Science Reviewer

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Lesson 1: Matter

Matter
- It is made up of tiny particles. These particles are arranged depending on their states.

● The arrangement of particles of each state gives matter its own unique properties.

Solid
- It has definite shape and volume because its particles are closely packde together in a fixed
position.

➢ These particles vibrate and are held together by strong attractive forces.

Liquid
- It has a definite volume and takes the shape of the container. LIQUID flows easily because its
particles have enough space and have less attractive forces.

➢ The spaces in the particles allows particles to be compressed a little bit.

Gas
- It takes the volume and shape of the container
➢ Gas particles are far from each other that is why they have a weak attractive force and
can flow easily.
➢ They occupy the entire space available. The large spaces in between particles allows
particles to be compressed easily.

Lesson 2: Phase Changes of Matter

Melting → Solid to Liquid

Freezing → Liquid to Solid
Condensation → Gas to Liquid
Evaporation → Liquid to Gas
Sublimation → Solid to Gas
Deposition → Gas to Solid

WHAT ARE CHANGES OF STATE?

A change of state is a physical change in a matter. They are reversible changes and do not involve
any changes in the chemical makeup of the matter.
 ● Common changes of the state include melting, freezing, sublimation, deposition, condensation,
and vaporization

WHY DO PHASE CHANGE OCCURS?

When temperature or pressure change of a system occurs, phase changes occur. When the
temperature or pressure increases, the interaction between the molecules increases.

Similarly, when the temperature decreases, it is easier for molecules

and atoms to settle into a more rigid structure.

CHANGES BETWEEN LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS

How would you make ice cubes in a tray?

First, you fill the tray with water from a tap. Then you would place the tray in the freezer compartment of
a refrigerator. The freezer is very cold. What happens next?

FREEZING
Heat transfer occurs between the warmer tray and the colder air in the freezer. The warm water loses
heat to the cold air in the freezer.

● The heat transfer occurs until no energy is available for the particles to slide past each other. This
forces them to remain in fixed positions, locked in place by the force of attraction between them.
● This way liquid water is changed into solid ice.

The process of liquid water changing to solid ice is termed as freezing. The temperature at which it
occurs is known as the freezing point.

MELTING
If you took out the ice cubes from the freezer and placed them in a warm room, the ice would absorb
energy from the warmer air around them.

● This absorbed energy would facilitate them to overcome the force of attraction holding them
together, enabling them to slip out of the fixed position that they held as ice.

The process in which a solids change to a liquid is called melting. The melting point is the
temperature at which a solids change to a liquid.

Melting: Process requires energy

Freezing: Process releases energy

CHANGES BETWEEN LIQUIDS AND GASES

EVAPORATION
If you fill a pot with cold tap water and heat it on a hot stovetop, the water heats up. Heat energy travels
from the stovetop to the pot, and the water absorbs the energy from the pot. What happens to the water
next?

If the water is hot enough, it starts to boil. Bubbles of water vapor are formed in the boiling water.

● This happens as particles of liquid water gain enough energy to completely overcome the force of
attraction between them and change to the gaseous state.
● The bubbles rise through the water and escape from the pot as steam.

The process in which a liquid boils and changes to a gas is called evaporation. The temperature at
which a liquid boils is its boiling point.

CONDENSATION
When you take a hot shower in a closed bathroom, the mirror is likely to fog up. You may wonder why
this happens?

Some hot water from the shower evaporates and when it comes in contact with cooler surfaces such as
the mirror, it cools and loses energy.

● The cooler water particles no longer have the energy to overcome the forces of attraction
between them.

They come together and form droplets of liquid water. This process in which a gas changes to liquid is
known as condensation.

Ex: Heat in the bathroom mirror

Ex: Cold can of soda on a warm day
Ex: Dew in the grass in the morning
Ex: Foggy windscreen in a car

CHANGES BETWEEN SOLIDS AND GASES

SUBLIMATION
Solids change to gas and pass through the liquid state first. However, sometimes solids change directly
to gases and skip the liquid state. The reverse can also occur. Sometimes gases change directly to
solids.

The process in which solids directly change to gases is known as sublimation. This occurs when
solids absorb enough energy to completely overcome the forces of attraction between them.

● Dry ice is an example of solids that undergo sublimation

DEPOSITION
Gas to solid phase transitions are known as “deposition”
 ● Water vapor to ice - Water vapor transforms directly into ice without becoming a liquid, a
process that often occurs on windows during the winer months.

Lesson 3: Elements

ELEMENTS

- Are the fundamental substances that cannot be broken down into other substances through
chemical methods
- Made up of a certain kind of atom; thus they contain only one kind of atom.

COMPOUND
- Is a pure substance that is formed when atoms of two or more elements are bonded chemically.
- When an atom of elements combined they form a compound.

(Compounds are governed by the “Law of definite proportion” proposed by Joseph Proust in 1799)

● Compounds can be classified as acids, bases, and salts

Indicators - Are substances whose colors are affected by acids and bases.

(Acid: Blue litmus turns red)

(Base: Red litmus turns blue)

Elements contains only one kind of atom

Compounds contains two or more kind of atoms

MIXTURES
- Are physical combinations of two or more pure substances in which the individual identities of the
substance are not altered.

Pure Substances
- In chemistry, are a classification of matter made up of all the same type of atom, all the same
molecules, or all the same ionically bonded elements

Homogeneous Mixture
- A type of mixture of substances blended so thoroughly that you cannot see individual substances

Heterogeneous Mixture
- A type of mixture that is not thoroughly blended, so you can see and pick out individual parts of
the mixture.
Lesson 4: Atomic Structures and Theories

Introduction to Atoms
● Atoms are made up of three types of subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons. The
nucleus contains protons and neutrons, while electrons orbit around it.

Atoms are also called Atomos

Early Atomic Theories

● John Dalton’s Atomic Theory proposed that all matter is made up of tiny, indivisible particles
called atoms, each with its own unique properties.

Modern Atomic Theory

1.) Everything is made up of small indivisible and indestructible particles called “atoms”
2.) Atoms of the same element are always identical. Different elements are different from any other
element in their properties.
3.) When atoms of different elements combine they form a chemical compound of definite proportion.
4.) Atoms do not change. They cannot be created and cannotbe destroyed during a chemical
change.

Amendments
1.) Atoms are not indivisible. Atoms contain subatomic particles and even subatomic particles are
made up of even smaller particles.
2.) Atoms of the same element can differ. There are atoms of the same elements that differ in their
mass numbers because of the difference in the number of neutrons. We call them “isotopes”

ISOTOPES
- Atoms of the same element can differ. There are atoms of the same elements that differ in their
mass numbers because of the difference in the number of neutrons.

The Discovery of the Electron

 - J.J. Thomson’s cathode ray experiment led to the discovery of electrons, challenging the belief
that atoms were indivisible and fundamental.

Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment

- Rutherford’s experiment showed that atoms have a small, dense, positively charged nucleus
surrounded by mostly empty space with electrons orbiting it.

Bohr’s Atomic Model

- Bohr’s atomic model postulates that electrons orbit the nucleus in discrete energy levels.
Electrons absorb and emit energy to move between levels.

Modern Atomic Theory

- In 1913, Bohr proposed the first successful atomic model. Electrons orbit the nucleus in specific
energy levels and can jump between them.

Subatomic Particles
- Protoms have a positive charge and are found in the nucleus. Neutrons have no charge and are
also found in the nucleus. Electrons have a negative charge and orbit around the nucleus.

Conclusion

Atomic theories have evolved over centuries, leading to our current understanding of the atom’s
structure. These theories include Dalton’s atomic theory, Thomson’s plum pudding model, Rutherford’s
nuclear model, Bohr’s planetary models, and the modern quantum mechanical model. Each theory has
contributed to our understanding of the atom’s behavior and properties, and we continue to explore and
discover more about this fundamental building block of matter.

Leucippus & Democritus

- First proponents of the first atomic theory

Dalton
 ● Modern Atomic Theory

Note:

Geneva, Switzerland (CERN)

Atomic structures started from the ancient times = Chemistry (Bond Chemicals) → Alchemy

Lesson 5: Electron Configuration

S = Holds up to 2

P = Holds up to 6

D = Holds up to 10

F = Holds up to 14