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LASERS
The word Laser stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. It is a
device which amplifies light. It has properties like Coherence, Unidirectional, Monochromatic,
Focusability, etc.

Interaction of an electromagnetic wave with matter requires certain conditions. The

interaction leads to transition of an atom or a molecule from one energy state to another. If the
transition is from lower state to higher state it absorbs the incident energy. If the transition is
from higher state to lower state it emits a part of its energy.

If ∆E is the difference between the two energy levels,

Then ∆E = (E2 - E1) Joule
According to Max Planck, ∆E = h = (E2-E1)
 = (E2 - E1)/h Hz.

Three types of interactions, which are possible:

1) Induced absorption/ Stimulated absorption/absorption
2) Spontaneous emission
3) Stimulated emission.
Emission or Absorption takes through quantum of energy called photons. h is called quantum
energy or photon energy.
h = 6.626×10-34 Joules is Planck’s constant and ‘’ is the frequency.

1) Induced absorption/ Stimulated absorption/absorption:

Induced absorption is the absorption of an incident photon by system as a result of which the
system is elevated from a lower energy state to a higher state, wherein the difference in energy of
the two states is the energy of the photon.

Consider the system having two energy states E1 and E2, E2 > E1. When a photon of energy h is
incident on an atom at level E1, the atom goes to a higher energy level by absorbing the energy.

When an atom is at ground level (E1), if an electromagnetic wave of suitable frequency  is

applied to the atom, there is possibility of getting excited to higher level (E2). The incident
photon is absorbed. It is represented as,
Atom + Photon → Atom*
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The frequency of the absorbed photon is,  = (E2-E1)/h.

The rate of absorption is proportional to N1U
Where ‘N1’ is the number density of the lower energy state, ‘U’ is the energy density of incident
radiation.
Rate of absorption = B12N1U
Where ‘B12’ is the proportionality constant called Einstein Coefficient of induced absorption.

2. Spontaneous Emission:
The emission of a photon by the transition of a system from a higher energy state to a lower
energy state without the aid of an external energy is called spontaneous emission. Let ‘E1’ and
‘E2’ be two energy levels in a material, such that E2>E1. E1 is ground level and E2 is the higher
level. h=E2-E1 is the difference in the energy. The atom at higher level (E 2) is more unstable as
compared to that at lower level (E1).

The time taken by the atom to remain in the excited state is normally very short (order of
-8
10 s) and it is called life time of the atom. In spontaneous emission atom emits the photon
without the aid of any external energy. It is called spontaneous emission. The process is
represented as

Atom* → Atom + Photon

The photons emitted in spontaneous emission may not have same direction and phase
similarities. It is incoherent. Ex: Glowing electric bulbs, Candle flame etc.

Spontaneous emission depends on N2 which is the number of atoms present in the higher level.
The rate of spontaneous emission = A21N2
Where ‘A21’ is the proportionality constant called Einstein coefficient of spontaneous emission.

3. Stimulated Emission:
Stimulated emission is the emission of a photon by a system under the influence of a passing
photon of just the right energy due to which the system transits from a higher energy state to a
lower energy state.

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The photon thus emitted is called stimulated photon and will have the same phase, energy and
direction of movement as that of the passing photon called the stimulation photon.
Initially the atom is at higher level E2. The incident photon of energy h forces the atom
to get de-excited from higher level E2 to lower level E1. i.e. h=E2–E1 is the change in energy.
The incident photon stimulates the excited atom to emit a photon of exactly the same
energy as that of the incident photons. The emitted two photons have same phase, frequency,
direction and polarization with the incident photon. This kind of action is responsible for lasing
action.
Atom* + Photon → Atom + (Photon + Photon)
The rate of stimulated emission is directly proportional to N2U, where ‘N2’ is the number of
atoms present in the higher energy level and ‘U’ is the energy density.
The rate of stimulated emission = B21N2U, where ‘B21’ is the proportionality constant called
Einstein’s Coefficient of stimulated emission.

Einstein’s A & B Coefficients (Expression for energy density Uν):

Consider two energy states E1 and E2 of a system of atoms. Let N1 and N2 be the no. of atoms in
the energy states E1 and E2 respectively.
Let radiations of wavelength in the range λ and λ + dλ are incident on the system of
atoms.
Let U𝛾 be the energy incident / unit volume of the system. Then U𝛾d𝛾 represents the
energy density of frequency 𝛾. Let us consider,

1) The Case of Induced absorption:

In case of induced absorption when an atom in the ground state absorbs a radiation of
E  E1
frequency 𝛾 = 2 then it makes a transition to the level E2.
h
No. of such absorption per unit time per unit volume is called Rate of absorption.
The rate of absorption = B12N1 U𝛾.
Where, B12 is the proportionality constant called Einstein coefficient of induced absorption.

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2. Spontaneous Emission:
An atom in the excited state E2 makes transition to ground state E1 by the emission of photon of
frequency 𝛾. No. of such spontaneous emissions per unit time per unit volume are called Rate of
spontaneous emission. This is proportional to the no. density in the higher energy state N2.
Rate of spontaneous emission = A21N2 U𝛾. Where, A21 is called Einstein coefficient of
spontaneous emission.

3. Stimulated emission:
When a radiation of frequency 𝛾 incident on an atom in the state E2, which stimulate the atom to
make downward transition and causes the emission of stimulated photons. The rate of stimulated
emission  N2.
Rate of stimulated emission = B21UvN2

Where, B21 is the constant of proportionality called the Einstein coefficient of stimulated
emission. And N2 is the number density in the higher energy state E2.

At thermal equilibrium,

Rate of absorption = (Rate of spontaneous emission + Rate of stimulated emission)

B12N1U = A21N2 + B21N2U

U (B12N1 - B21N2) = A21N2

A21 N2
U = (B
12 N1 −B21 N2 )

A21 N2
i.e. U = [
B21 (B12 N1 −N2 )
]
B21

A21 1
= [ B N ] -------------------- (1)
B21 ( 12 1 ) −1
B21 N2

By Boltzmann’s law,
E2 −E1
N2= N1 e−(
)
KT = N1 e-h/KT

N1
i.e.,
N2
= eh/KT
 
Eqn. (1) becomes,   ------------------- (2)
A2 1  1 
U    h

 
B2 1 
B  
 1 2 e  kT  
1 
 B 
 21 

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By Planck’s law,

 
  ----------------- (3)
8h 3
 1 
U 
c3    hkT  
 e 1


  

Comparing equation (2) & (3)

A21 B12
= 8πh3/c3 & =1 i.e. B12 = B21
B21 B21

The probability of induced adsorption is equal to the stimulated emission.

Rename A21 as A and B12 as B

A
Then, we get the required equation, Uν =
  h  
B e kT   1
 
 

Requisites of LASER system:

1. Excitation source:
The laser action involves stimulated emissions. Stimulated emissions require a population
inversion. Population inversion is the condition in which the number of atoms in the upper level
far exceeds that in the lower level (i.e., N2 >> N1). For this, atoms must be continuously excited
from ground state to the higher energy state by supplying energy. This excitation process is
known as the pumping of atoms. If the input energy is in the form of light, the pumping is called
optical pumping (in the case of ruby laser). If it is in the form of electrical energy, the pumping is
called electrical pumping (in He-Ne laser, CO2 laser, GaAs laser). The external source required
to provide the energy in the appropriate form for the pumping of atoms is known as the
excitation source.

2. Active medium:
A medium which absorbs the energy from an external source and which supports the population
inversion is called an active medium. Active medium consists of atoms/molecules with suitable
energy levels for lasing. Stimulated emission and photon multiplications take place in the active
medium.
In the active medium, stimulated emissions are initiated by a few spontaneously emitted
photons. Each stimulated emission gives rise to two identical photons. These two photons trigger
two excited atoms to undergo stimulated emissions and there will be four identical photons. Thus
the photon multiplication sets in and light is amplified in the active medium.

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3. Laser cavity / optical resonant cavity:

An active medium placed between two parallel mirrors forms the laser cavity. One mirror is
completely silvered and other semi-silvered.

The primary function of the laser cavity is to provide feedback of photons into the active
medium so that the stimulated emission sustains (continues). Due to reflection, light travels to
and fro between the mirrors and photon multiplication takes place. Part of the light energy is
obtained as laser beam by transmission through the semi-silvered mirror.

Further, the optical resonator selects and amplifies only those photons which are
travelling along the cavity. Photons travelling in different directions are reflected sideways and
are eliminated. Thus the resonator makes the beam unidirectional.

At a mirror, the incident wave and the reflected wave must superpose / interfere
constructively to form a standing wave. For this, the cavity length must be an integral multiple of
half the wavelength. That is L = m  λ/2. This condition of constructive interference makes the
beam highly intense.

Conditions for LASER action:

Metastable state:
In any natural (equilibrium) system, the number of atoms in the ground level is much greater
than that in the higher level (i.e., N1 >> N2 or N1 = 1020 N2, roughly). For lasing, an inverted
(non-equilibrium) condition of the system, called the population inversion (N2 >> N1) must be
achieved. The Population inversion is not possible at an ordinary excited level. The reason is that
the average life time of atom in an ordinary excited state is of the order 10-8 second. The atoms
undergo spontaneous emission without delay. So no accumulation of atoms takes place to
achieve population inversion. On the other hand, if the higher level is a meta-stable state, the life
time of an atom is longer and is of the order of 10-3 second. So, atoms excited to a meta-stable
increase in number leading to a population inversion.

Three-level system:
A two-level scheme is not suitable. The reason is that the energy being supplied to pump the
atoms into the upper level has an equal probability of stimulating them back down. So, it is not
possible to pump more than half the atoms into the excited state (at the best, we can achieve N1 =
N2). Hence no population inversion can be achieved with a two level system.
Population inversion can be achieved in a three-level system or four-level system with a
metastable intermediate level. In a three level system, atoms from the ground /stable state E1 are
excited to an ordinary/unstable excited state E3. Excited atoms from E3 undergo spontaneous
(non-radiative) transitions rapidly to the meta-stable state E2, which is slightly below E3. Atoms
are trapped at E2 to give a population inversion with respect to E1. Stimulated emissions take
place from E2 to E1. After the stimulated emissions, atoms reach the ground state E1 and will be

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available for absorption of energy and the next cycle of transitions. In each cycle, the stimulated
emissions from E2 to E1 are responsible for the generation of the laser beam. A three-level
scheme produces only a pulsed (discontinuous) beam. To achieve a continuous out put, a four-
level scheme is essential.
E3

E2

E1

Carbon di-oxide (CO2 ) laser:

CO2 laser was first developed by Kumar Patel of Bell Labs USA, in 1964. CO2 laser is a
molecular gas laser.
Vibrational energy levels of a CO2 molecule:
Since a CO2 molecule has two oxygen atoms and a carbon atom in between, there are three
modes of vibrations.
(1) Symmetric stretching mode, (2) Asymmetric stretching mode, (3) Bending mode
(1) Symmetric stretching mode:
In this mode, the carbon atom remains stationary as the two oxygen atoms oscillate along the
molecular axis either approaching towards (or) away from the carbon atom. This state is referred
to as (100) state.
(2) Asymmetric stretching mode:
In this mode the two oxygen atoms move in one direction while the carbon atom moves in
opposite direction. Here, CO2 molecule possess highest energy and is referred as (011) state.
(3) Bending mode:
In this mode, the two oxygen atoms are pulled together in one direction and the carbon atom is
displaced in the opposite direction. The energy in this state is intermediate of the energies in the
other two vibrations.

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Vibration energy levels of N2 molecule:

The vibration levels of N2 molecule are metastable. The ground state is labeled as v=0 state and
first excited state is labeled as v=1 state.
Construction of CO2 laser:

CO2 laser consists of a discharge tube of length about 5m and diameter about 2.5 cm. The
discharge tube is sealed on either sides with Brewster’s window and is filled with a mixture of
CO2, N2 and He in the ratio 1:2:3. Traces of Hydrogen or water vapor are added, because during
discharge when some CO2 molecules break into CO and O, Hydrogen or water vapor help to
deoxidize CO and CO2. The pressure inside the tube is 6 to 17 torr. Two mirrors are fixed on
either sides of the discharge tube, one which is completely silvered and the other partially
silvered.

Working:

When a suitable voltage is applied to the discharge tube, gaseous molecules get ionized and
electrons are rendered free. These highly energetic electrons accelerate towards the positive
electrode with high velocity and collide with N2 molecules. On their way which are present in
ground state, the N2 molecules are excited to the v=1 level. For a N2 molecule, ground state is
represented as v = 0 and higher energy state as v = 1. There are E1 (ground state), E2 (0 1 0), E3 (0
2 0), E4 (1 0 0) and E5 (1 0 0) states for CO2 molecule. This is known as collision of first kind.
Same way co2 molecule can also get excited to (001) state.

e1+N2  N2* + e2 (for N2 molecule)

Where, e1 & e2  energy values of electron before collision and after collision.

N2 & N2*  energy values of molecule in its ground state and in its excited state
respectively.

e1+CO2  CO2* + e2 (for CO2 molecule)

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N2 molecule while making transition to the ground state, collides with CO2 molecule in ground
state, since energy values of v=1 of N2 matches with (001)of CO2 , resonant transfer of energy
takes place from N2 to CO2 get excited to (001) level (E5).This type of collision is known as
collision of second kind.
N2* + CO2  CO2*+ N2
CO2 & CO2*  Energy values of CO2 in its ground state and excited state
N2* & N2  Energy values of N2 in its excited state and ground state respectively.
Hence population of CO2 increases in E5 level, now important transitions takes place.
(a) Transition from E5  E4 which gives rise to radiation of wavelength 10.6m, which lie in IR
region.
(b) Transition from E5  E3 which gives rise to radiation of wavelength 9.6m, which lie in IR
region.
Since E4-E2  E3-E2 E2-E1, CO2 molecules which are present in E3 & E4 collide with
CO2 molecules in ground state and due to resonant transfer of energy CO2 molecules may
populate E2 level. (E2-E1) is also of the order of thermal energy of the surrounding and CO2
molecule in E1 level can absorb this energy and get elevated to E2 level, increasing CO2
population in E2 level which adversely affects population in E5 level.
Few CO2 molecules collide with He atoms and water vapor and comes down to ground
state. And since Helium is a very good thermal conductor, it transfers the heat of discharge to
tube well. Hence helps to reduce thermal excitation of CO2 molecules from E1 & E2.
Efficiency of CO2 is around 30. The size, pressure and proportion of gases may
vary depending upon its application. CO2 laser is a high power laser with light output about 20
kW. Owing to its high power output, CO2 laser finds wide industrial applications in cutting,
welding, drilling of metals.

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Gallium-Arsenide Laser: Semiconductor laser:

A Semiconductor diode laser is a specially fabricated p-n junction device that emits coherent
light when it is forward biased. In case of germanium and silicon based diodes, this energy is
released in the form of heat because of recombination of carriers take place through interaction
with the atoms of the crystal. But in the case of GaAs, the energy is released in the form of
photons as the atoms of the crystal are not involved in the release of energy. The wavelength of
the emitted photon depends upon the activation energy of the crystal.

Principle:
GaAs laser works on the principle of “recombination”. In a semiconductor, there will be certain
number of holes and electrons which are free to move and are referred to as charge carrier. When
an electron makes a transition from conduction band to valence band; energy is released in the
form of photons. The process is known as “recombination”.
Construction:

Cross sectional view of p-n junction diode laser.

The Gallium Arsenide laser diode is a single crystal of GaAs, which consists of a heavily
doped n & p section. n-region is obtained by doping GaAs with tellurium and p- region is
obtained by doping GaAs with Zinc. The doping concentration is very high and is of the order of
1017 to1019 dopant atoms / cm3.Overall size of the diode is very small and each of its diodes is of
the order of 1mm.Width of the each region (or) thickness of each region varies from 1m to
100m.The thickness of the depletion region is around 1m. Pair of parallel planes of a crystal
are cleaved (or) polished right angles to p-n layer. Since reflectively of GaAs to air roughened to
suppress reflections of the photons, so that they will not develop any lasing. Electrons are
provided for p & n regions for the application of forward bias voltage.

Working:
In a Semiconductor at absolute 00k, conduction band is completely empty and valence band is
completely filled. But because of high doping concentration, large number of conduction

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electrons is available in n- type material and large numbers of holes are available in p-type
material at room temperature due to thermal excitation.

Under normal condition, the concentration of electrons at the bottom of the conduction
band will be lesser than that in the energy level at the top of the valence band. When the diode is
forward biased and when the current flowing through the diode is low, there is a transition of a
electron from the conduction band to valence band but it leads to emission of spontaneous
photons. When the current is increased, a threshold of lasing will be attained and hence active
region is formulated near the junction where population gets inverted.

A photon emitted by spontaneous emission trigger stimulated emission over a large

number of recombination’s leading to the buildup of laser radiation. Since laser light is emitted
only at the edge of the diode they are also known as “edge emitters”. The stimulated electron-
hole recombination causes emission of coherent radiation of very narrow bandwidth. At room
temperature, GaAs laser emits light of wavelength 9000A0 and GaAs laser radiates at 6500A0.
Wavelength of light emitted by semiconductor laser is,
ℎ𝑐
 =𝐸 = 8400A0 (Eg for GaAs = 1.4eV)
𝑔

Energy level diagram of p-n junction diode laser

(a) Before biasing, (b) After biasing.

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