📘 FORENSIC CHEMISTRY COMPREHENSIVE

NOTES
●​ 1973 – GC-MS used in drug analysis
●​ 1986 – DNA fingerprinting used in
forensic science (Dr. Alec Jeffreys)
I. INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC CHEMISTRY
II. PHYSICAL EVIDENCE
(Source: 1-Forensic-Chem-Intro.pdf)

🔍 Definition (Source: 2-Physical-Evidence.pdf)

Forensic Chemistry: A branch of chemistry used

⚖️ Definition
in the detection and identification of chemical Physical Evidence:​
substances in crimes. Objects addressed to the senses of the court;

🧪 Scope of Forensic Chemistry can be examined, exhibited, or viewed when

relevant to the facts in issue.

●​ Bodily fluids "Includes any type of physical material found at

●​ Soils the crime scene."
●​ Hairs
●​ Fibers

✅ Advantages of Physical Evidence

●​ Chemicals
●​ Drugs
●​ Ink and Paint
●​ Explosive Material ●​ Tangible and court-presentable

🧑‍🔬 Role and Importance of a Forensic Chemist ●​

●​
●​
Jury can examine it
Not distorted or affected by memory
Can be independently tested
●​ Collection & Reception of Evidence ●​ Strengthens weak cases
●​ Actual Examination
●​ Report Writing of Result

🔎 Significance of Physical Evidence

●​ Court Appearance

🕰️ Historical Background
🔬 Important Cases & People: ●​ Identification
●​ Comparison
●​ Serves as direct or circumstantial
●​ Blandy Trial evidence
●​ John Tom’s Case ●​ Testimonies given are treated as expert
●​ Mathieu Orfila – Father of Forensic evidence
Toxicology
●​ Francis Galton – Fingerprint classification

🔄 Locard’s Exchange Principle

●​ Edmond Locard – Locard's Exchange
Principle

📆 Key Historical Advances: “It is impossible for a criminal to act... without

leaving traces of this presence.”
●​ 1810 – First document dye analysis
●​ 1828 – Polarized light microscope ●​ Trace evidence helps solve cases
(William Nichol) ●​ Items may transfer between victim and
●​ 1858 – Griess test for nitrites suspect
●​ 1880 – Fingerprints in crime detection
(Henry Faulds)
●​ 1891 – Hans Gross coins "Kriminalistik"
●​ 1903 – Will West latent fingerprints case
●​ 1919 – Aston’s mass spectrometer
🧤 Collection of Physical Evidence ⚖️ Corpus Delicti
Goals: “Body of the crime”

●​ Reconstruct the crime ●​ Homicide: Dead body

●​ Identify the person ●​ Robbery: Loss of property
●​ Preserve for analysis ●​ Arson: Proof of intentional burning
●​ Ensure admissibility in court ●​ Drug cases: Identity and integrity of the
drug as corpus delicti
Procedure:

🧪 Identification vs. Comparison

●​ Prioritize easily lost or movable evidence
●​ Follow the crime scene trail
●​ Continuous photography for
documentation Identification
●​ Proper containers:
○​ Paper (envelopes, bags) ●​ Determines chemical/physical identity
○​ Leak-proof for liquids ○​ e.g., gasoline in fire debris, DNA
○​ Airtight metal canisters for arson ID​
○​ Plastic bags for large amounts of
dry powders
○​ Wet evidence must be dried after Comparison
2 hours

🧬 Common Types of Physical Evidence ●​ Matches unknown specimen to known

○​ e.g., paint chip from hit-and-run
vs. car paint​
●​ Bodily fluids
●​ Documents
●​ Drugs
●​ Explosives
●​
●​
Fibers
Fingerprints
🧬 Class vs. Individual Characteristics Class
●​ Firearms/ammo ●​ Shared by all in a group
●​ Glass ●​ Cannot identify specific source
●​ Hair ●​ Useful to exclude suspects
●​ Impressions
●​ Paint
Individual
●​ Soil/minerals
●​ Tool marks
●​ Unique features (tear, wear pattern,
fracture)
●​ Can trace to a specific person/object

🔗 Chain of Custody
“Continuity of possession”
📈 Assessing Evidence Value
●​ Authorized and recorded movements of
●​ Class evidence: Supports by probability​
seized evidence
●​ From confiscation to court presentation
○​ e.g., rare fiber color match → low
chance of coincidence​
🧠 Comparative Analysis ●​ Conservation of Energy: Energy isn’t
created or destroyed
●​ Performed using forensic databases:​ ●​ Combined Law: Total matter and energy
is constant​
○​ Fingerprint, DNA, Drug
databases​ ○​ E = mc²

🌡️ Physical vs. Chemical Properties

●​ Physical: Observable without changing
composition
○​ e.g., color, melting point​
III. GENERAL CHEMISTRY IN FORENSIC
CHEMISTRY
●​ Chemical: Involve transformation
○​ e.g., flammability, acidity​
(Source:
3-General-Chemistry-in-Forensic-Chemistry.pdf)
●​ Intensive: Independent of quantity (e.g.,
🔬 Chemistry Overview boiling point)
●​ Extensive: Dependent on amount (e.g.,
mass)​
●​ Chemistry: Science of matter, its
properties, transformations, and
associated energy changes
●​ Matter: Anything with mass and occupies
space
●​ Energy: Capacity to do work or transfer
🔁 Chemical & Physical Changes
heat
Chemical Change:

●​ New substances form

⚛️ Branches of Chemistry ●​ Reactants consumed
●​ Energy exchanged​
●​ Inorganic – Non-carbon substances
●​ Organic – Carbon & hydrogen Physical Change:
compounds
●​ Analytical – Substance identification and ●​ No chemical composition change​
quantification
●​ Physical – Properties and energy
changes
●​ Biochemistry – Chemistry of life
processes
🧪 Chemical Equations
Show:
🔥 Energy Types & Laws 1.​ Reactants​
●​ Kinetic Energy – Motion 2.​ Products​
●​ Potential Energy – Position
3.​ Relative amounts​
Laws:

●​ Conservation of Matter: Matter isn’t

created or destroyed
💧 Solutions & Electrolytes ●​ Organic molecules: covalent, 3D, contain
C, H, O, N​
●​ Solution: Homogeneous mixture​

●​ Solute: Dissolved substance​

●​ Solvent: Substance doing the dissolving​

Electrolytes:
________________________________________
●​ Strong: Complete ionization (e.g., strong
acids, bases, salts)​
IV. CRIME SCENE HAZARDS IN FORENSIC
●​ Weak: Partial ionization​ SCIENCE

●​ Non-electrolytes: No ionization​ 🚨 Crime Scene Hazards 🚨

○​ ⚠️ Personnel working at crime
●​ Importance:

scenes may be exposed to

🧲 Electronegativity various health and safety

●​ Atom’s tendency to attract electrons in a

○​ 🔍
hazards.
Not all hazards
immediately obvious and some
are
bond​ may come up as the investigation
unfolds.
●​ Sources of Hazards:
○​ Potential hazards may arise from

🔗 Chemical Bonding 🧪
a number of sources:

●​ Ionic: Electron transfer between ions​

■​
■​
■​
🩸
💥
Chemicals
Biological materials
Unexploded

●​ Covalent: Electron sharing between ■​ 🔫

explosives

🏞️ Firearms

🚧
atoms​ ■​ Environmental factors

Polarity:
■​
■​ 🔒 Unsafe structures
Insecure environment
■​ Other risks

●​ Nonpolar: Equal sharing​

●​
○​ 🩸
Biological Hazards:
Includes blood and body fluids
may present a risk of HIV/AIDS
●​ Polar: Unequal sharing​ and other infections
●​
○​ 🔪
Other Risks:

⚡ Sharp objects
○​
○​ ☢️
⚛️
Electrical risks
Radiological risks
IV. ORGANIC
SCIENCE
CHEMISTRY IN FORENSIC
○​
○​ 💨 Nuclear risks
Gases

🧬 General Principles
●​
○​ 🧪
Chemical Hazards:
Either those present at the
scene, for instance, in the case of
clandestine laboratories or
●​ Carbon forms 4 bonds (tetravalent)​ chemicals used as part of the
investigation
●​ Primary Considerations:
 ○​ ⛑️ Health and safety procedures
are the most important issues to
potentially harmful effects, along
with instructions on how to store,
be considered when arriving at handle, and dispose of the

○​
crime scenes and should remain

⚠️
a priority throughout the process.
It might be necessary to
■​ 🪪 ⚠️
substance safely.
Identification;
■​ Hazard
suppress or remove health and
safety hazards before starting the 📦
■​
Identification;

○​ 🩹
investigation.
These procedures include the
Composition/infor
mation on
provision of first aid kits,
appropriate protective clothing ■​ 🩹
ingredients;
First-aid
(e.g. helmet, gloves), adequate

📦
equipment ■​ 🔥
measures;
Fire-fighting
○​ Beyond the hazards
encountered at the scene itself,
laboratory personnel may be
■​ 🚨
measures;

release
Accidental

exposed to hazards when

receiving items collected at the ■​ 📦
measures;
Handling and

○​ 🏷️
scene.
The personnel working at the
scene play an important role in
■​ 🛡️
storage;
Exposure
Controls/personal
minimizing hazards to others
handling collected evidence later
in the forensic process (e.g. by
■​ ⚛️
protection;
Physical and
Chemical
using appropriate packaging and
warning labels). ■​ 💥
properties;
Stability and

■​ 💀
reactivity;
Toxicological

■​ 🌿
information;
Ecological

🗑️
information;

🧪 Chemical Hazards 🧪
■​ Disposal

■​ 🚚
considerations;
Transport

○​ 🏷️ Although labels can vary,

●​ Understanding chemical labels:
■​ ⚖️
information;
Regulatory
there is some basic information
which can be obtained from these ■​ ➕
information;

information.
Other
to help identify the chemical or
class and assist in its safe
⚠️
●​ Chemical and Hazard Warning Symbols:

📝
handling, storage and disposal. ○​ Commercial chemical

🔢
○​ Chemical name containers should display some
○​ CAS number (or Chemical chemical or hazard warning
Abstracts Service registry
🌐
information

🔢
number) ○​ The current system of
○​ UN number (United Nations classification which indicates

⚠️
number) hazards and the warning symbols
○​ Chemical and hazard warning for a chemical is referred to as
symbols the “Globally Harmonized

📄
●​ Safety Data Sheets (SDS): System” (GHS) for the
○​ Similar with Material Safety classification and labelling of

○​ ℹ️
Data Sheets (MSDS).
It provides detailed
chemicals.
■​ ⚕️Health and physical
hazard pictograms
information about a chemical
product’s composition and its
 ■​ 🚚 Transport
pictograms for
dangerous goods
●​ Health and physical hazard

○​ 🖼️
pictograms:
Chemical labels may have ○​ 🛡️
●​ Personal Protective Equipment (PPE):
The correct PPE level will
depend on the risks posed by the
multiple physical and health
chemicals present or the
○​ ⚠️
hazard pictograms (see figure III).
These pictograms are useful
as they indicate the multiple risks ○​ 🧪
procedures being undertaken.
Also, the type of illicit
which may be associated with a laboratory will also play an

○​ 🔥 ☣️ ⚠️
chemical.
, , For example, a ○​ ⚠️
important role in determining risk.
However, without expert
technical support it is
chemical may be flammable, but
also be corrosive and an irritant, recommended to always use the
such as the chemical acetic highest level of PPE available,
which provides the most
○​ 🛡️
anhydride
This information can help to
determine what physical ○​ 🚫
protection for personnel.
In the presence of significant
protection measure might be hazards, such as reacting
required, such as a chemical suit, chemicals, strong vapours/gases
apron and gloves as the chemical or other immediate physical or
is corrosive, and respiratory and chemical hazards, these
face (eye) protection as it is also environments should not be
entered, and expert technical
○​ 🔥
an irritant.

💨 Flammable support should be obtained.

●​ Level D:
○​
○​ ⚙️ Oxidizing
Compressed gas ○​ uniform Protection is primarily a
work uniform and is used for
○​ 💥
○​ corrosive

💀 Explosive
○​ 🥾
nuisance contamination only.
It requires only coveralls and
○​
○​ ⚕️ Toxic
Health hazard
○​ 🧤
safety shoes/boots.
Other PPE is based upon the
○​ 🌿
○​ irritant
Environmental hazard
○​ 🚫
situation (types of gloves, etc.)
It should not be worn on any
○​ 🚚
●​ Transport Pictograms:
Transport pictograms identify
chemicals which are classed as
site where respiratory or skin
hazards exist
dangerous goods and classifies
them into different groups based
●​ Level C:
○​ 😷 Protection should be selected
when the type of airborne
on, among others, their chemical
substance is known,
○​ 🚛
properties and reactivity.
As a general rule, only
chemicals of the same hazard
concentration measured, criteria
for using air-purifying respirators
class should be transported met, and skin and eye exposure
together to minimize the risk of
reaction in the event of an ○​ 💨
is unlikely.
Periodic monitoring of the air

○​ 📦
accident, leak or spill.
This is the same principle ○​ 🪖
must be performed.
Full-face or half-mask,
air-purifying respirator (NIOSH
which is used in determining

○​ 🚚
separation for safe storage.
Transport pictograms provide ○​ 🧥
approved).
Chemical resistant clothing
(one piece coverall, hooded two
a good basic indication of a
chemical’s hazard class piece chemical splash suit,
chemical resistant hood and
apron, disposable chemical
resistant coveralls.)
 ○​ 🧤 Gloves, outer, chemical ●​ Safe Handling and Transport of

○​ 🧤 Gloves, inner, chemical ⚠️

resistant. Chemicals:
○​ The handling of chemicals
resistant. creates the potential for reactions,

○​ 🫁 Protection should be selected

●​ Level B: spills or accidents and should be

when the highest level of

respiratory protection is needed,
○​ 🔑
kept to a minimum.
The following are some key
steps for the safe handling of

○​
but a lesser level of skin and eye

⚠️
protection is needed.
Level B protection is the
chemicals:
■​ 🔍 Before moving
chemicals, try to identify
minimum level recommended on the type of chemical and
initial site entries until the hazards
have been further identified and
defined by monitoring, sampling,
■​ ❗️
any hazards.
Note that
occasions, chemicals are
on

and other reliable methods of deliberately mislabelled

analysis, and equipment for smuggling or
corresponding with those findings trafficking purposes, and
utilized caution should be used
○​ apparatus Positive-pressure as hazard labels may not
(pressure-demand),
self-contained breathing
apparatus, or positive-pressure
■​ ⚠️
be reliable.
Labels can vary
greatly, however the
supplied air respirator with hazard class is normally

○​ 🧥
escape SCBA.
Chemical resistant clothing
(overalls and long-sleeved jacket, ■​
the dominant, or largest

❓
warning symbol visible.
Assess the condition
coveralls, hooded two-piece of the containers. “Is it
chemical splash suit, disposable safe to move, is it rusted,

○​ 🧤
chemical resistant coveralls.)
Gloves, outer and inner, ■​ 🔒
leaking or damaged?”
As labels may not

○​ 🥾
chemical resistant.
Boots, outer, chemical
resistant, steel toe and shank.
always be reliable, it is
critical that containers or
drums be in good
●​ Level A:
○​ ⛑️ Protection should be worn
when the highest level of
condition and securely
sealed to reduce the
potential for accidental
respiratory, skin, eye and mucous reactions during handling

○​ 🫁
membrane protection is needed.
Positive pressure (pressure
demand), self contained
■​ 🚚
or transport.
Note that unsafe or
damaged containers
breathing apparatus (SCBA) should not be transported
(NIOSH approved), or and should be managed
positive-pressure supplied air at the location or

○​ 🧥
respirator with escape SCBA.
Fully encapsulating chemical
decanted (transferred) to
another suitable drum or

○​ 🧤
protective suit.
Gloves, inner, chemical ■​ 👨‍🔧
container.
This may require

○​ 🧤
resistant.
Gloves, outer, chemical ■​ ⬇️
expert technical advice.
Minimize chemical

○​ 🥾
resistant.
Boots, chemical resistant,
steel toe and shank; (depending
movements, plan what to
move, how to move it and
where it is going to be
on suit boot construction, worn
over or under suit boot.) ■​ 🛤️
moved to.
Make sure the way is
clear, that there are no
 physical obstacles and
that all non-essential
personnel are a safe

■​ 🤝
distance away.
To ensure prompt
assistance in case of an
accident during the
handling and removal of
chemicals, such
exercises should be
conducted by at least two
people, equipped with the

■​ 📦
same level of PPE.
Transport chemicals
separately with only
chemicals from the same
hazard class transported
together in any load.