. Sulphuric acid in the car battery.
3. Nitric acid used in fertilizers.

Proper care when handling strong acids

I. Never taste. Use fingertip test.
II. Never smell them.
III. Wear protective clothing when handling them ie. Rubber/plastic gloves, a mask, plastics goggles.
IV. Keep acids in plastic/glass bottles with a good stopper.
V. Never leave acid bottles open.
VI. Carefully add a strong acid to water but do not add water to strong acids.
VII. Always keep strong acid in a safe place.

Alkalis
Many household chemicals, especially cleaning chemicals, contain alkalis. Soap and other detergents
contain alkalis. For example, caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) used in making soap, washing powders,
bleaches and drain-cleaners are alkali. Milk of Magnesia (Magnesium hydroxide) is used for making anti-
acids that people take when they have indigestion.

Properties of alkalis
 Taste bitter.
 Turn red litmus paper blue.
 Have a soapy feeling and are slippery.
 Conduct electricity when dissolved in water.
 Neutralizes acids (that is why they are used as anti-acids).

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Weak alkalis strong alkalis
They are usually safe and are not harmful to human Strong Alkalis are also very corrosive. That is why
beings. people are advised to rinse their hands with water
Examples after doing laundry.
1. Limewater Examples
2. Washing soda 1. Caustic soda (sodium hydroxide)
3. Soap 2. Concentrated ammonia
4. Handy-andy
5. Milk of Magnesia (Magnesium hydroxide

Indicators of acidity and alkalinity

 Litmus paper and indicator used to tell whether a substance is acidic, alkaline or neutral.
 It comes in two colors, red litmus paper and blue litmus paper.
 A blue litmus paper changes to red when placed in an acid, while a red litmus paper turns blue when
placed in an alkaline solution.
 The litmus paper does not change colour when placed in a neutral solution.
 A neutral solution is a solution that is neither acidic nor alkaline. It is in between.
 However a litmus paper cannot tell you the strength of the acid or alkali.
 The safest way to test the strength of either an acid or an alkali is to use a suitable indicator, the pH
scale. It has values ranging from 0-14, with a midpoint of a pH value of 7. Acidic substances have a
pH value less than 7 and alkaline substances have a pH value greater than 7, while neutral substances
have a pH value of 7. Strong the acids have a smaller the pH value and the strong the alkalis have a
larger pH value. The table below gives examples.

SUBSTANCE pH level
Car battery acid 0
Vinegar 3
Rain water 6
Pure water 7
Tooth paste 8
Household ammonia(Domestos) 12

FORCES AND MOTION

TOPIC 4.1: FORCE
 Force is a push or a pull.
 Moving objects stop, change direction, reduce speed or even fall towards the earth because of the
effect of force.
 Rough surfaces are easy to walk on because there is a good grip while smooth and polished surfaces
are difficult to walk on, they are slippery, the grip is poor. The force that acts between the surface and
the shoe is called friction.

Friction
Friction is a force that act between two surfaces touching or rubbing against one another

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Applications of friction in daily life situations
 Walking, running
 Holding things
 we are able to apply brakes to our cars to stop them
 locomotives can negotiate curves safely because of the grip on the ground

Ways of reducing friction
 Using the wheel  streamlining,  polishing (smooth
 Oiling and greasing  using rollers surfaces)
 use ball bearings,  streamlining

Streamlining
 Streamlining is a way of reducing friction on objects while moving through the air.
 It is done by making an object have a pointed front

Examples of streamlined designs

 motor cars
 planes
 bullet
 jets
 high speed trains
 speed boats

LEVERS
 A lever is a bar or rod that cannot bend and can turn around some fixed point.
 A lever is a simple machine.
 It is a tool that turns about a fixed point and is used to make our work lighter.
 Levers help us to use less force where we would otherwise be required to use a more force. We use
levers almost on daily bases.

Examples of levers are:

 Scissors * Spade
 Crow bar * Pliers
 Spanner * Bottle opener
 Nail cutter * Broom
 Wheelbarrow *Tweezers

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Parts of a lever
A lever has 3 parts.

1. The pivot or fulcrum is the fixed point where the

lever turns supports itself when doing work
2. The load is the place of the force that the lever is used
to overcome.
3. The effort is the place where the lever is held to do
work.

Different types of levers

Levers can be divided into the three groups depending on the relative positions of the fulcrum, effort and
the load. These are
 First class levers: Load--------Fulcrum----------Effort e.g. pliers, scissors etc

 Second class levers: Effort---------Load------Pivot e.g. wheelbarrow

 Third class levers: Load---------Effort--------Fulcrum e.g. spade

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Uses of levers
 Opening bottles and tins.  Using pedals to move a bicycle.
 Cutting meat using a knife.  Using a rake to level the soil.
 Cutting a tree using a saw.  Using a wheelbarrow to move things around.
 Using a screw driver to tighten a screw.

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

STATIC ELECTRICITY
 Static means not moving, therefore, static electricity is an electric charger that stays where is it made.
 A static charge can only be built or made by an insulating material such as plastic or glass.

LIGHTNING
Describing lightning as a natural phenomenon of static electricity.
 Lightning is static electricity at a much bigger scale.
 Both lightning and static
electricity happen because of the
attraction between opposite
charges.
 Lightning is a large spark of
static electricity produced within:
a storm cloud, between storm
clouds, and between storm
clouds and the ground (fork
lighting).
 The difference is that familiar
experiences of static electricity
produce a small spark, while
lightning is a large spark of
electricity that releases
tremendous energy, bright light and thunder.

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 Lightning flashes that do not strike the ground are called sheet lightning or cloud flashes. They may
be inside the cloud, travelling from one part of the cloud to another.
 Whereas lightning flashes that travel to earth are called lightning bolt or flash.

Hazards associated with lightning.

 A single stroke of lighting has 125,000, 000 volts of electricity. This is more than enough to hurt or
kill a person. Lightning is something people should not be careless around.
 A strike of lighting is incredibly hot. A typical bolt of lightning can immediately heat the air to
between 15,000 and 60,000 Fahrenheit. That is hotter than the surface of the sun.
 It can cause fires and it is strong enough to kill people and animals. Lightning kills more people
around the world than any kind of storm. Lightning hurts many more people than are killed by it.
Lightning knocks people to the ground, some are burned and some people are unconscious after they
are struck.
 Some of those who live are crippled.
 Cloud-to-ground lightning can kill or injure people by direct or indirect means. The lightning current
can branch off to a person from a tree, fence, pole or other tall object.
 When lightning strikes from a cloud that is not raining, it is called “dry lighting”. Dry lightning often
causes forest fires because there is no rain to stop a fire from spreading.
 If the lightning pass through electric cables, all electrical appliances connected to the cable will be
destroyed.

However, lightning also helps nature by returning nitrogen into the ground for plants to use.

Factors that increase the risk of lightning strikes

 Electric charges that cause lightning can only form on clouds. If there are heavy clouds, dangers of
lightning are much greater.
 If the air is moist, it will be easier for lightning flash to travel from a cloud to earth. Therefore,
lightning is more likely when it’s raining.
 Lightning flash strikes to the closest point on earth. This means it will strike the highest point
underneath the cloud. Tall buildings, trees, poles and towers are usually struck first.

Taking precautions necessary for protection from lightning

• Stay or go indoors: Buildings are best for shelter but if no buildings are available, you can seek
protection in a cave or ditch. Trees are bad cover. They attract lightning.
• Stay away from anything that could conduct electricity. This includes such things as fireplaces, metal
pipes, sinks, phones, wire fence and stoves.
• Do not use any plug-in electrical appliance: Electrical appliances e.g. hair dryers, electric
toothbrushes, electric shavers etc, can conduct electrical charge to the body if they are used during a
storm.
• Do not use the telephone during the storm: Lightning may strike telephone lines outside causing an
electric charge to go from the phone through the ear into the brain. Many people have been injured
while taking on the telephone during a storm.
• Stay in the automobile if you are travelling. Make show that the windows are closed. Convertibles are
not safe.

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• If you are going to be out doors stay near proper shelter and use the 30- 30 rule to know when you are
going to seek proper shelter.
• Do not swim in a pool or dam during a thunderstorm because lightning maybe conducted by water
through your body.

 If you cannot find a shelter avoid the most dangerous locations and activities:
 -avoid the tallest object in the area (e.g. trees, poles etc.)
 -avoid wide open areas (e.g. sports fields, ploughing fields etc).
 -avoid unprotected open buildings (e.g. picnic pavilions, rain shelters, bus stops etc).
 -avoid water related activities (swimming, fishing, boating, bathing etc).
 -avoid metal fences, fishing rods and golf clubs
 -avoid open vehicles (e.g. open farm tractors, open trucks, open construction vehicles, donkey
carts etc)
 When you feel the electrical charge i.e. your hair stands on end or your skin tingles, or some
metal objects will vibrate, or you hear a crackling or “kee-kee” you sound should know that you
are in danger. Drop to the ground immediately.
And do the lighting crouch.
1. Put your feet together,
2. Squat down,
3. Tuck your head
4. And cover your ears.
5. When the immediate threat of lightning has passed continue heading to the safest spot
possible.
This is called the lightning crouch and it is used only as a last resort. If this happens while you are
in a group then spread out first.

Protecting equipment and apparatus

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CURRENT ELECTRICITY
 An electric current is a stream of electric charges that are flowing along a conductor.
 The current flows from a positive terminal to a negative terminal.
 In a diagram of an electric circuit, the direction an electric current is shown by an arrow.

Construct simple parallel circuits containing cells/ (power supply), two switches and two bulbs
 An electric circuit is the path along
which electric charges move.
 It consists of a source of electrical
energy, connecting wires and one or more
electrical components such as switches, meters
or bulbs.
 The current flows out from the source,
round the circuit and back, unless there is a
break in the circuit.

Types of circuits
There are two types of circuit.
1. Series circuit
 Electric current follows only one path.
 A series circuit is one that connects an electrical source with its components, one after the other,
forming a single loop.
 All the components of the circuit are joined end to end, so removing anyone of the components
breaks the whole circuit.
 The current flowing through each electrical component in a series circuit is the same.
 When bulbs are connected in series, the electrical energy is shared between them.
 When cells are connected in series, provided they are all connected in the same direction, the
electrical force is the sum of the individual cells.

2. Parallel circuit
 In a parallel circuit electric current follows different paths.
 A parallel circuit is one that splits into two or more branches with connected electrical components.
 The components are joined side by side so that removing one of the components leaves the other part
of the circuit working.

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  If one bulb fails or is removed the remaining bulbs are not
affected.
 Bulbs connected in parallel are all lit with maximum
brightness.
 The current flowing through each branch in the parallel
circuit may be the same or different.
 But it is definitely less than the current flowing from the
source.
 Connecting cells in parallel does not increase the power of
the circuit.

Advantages of a parallel circuit connection over a series circuit

 An advantage of a parallel circuit is that a break in any branch of the circuit stops the current flowing
through that branch only. Because of this, parallel circuits are the ones used to connect electricity to
our homes and schools so that when one bulb blows the whole building would not become dark.
 The disadvantage of a series circuit is that a break in any part of the circuit stops the flow of current
in the whole circuit.

Type of circuit connection used in homes

 Parallel circuits are used in homes because:
- It is not restricted to one path.
- Allow current to keep flowing through various paths to various points.
- When an appliance is switched off, it doesn’t break the circuit.

Symbols used in drawing circuits

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Power ratings buying of electrical appliances
 Electrical appliances use power ratings that are given in watts (W). for example:
- An electric kettle maybe marked 1500W or 2000W
- A heater 3000W or 4000W
- A bulb 60W
 The power ratings of electrical appliances are usually labeled on the appliances. The greater the
power rating the more electrical energy the appliance uses in a unit time. This means that people who
use appliances of a higher power rating consume more electricity that people using appliances of a
lower power rating.

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