Physics Olympiad
Chapter 1: Mechanics
1.1 Kinematics
Kinematics is a branch of classical mechanics that describes the motion of objects
without considering the forces causing the motion. It focuses on quantities like position,
velocity, acceleration, and time. Kinematics is essential in understanding how objects
move in one, two, or three dimensions.
Key concepts in kinematics:
1. Position (x or s): Describes the location of an object relative to a chosen
reference point.
2. Displacement (∆𝑥 or ∆𝑠 : The change in position of an object. It is a vector
quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and direction.
3. Formula: ∆𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑥𝑓 𝑖
Where:
∆𝑥 = Displacement
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𝑥𝑓 = Final position
𝑥𝑖 = Initial position
4. Velocity (v): The rate of change of displacement with respect to time. Average
velocity is calculated over a time interval, while instantaneous velocity is at a
specific point in time.
Average velocity formula: 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ∆𝑥∆𝑡
Where:
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = Average velocity
∆𝑥 = Displacement
∆𝑡 = Time interval
5. Acceleration (a): The rate of change of velocity with respect to time. It can be
positive (speeding up) or negative (slowing down).
Average acceleration formula: 𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
∆𝑣
∆𝑡
Where:
𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑔 = Average acceleration
∆𝑣 = Change in velocity
∆𝑡 = Time interval
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Kinematic equations:
For motion with uniform acceleration, the following equations apply:
1. 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎𝑡
This equation relates the final velocity to the initial velocity, acceleration, and
time. It shows that the velocity of an object changes linearly with constant
acceleration.
𝑣 = Final velocity (velocity at time 𝑡 )
𝑣𝑖 = Initial velocity (velocity at 𝑡 = 0 )
𝑎 = Acceleration (rate of change of velocity)
𝑡 = Time elapsed
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2. 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2
This equation gives the position of an object at any time 𝑡 when it is moving with
constant acceleration. It combines the initial position, the contribution from
initial velocity, and the effect of acceleration over time.
𝑥 = Final position (position at time 𝑡 )
𝑥𝑖 = Initial position
𝑣𝑖 = Initial velocity
𝑎 = Acceleration
𝑡 = Time elapsed
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3. 𝑣 2 = 𝑣𝑖2 + 2𝑎∆𝑥
This equation is useful when time is not known. It relates the change in velocity
to the displacement and acceleration.
𝑣 = Final velocity
𝑣𝑖 = Initial velocity
𝑎 = Acceleration
∆𝑥 = Displacement (change in position)
4. ∆𝑥 =
(𝑣+𝑣𝑖 )
2
𝑡
This equation calculates displacement when the average velocity is known. It is
derived from the fact that with constant acceleration, the average velocity is the
mean of the initial and final velocities.
∆𝑥 = Displacement (change in position)
𝑣 = Final velocity
𝑣𝑖 = Initial velocity
𝑡 = Time elapsed
Kinematics is used in various fields including physics, engineering, robotics, and
biomechanics. It helps describe the trajectories of moving objects, calculate motion
parameters, and analyze dynamic systems without focusing on the causes of motion.
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Understanding kinematics is foundational for advanced topics like dynamics and
mechanical systems analysis.
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1.2 Newton’s Law of Motion
Newton’s Laws of Motion: An In-Depth Explanation
Sir Isaac Newton, one of the most influential scientists in history, formulated three
fundamental laws of motion. These laws describe the relationship between the motion
of an object and the forces acting upon it. First published in 1687 in his work
"Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica," these laws form the foundation of
classical mechanics and are still used today to understand the physical world.
First law: law of inertia
Newton’s First Law states:
"An object at rest will remain at rest, and an object in motion will remain in motion
unless acted upon by an external force."
This law emphasizes the concept of inertia, which is the resistance of any physical
object to a change in its state of motion. If no external force is applied, a stationary
object will not move, and a moving object will continue to move in a straight line at
constant velocity.
For example, imagine a skateboarder rolling along a smooth surface. Without friction or
other forces acting upon them, they would continue moving indefinitely. However, real-
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world factors such as friction and air resistance eventually slow them down. This law
explains why seat belts are crucial—when a car suddenly stops, the person inside
continues moving forward unless the seat belt applies a stopping force.
Second Law: The Law of Force and Acceleration
Newton’s Second Law provides a precise mathematical relationship between force,
mass, and acceleration:
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
Where:
𝐹 = the force applied (in Newtons)
𝑚 = the mass of the object (in kilograms)
𝑎 = the acceleration produced (in meters per second squared)
This law explains that the acceleration of an object depends on two factors: the amount
of force applied and the object’s mass. Heavier objects require more force to accelerate,
while lighter objects need less.
For instance, pushing an empty skateboard requires less effort than pushing one loaded
with a heavy backpack. If you apply the same force to both, the empty skateboard
accelerates more quickly because it has less mass. This law also explains why rockets
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need to burn vast amounts of fuel to escape Earth’s gravity—overcoming the planet’s
gravitational pull requires substantial force.
Third Law: The Law of Action and Reaction
Newton’s Third Law states:
"For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction."
This means that whenever an object exerts a force on another object, the second object
exerts an equal but opposite force back on the first object. These forces always occur in
pairs and act on different objects.
A classic example is how a skateboarder propels forward by pushing backward against
the ground. The ground pushes back with an equal and opposite force, moving the
skateboarder forward. Similarly, when a bird flaps its wings downward, the air pushes
back up, allowing the bird to rise.
1.3 Energy, Work, and Power
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Energy, work, and power are fundamental concepts in physics that describe how forces
interact with matter to produce movement, transformation, and the ability to do work.
These three concepts are interconnected and play a crucial role in understanding how
the physical world operates.
1. Energy
Energy is the capacity to do work or cause change. It exists in many different forms
and can be transferred between objects or transformed from one form to another, but it
cannot be created or destroyed. This principle is known as the law of conservation of
energy.
There are several types of energy, including:
• Kinetic Energy: The energy of motion. Any moving object possesses kinetic
energy, which depends on its mass and speed. The formula for kinetic energy is:
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𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2
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Where:
𝑚 = mass (in kilograms)
𝑣 = velocity (in meters per second)
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• Potential Energy: Stored energy due to an object’s position or state. For
example, a stretched rubber band or a rock at the top of a hill has potential
energy. Gravitational potential energy depends on height and is calculated by:
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
Where:
𝑚 = mass
𝑔 = gravitational acceleration (9.8 m/s² on Earth)
ℎ = height above a reference point
Other forms of energy include thermal, chemical, electrical, and nuclear energy.
2. Work
In physics, work is done when a force is applied to an object, causing it to move in the
direction of the force. If there is no movement, no work is done—even if you are
exerting effort.
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The mathematical expression for work is:
𝑊 = 𝐹 × 𝑑 × cos(𝜃)
Where:
𝑊 = work (in joules)
𝐹 = the force applied (in newtons)
𝑑 = the distance moved in the direction of the force (in meters)
𝜃 = the angle between the force and the direction of motion
If the force and motion are in the same direction, 𝜃 = 0° and cos(0) = 1, simplifying the
formula to:
𝑊 =𝐹×𝑑
For example, if you push a box with a force of 10 N over a distance of 5 m, the work
done is:
𝑊 = 10 × 5 = 50𝐽
3. Power
Power refers to the rate at which work is done or energy is transferred. It measures
how quickly energy is used or work is performed. The formula for power is:
𝑊
𝑃=
𝑡
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Where:
𝑃 = power (in watts)
𝑊 = work (in joules)
𝑡 = time (in seconds)
One watt is equivalent to one joule of work done per second. For example, if a machine
does 500 joules of work in 10 seconds, its power output is:
500
𝑃= = 50𝑊
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Power can also be calculated in mechanical systems using force and velocity:
𝑃 =𝐹×𝑣
Relationship Between Energy, Work, and Power
• Work and Energy: Work is the process of transferring energy. When work is
done on an object, its energy changes. For example, lifting a book increases its
gravitational potential energy.
• Power and Work: Power measures how quickly work is performed. A powerful
machine does the same work faster than a less powerful one.
For instance, two people lifting identical boxes perform the same work, but the person
who lifts faster generates more power.
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Real-Life Applications
• Transportation: Cars use chemical energy from fuel to produce kinetic energy.
Engines with higher power accelerate faster.
• Electricity: Power plants convert mechanical energy into electrical energy,
measured in kilowatts (kW).
• Sports: Athletes use chemical energy from food to perform physical work, with
their power output determining performance.
These three concepts—energy, work, and power—are essential for understanding the
physical processes that drive the world around us.
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1.4 Conservation laws
Conservation laws are fundamental principles in physics that state certain quantities in
an isolated system remain constant over time, even though individual components
within the system may change. These laws play a central role in the understanding of
various physical phenomena. Among the most important conservation laws are those for
momentum, energy, and angular momentum. Each of these quantities has broad
implications in classical mechanics, and understanding them is crucial in analyzing both
macroscopic and microscopic systems.
Conservation of Momentum
Momentum, often defined as the product of an object’s mass and velocity, is a vector
quantity that describes the motion of an object. The law of conservation of momentum
states that in an isolated system (one where no external forces are acting), the total
momentum of the system remains constant. This principle is based on Newton's third
law of motion, which says that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
In practical terms, when two objects collide, their individual momenta may change, but
the total momentum before the collision is equal to the total momentum after the
collision, provided no external forces like friction interfere. A classic example is the
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collision of two billiard balls. After the collision, while the individual velocities of the
balls change, the sum of their momenta remains the same.
Conservation of Energy
Energy, a scalar quantity, is the capacity to do work. It exists in many forms, including
kinetic energy (energy due to motion), potential energy (energy stored due to position),
and thermal energy (energy due to temperature). The law of conservation of energy
states that energy in an isolated system cannot be created or destroyed; it can only
change forms. In other words, the total energy of an isolated system remains constant
over time.
For instance, consider a pendulum swinging back and forth. At its highest point, the
pendulum has maximum potential energy and minimum kinetic energy. As it swings
downward, the potential energy is converted into kinetic energy. At the lowest point, the
pendulum has maximum kinetic energy and minimum potential energy. Throughout this
motion, the total energy remains constant, as it is simply transformed from one form to
another.
However, in real-world systems, external forces like friction or air resistance can
dissipate mechanical energy as heat, which makes the total mechanical energy of the
system decrease over time. Despite this, the total energy, including heat, remains
conserved.
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Conservation of Angular Momentum
Angular momentum is a measure of the rotational motion of an object. It is defined as
the product of an object's moment of inertia and its angular velocity. Like linear
momentum, angular momentum is conserved in isolated systems, but it pertains to
rotational motion. The law of conservation of angular momentum states that if no
external torque acts on a system, the total angular momentum remains constant.
A simple example of angular momentum conservation is a figure skater performing a
spin. As the skater pulls in their arms, their moment of inertia decreases, which causes
their rotational speed to increase in order to conserve angular momentum. If the skater
were to stretch their arms out, their moment of inertia increases, causing them to slow
down. This is a clear demonstration of how angular momentum remains constant in the
absence of external torques.
In summary, the conservation laws for momentum, energy, and angular momentum are
vital to understanding the dynamics of physical systems. These principles help explain a
wide variety of phenomena, from the motion of planets to the behavior of particles in
collisions. By understanding and applying these laws, scientists and engineers can
predict the behavior of systems and design more efficient technologies.
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1.5 Rotational Dynamics
Rotational dynamics is the branch of physics that studies the motion of objects as they
rotate around an axis. Just as linear dynamics focuses on objects moving in a straight
line, rotational dynamics describes how forces cause objects to spin and how their
rotational motion changes over time. Two critical concepts in rotational dynamics are
torque and moment of inertia.
1. Torque: The Cause of Rotational Motion
Torque is the rotational equivalent of force. It represents the tendency of a force to
rotate an object around a particular axis. When you open a door, turn a wrench, or spin a
wheel, you are applying torque. Mathematically, torque (𝜏 ) Is defined as:
𝜏 = 𝑟 × 𝐹 × sin(𝜃)
Where:
𝜏 = the torque (measured in Newton-meters, N·m)
𝑟 = the distance from the axis of rotation to the point where the force is applied (lever
arm)
𝐹 = the applied force (in Newtons)
𝜃 = the angle between the force and the lever arm
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If the force is applied perpendicular to the lever arm (𝜃 = 90°), the torque is maximized
because sin (90°) = 1. If the force is parallel to the axis, no torque is generated
because sin (0°) = 0.
Direction of Torque: Torque is a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and
direction. The direction of torque is determined by the right-hand rule: if you point the
fingers of your right hand in the direction of the lever arm and curl them toward the
force, your thumb points in the direction of the torque vector.
2. Moment of Inertia: Resistance to Rotational Motion
Moment of inertia (I) is the rotational equivalent of mass in linear motion. It quantifies
how much an object resists changes in its rotational motion. The moment of inertia
depends on both the mass of the object and how that mass is distributed relative to the
axis of rotation.
The general formula for the moment of inertia is:
𝐼 = Σ𝑚𝑟 2
Where:
𝐼 = the moment of inertia (kg·m²)
𝑚 = the mass of a point particle
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𝑟 = the distance of the mass from the axis of rotation
For
objects with continuous mass distributions, integration is used:
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑚
Common Moments of Inertia:
• Solid sphere: 𝐼 = 25 𝑚𝑟2
• Solid cylinder (about its axis): 𝐼 = 12 𝑚𝑟2
• Thin rod (about its center): 𝐼 = 121 𝑚𝐿2
Objects with more mass further from the axis have a larger moment of inertia and are
harder to spin.
3. Newton’s Second Law for Rotation
Just as 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 governs linear motion, rotational motion is governed by:
𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼
Where:
𝜏 = the net torque
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𝐼 = the moment of inertia
𝛼 = the angular acceleration
This means that a greater torque produces a larger angular acceleration, but an object
with a greater moment of inertia requires more torque to achieve the same angular
acceleration.
4. Applications of Rotational Dynamics
• Bicycles and Cars: Torque from the engine rotates the wheels, propelling the
vehicle.
• Gyroscopes: Their high moment of inertia stabilizes motion.
• Figure Skaters: By pulling their arms in (reducing I), they spin faster due to
conservation of angular momentum.
In summary, torque initiates and changes rotational motion, while the moment of inertia
governs how resistant an object is to those changes. Together, these principles are
foundational in understanding how objects rotate in the physical world.
1.6 Gravitation
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Gravitation is a fundamental force of nature that governs the attraction between objects
with mass. It is one of the four fundamental forces in physics, alongside the
electromagnetic force, the weak nuclear force, and the strong nuclear force. Gravitation
is responsible for the motion of planets, the formation of galaxies, and the force that
keeps us anchored to the Earth's surface.
Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
The first comprehensive theory of gravitation was proposed by Sir Isaac Newton in
1687. Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation states that every particle in the universe
attracts every other particle with a force that is:
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹=𝐺
𝑟2
Where:
𝐹 = the gravitational force between two objects.
𝑚1 and 𝑚2 are the masses of the objects.
𝑟 = the distance between their centers.
𝐺 = the gravitational constant (6.67430 × 10−11𝑚3𝐾𝑔−1𝑠−2).
According to this law, the gravitational force is directly proportional to the product of
the masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. This
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means that the greater the masses of the objects, the stronger the gravitational pull
between them, but the force weakens rapidly as the distance increases.
Newton’s theory successfully explained a wide range of physical phenomena, such as
the motion of planets around the Sun, the tides on Earth caused by the Moon’s gravity,
and the trajectory of falling objects.
Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity
While Newton’s law accurately describes gravity under many conditions, it does not
account for all gravitational phenomena. In 1915, Albert Einstein introduced the Theory
of General Relativity, which provided a more comprehensive explanation.
According to Einstein, gravity is not a force between objects but rather the result of the
curvature of spacetime caused by mass and energy. Massive objects like planets, stars,
and black holes bend the fabric of spacetime around them. Smaller objects follow the
curves in this spacetime, which we interpret as gravitational attraction.
A famous demonstration of this theory is the way light bends around massive objects,
known as gravitational lensing. Another key prediction of general relativity is the
existence of gravitational waves, ripples in spacetime caused by accelerating masses.
These waves were first detected directly in 2015 by the LIGO (Laser Interferometer
Gravitational-Wave Observatory) collaboration.
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Gravitation in Everyday Life
Gravitation affects almost every aspect of our daily lives. It keeps us on the ground,
governs the motion of celestial bodies, and influences ocean tides. The Earth’s
gravitational pull gives objects weight, which is the force with which the planet attracts
them.
Gravitation also plays a crucial role in engineering and technology. Satellites orbit Earth
because of the balance between their velocity and the planet’s gravitational pull.
Understanding gravity helps engineers design structures and vehicles that function
safely under gravitational stress.
Modern Research and Open Questions
Despite our advanced understanding of gravitation, some mysteries remain. Scientists
are still working to reconcile general relativity with quantum mechanics, a field known
as quantum gravity. Another major question involves the nature of dark matter and dark
energy, which seem to influence the universe’s gravitational behavior but remain
undetected directly.
In conclusion, gravitation is a fundamental force that shapes the universe. From
Newton’s law to Einstein’s revolutionary insights, our understanding of gravity
continues to evolve, offering profound insights into the workings of the cosmos.
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