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l-10, 1997
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ELSEVIER

Industrial ecology: an historical view

S. Erkman
industrial Maturation Multiplier, P.O. Box 474, 1211 Geneva 12, Switzerland

A new perspective on the industrial system It is studied through an essentially analytical and
.descriptive approach (basically an application of
Industrial ecology? A surprising, intriguing expression materials-balance principle), aimed at understanding the
that immediately draws our attention. The spontaneous circulation of the materials and energy flows linked to
reaction is that ‘industrial ecology’ is a contradiction human activity, from their initial extraction to their
in terms, something of an oxymoron, like ‘obscure inevitable reintegration, sooner or later, into the overall
clarity’ or ‘burning ice’. biogeochemical cycles.
Why this reflex? Probably because we are used to Industrial ecology goes further. The idea is first to
considering the industrial system as separate from the understand how the industrial system works, how it is
biosphere, with factories and cities on one side and regulated, and its interaction with the biosphere; then,
nature on the other, the problem consisting of trying on the basis of what we know about ecosystems, to
to minimize the impact of the industrial system on determine how it could be restructured to make it
what is ‘outside’ of it: its surroundings, the ‘environ- compatible with the way natural ecosystems function.
ment' . As early as the 1950s this end-of-pipe angle As yet, there is no standard definition of industrial
was the one adopted by ecologists, whose first serious ecology, and a number of authors do not make a clear
studies .focused on the consequences of the various difference between industrial metabolism and industrial
forms of pollution on nature. In this perspective on the ecology. The distinction, however, makes sense not
industrial system, factories as such remained outside of only from a methodological point of view, but also in
the field of research. a historical perspective: the ‘industrial metabolism’
Industrial ecology explores the opposite assumption: analogy was in use during the 198Os, especially in
the industrial system can be seen as a certain kind of relation to the pioneering work of Robert U. Ayres,
ecosystem. After all, the industrial system, just as first in the USA”*, then at IIASA (Laxenburg, Austria)
natural ecosystems, can be described as a particular with William Stigliani and colleaguesg-14, and more
distribution of materials, energy, and information flows. recently at INSEAD (Fontainebleau, France)15-18. At
Furthermore, the entire industrial system relies on about the same time, the metabolic metaphor was
resources and services provided by the biosphere, from pursued independently by Peter Baccini, Paul Bmnner
which it cannot be dissociated. and their colleagues at the Swiss Federal Institute of
Industrial ecology has been manifest intuitively for Technology (ETHZ)19*20. In parallel, it should be
a very long time. In the course of the past 30 years recalled that there is a long tradition of organic meta-
the several attempts made in that direction have usually phors in the history of evolutionary economics and
been rather fruitless, except in Japan. The expression urbanism (urban ecology)21.22.
re-emerged in the early 1990s at first among a number Raymond CM, at Dalhousie University (Halifax,
of industrial engineers connected with the National Nova Scotia), compiled a number of definitions from
Academy of Engineering in the USA1-J. the early literature on industrial ecology23. However,
Today the concept is progressing with unprecedented whatever the definitions may be, all authors more or
vigour. In the past 3 years, the expression ‘industrial less agree on at least three key elements of the indus-
ecology’ has begun to spread in a number of academic trial ecology/metabolism perspective:
and business circles, with the beginning of a perceptible
buzzword effect. Thus, in order to avoid any confusion, 1. It is a systemic, comprehensive, integrated view of
I would like to specify in this introductory paper what all the components of the industrial economy and
is meant by ‘industrial metabolism’ and ‘industrial their relations with the biosphere.
ecology’. 2.. It emphasizes the biophysical substratum of human
‘Industrial metabolism’ is the whole of the materials activities, i.e. the complex patterns of material flows
and energy flows going through the industrial system. within and outside the industrial system, in contrast

J. Cleaner Prod., 1997, Volume 5, Number 1-2 1

Industrial ecology: an historical view: S. Erkman

with current approaches which mostly consider the Industrial ecology: earlier attempts
economy in terms of abstract monetary units, or
alternatively energy flows. There is little doubt that the concept of industrial
3. It considers technological dynamics, i.e. the long ecology existed well before the expression, which
term evolution (technological trajectories) of clusters began to appear sporadically in the literature of the
of key technologies as a crucial (but not exclusive) 1970s. As usual, on certain occasions, the same
element for the transition from the actual unsus- expression does not refer to the same concept: it
tainable industrial system to a viable industrial ecos- describes the regional economic environment of compa-
ystem. nies28V29or it is used as a ‘green’ slogan by some
industrial lobbies in reaction to the creation of the US
Environmental Protection Agency 30.
However, the concept of industrial ecosystems is
clearly present although not explicitly named in the
An operational approach to sustainability writings of systems ecologists such as Gdum, Margalef,
and Hal131-33. In fact, and not surprisingly, systems
It is probably no coincidence that the ideas involved ecologists studying biogeochemical cycles had for a
in industrial ecology have recently reappeared among very long time the intuition of the industrial system
industrial engineers, who are accustomed to solving as a subsystem of the biosphere34*35.However, this line
practical problems, given that industrial ecology makes of thought has never been actively investigated, with
it possible to provide concrete answers to a crucial the notable exception of agroecosystems, whereas the
question that arose out of the big UN conferences that recent industrial ecology perspective acknowledges the
culminated with the Rio Summit in June 1992, namely: existence of a wide range of industrial ecosystems with
How can the concept of sustainable development be varying degrees and patterns of interactions with the
made operational in an economically feasible way? biosphere, from certain kinds of almost ‘natural’ agroe-
Industrial ecology represents precisely one of the paths cosystems36 to the supremely artificial ecosystems, like
that could provide real solutions. In fact, it is already space ~hips~~+O.
more than a smart theoretical idea: the ‘industrial What might be one of the earliest occurrences of
symbiosis’ that has evolved during the last three dec- the expression ‘industrial ecosystem’ (in accordance
ades in the small city of Kahmdborg, in Denmark, with today’s concept) can be found in a paper by the
offers the best evidence that such an approach can be late well-known American geochemist, Preston Cloud.
very practical and economically viable24,25. This paper was presented at the 1977 Annual Meeting
Industrial ecology emerges at a time when it is of the German Geological Association4’. Interestingly,
becoming increasingly clear that the traditional depol- it is dedicated to Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, the pion-
lution approach (end-of-pipe) is insufficient. Several eer of bioeconomics who on many occasions has
companies have for many years experimented with insisted on the importance of matter and material flows
pollution prevention strategies, but these have thus far in the human economy in a thermodynamic perspec-
been relatively isolated, often very publicized, cases tive4248, and has also extensively written on techno-
involving a few big companies that can afford to logical dynamics49-52.
test methods such as life cycle analysis, total quality Several attempts to launch this new field have been
management, design for environment, etc.26,27 made in the last couple of decades, with very limited
Moreover, approaches such as pollution prevention success. Charles Hal153, an ecologist at New York State
and cleaner production also have their limits. Most University, began to teach the concept of industrial
industrial activities necessarily generate wastes or by- ecosystems and publish articles on it in the early 198Os,
products. It is impossible to make cheese, for instance, without getting any response53. At about the same
without having the part of the milk that is not used period, in Paris, another academic, Jacques Vigneron,
become ‘waste’ or a ‘by-product’. Finally, the pollution independently launched the notion of industrial ecol-
prevention and cleaner production approaches still think ogy, without, until very recently, awakening any real
in terms of preventing and reducing ‘wastes’, and thus, interest on his side eitheP4.
to a certain extent, share a perspective similar to the The industrial ecology concept was indisputably in
end-of-pipe philosophy. By contrast, in certain cases, its very early stages of development in the mid-197Os,
the industrial ecology approach would even consider in the context of the flurry of intellectual activity
to increase the production of a particular ‘waste’, in that marked the early years of the United Nations
the absence of a cleaner production viable alternative, Environment Program (UNEP). Set up following the
if this would allow this ‘waste’ to become a marketable 1972 UN Conference on Human Environment in Stock-
(by-)product. holm, UNEP had as its first director Maurice Strong,
The point is, therefore, to integrate end-of-pipe who is presently a special adviser to the president of
approaches and prevention methods into a broader the World Bank. One of his close collaborators at the
perspective, to which they should be subordinated. time was none other than Robert Frosch, who was to
‘Ibis is precisely the perspective intended by industrial make a decisive contribution to the revival of the
ecology and industrial metabolism. concept of industrial ecology thanks to an article pub-

2 J. Cleaner Prod., 1997, Volume 5, Number l-2

 industrial ecology: an historical view: S. Erkman

lished in 1989 in the monthly magazine Scientific to consider the relations of a factory with the factories
American. producing the raw materials that it consumes, with the
A similar intellectual atmosphere was also prevailing distribution channels it depends on to sell its products,
around the same period in other circles, like the United with the consumers who use them...In sum, you have
Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) to define industrial society as an ecosystem made up
and the United Nations Economic Commission for of the whole of its means of production, and distri-
Europe (ECE). For example, many papers presented bution and consumption networks, as well as the
during an international seminar organized by the ECE reserves of raw material and energy that it uses and
in 1976 on what was called at that time ‘non-waste the waste it produces.. .A description in terms of circu-
technology and production’ disseminated ideas similar lation of materials or energy produces a view of econ-
to those discussed today in the cleaner production and omic activity in its physical reality and shows how
industrial ecology literature55. Another example: Nelson society manages its natural resources.’ The group stud-
Nemerow, who has been active in the industrial waste ied six main streams from this angle: iron, glass,
treatment field in the USA for more than 50 years, plastic, lead, wood and paper, and food produce.
acknowledges in a recent book a brainstorming session One of the main findings was the so-called ‘discon-
with Alex Anderson of UNIDO in Vienna during the nection’ between two stages of a stream. This means
early 197Os, at which time the idea of ‘environmentally that ‘two sectors in the same stream, which could be
balanced industrial complexes’ in the perspective of complementary and develop in close interaction with
zero pollution was borP. Very similar ideas were each other, are oriented in quantitatively/qualitatively
discussed by Ted Taylor, a nuclear physicist turned divergent directions’64. For instance, 80% of the net
environmentalist, and Charles Humpstone, a lawyer, in output of steel in Belgium is intended for export due
a book published in New York at around the same to the opening of European borders. Under the auth-
time57. In fact, Ted Taylor had created in 1967 the ority of the European Community of Coal and Steel
International Research and Technology Corporation, a (ECCS), the Belgian steel industry thus developed
company devoted to the development of these concepts, rapidly, without any relationship with the development
of which he was the president and Robert Ayres the of the metal-production sector. The opening of outside
vice president. Other examples of similar thinking markets encouraged an excessive growth of a heavy
could be provided58,59, including in Russia, where a steel industry aimed mainly at the export market, to
Department of Industrial Ecology has been in operation the detriment of its specializing in more elaborate
for a decade at the Mendeleiev Institute of Chemical technological products. As a result, me steel industry
Technology6W3. Two earlier attempts, however, was completely disconnected from the metal-construc-
deserve to be mentioned in some detail here: the tion sector, an unlinking that has made the Belgian
Belgium ecosystem research, and the ground-breaking steel industry very dependent on exports for selling a
work carried out in Japan. rather commonplace product, by consequence of which
it is vulnerable to competition on the world market
whilst providing an inadequate response to domestic
The Belgium ecosystem
needs.
In 1983, a collective work called L’EcosystSme Another very significant example is that of the
Belgique. Essai d’hologie Industrielle was published unlinking of farming and breedingbl. In the traditional
in Brussels by the Centre de Recherche et dInform- pattern, there was a certain balance between farming
ation Socio-politiques, an independent research centre and breeding in a mixed farming concern: the by-
associated with progressive circles in Belgium@. The products and waste of mixed farming were used to
book summarizes the thinking of a half-dozen intellec- feed the livestock. The animal density remained low,
tuals linked to the left-wing socialist movement. and animal excrements (liquid and solid manure) con-
Inspired by ‘The Limits to Growth’ (the Meadows stituted the basis for soil amendments, sometimes sup-
report to the Club of Rome), and especially by the plemented with mineral fertilizer. The ‘modernization’
‘Letter’ of Sicco Mansholt (Common Market of agribusiness has destroyed this pattern. Livestock,
Commissioner), this small group sought to fill a gap which has become much more important, is fattened
that prevailed in standard, including left-wing, econ- with industrial feed made out of imported raw
omic thinking. The small group comprised six persons materials.
from different fields (biologists, chemists, economists), Breeding has thus progressively cut itself off from
who accomplished this work outside of their everyday farming activities as far as food resources are con-
occupations. Their idea was to produce an overview cerned. The same is true for animal excrements: the
of the Belgian economy on the basis of industrial considerable mass of excrements can no longer be
production statistics, but to express these in terms of completely used up because it far surpasses the manur-
materials and energy flows rather than the traditional, ing capacity of the farmland. In both cases (breeding
abstract monetary units. and farming), me by-products have outstripped their
The basic principles of industrial ecology are thus natural outlets, and have become waste with disposal
clearly expressed as follows? ‘To include industrial problems.
activity in the field of an ecological analysis, you have The authors reached the conclusion that the general

J. Cleaner Prod., 1997, Volume 5, Number l-2 3

Industrial ecology: an historical view: S. Erkman

features of the way the Belgian industrial system works spective thinking. About 50 experts from a large variety
(i.e. opening, specialization, and sectoral unlinking) of fields (industrialists, senior civil servants, representa-
attest to the internationalization of the Belgian econ- tives of consumer organizations) then explored the
omy, and result in three main forms of dysfunction? possibilities of orienting the development of the
Japanese economy toward activities that would be less
The economic opening of the Belgian system leads
dependent on the consumption of materials, and based
to the ecological opening of the materials cycles.
more on information and knowledge.
Consumption residues, which could constitute a
During the 1970 Industrial Structure Council session,
resource, are increasingly considered as waste, the
the idea came up (without its being possible, appar-
disposal of which is a problem.
ently, to attribute it to a specific person) that it would
Operation of this economic system requires large
be a good thing to consider economic activity in ‘an
energy expenditure. On this point, the analysis of
ecological context’.
the Brussels group particularly highlights the fact
The final report of the Industrial Structure Council,
that the increase in primary energy comes less from
called ‘A Vision for the 197Os’, was made public in
the increase in end consumption than from a certain
May 197 1. Complying with the recommendations of
type of organization of the energy chain itself, as
the report, the MIT1 immediately set up about 15 work
well as of the industrial system as a whole.
groups. One of these, the Industry-Ecology Working
The structure of the circulation of materials in the
Group, was specifically commissioned to further
industrial system generates pollution. For example,
develop the idea of a reinterpretation of the industrial
the present organization of the food chain causes
system in terms of scientific ecology.
the degradation of surface water.
The small group was coordinated by Chihiro Watan-
The Belgian group also developed some interesting abe, a young urban engineer, who was then in charge
ideas on the subject of waste, by underscoring that the of environmental problems within an MIT1 agency,
notions of ‘raw materials’ and ‘waste’ only mean the Environmental Conservation Bureau. [After having
something from the point of view of a system where occupied a variety of positions in MIT1 for 26 years,
the circulation of materials is open. Contrary to the Chihiro Watanabe is today a Professor at the Tokyo
current assumption, in which the waste problem is Institute of Technology and Adviser to the Director of
seen as being due to an increase in production and the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis
consumption@: ‘our consumption of raw materials and in Laxenburg, Austria65.] With the assistance of several
our production of waste constitute a consequence of outside experts, the members of the Industry-Ecology
the structure of the circulation of raw materials in our Working Group began by conducting systematic
industrial system. As for the recycling of waste, we research of the scientific literature, then consulted with
have to realize that the main difficulties are found not the best international specialists. It was in the course
at the collection, or even at the sorting stage, but of a US tour in March-April 1973, that Chihiro Watan-
upstream of collection, that is, in the real possibilities abe met with one of the great figures of modem
of waste disposal in the current structure of our pro- ecology, Eugene Odum, at Georgia State University,
duction system.’ in Atlanta (who, none the less, did not appear to be
According to Francine Toussaint, the main instigator particularly interested in the Japanese approach).
of the project and trade engineer currently working for After a year’s work, in May 1972, the Industry-
the Brussels administration, the expression ‘industrial Ecology Working Group published its first report, a
ecology’ seems to have come up on its own, spon- Japanese document of more than 300 pages, a summary
taneously, without having been read or heard else- of which is available in English66. According to Chihiro
where. Even though the work summarized the basic Watanabe, the report was widely distributed within the
ideas of industrial ecology with remarkable clarity, its MITI, as well as among industrial organizations and
reception was extremely reserved. ‘We really had the the media, where it was considered to be ‘stimulating’
feeling that we were a voice preaching in the desert’ but also still very ‘philosophical’. A second, more
remembers Francine Toussaint. Eventually, the group concrete report, including case studies, was published
of friends branched off in different directions, each a year later in the spring of 1973.
pursuing their own career, and, despite its interest and It is difficult to evaluate the exact legacy of the
originality, the ‘Belgium ecosystem’ was soon forgot- Industry-Ecology Working Group, but there is no doubt
ten. that its approach has greatly contributed to the design
and implementation of many important MIT1 research
programmes on industrial technology. In April 1973,
The Japanese view for instance, the Secretariat of the Minister in charge
Japan deserves particularly to be mentioned in the of MIT1 officially recommended that a new policy be
history of industrial ecology. In the late 196Os, the developed on the basis of the ecology principle, with
Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI), the accent on energy aspects.
noting the high environmental cost of industrialization, In August 1973, 2 months before the first oil shock,
commissioned one of its independent consulting agenc- MIT1 submitted a first budget request for the Sunshine
ies, the Industrial Structure Council, to do some pro- Project. The project, which aimed to develop new

4 J. Cleaner Prod., 1997, Volume 5, Number l-2

 Industrial ecology: an historical view: S. Erkman

energy technology (particularly in the area of renewable raw materials and generate products to be sold plus
energy), was started in July 1974. A few months waste to be disposed of should be transformed into a
before the second oil shock, in 1978, MITI launched more integrated model: an industrial ecosystem. . . .The
a supplementary programme, the Moonlight Project, industrial ecosystem would function as an analogue of
devoted to technology intended to increase energy biological ecosystems. (Plants synthesize nutrients that
efficiency. In 1980, MITI founded the New Energy feed herbivores, which in turn feed a chain of cami-
Development Organization (NEDO), then in 1988 vores whose wastes and bodies eventually feed further
launched the Global Environmental Technology Pro- generations of plants.) An ideal industrial ecosystem
gram. may never be attained in practice, but both manufac-
Finally, the New Sunshine Program, devoted to turers and consumers must change their habits to
advanced energy technology in view of, among other approach it more closely if the industrialized world is
objectives, achieving an important reduction in green- to maintain its standard of living-and the developing
house gas emissions was started in 1993. The New nations are to raise theirs to a similar level-without
Sunshine Program is itself a component of a broader adversely affecting the environment.’
programme, New Earth 21(j7”‘. However, as Robert Frosch indicated during his
Without falling into the usual stereotypes on Japan lecture, ‘Towards an Industrial Ecology’, presented
(long-term strategic vision, systemic approach, etc.), before the UK Fellowship of Engineering in 1990s8:
we have to acknowledge that it is the only country ‘The analogy between the industrial ecosystem concept
where ideas on industrial ecology were ever taken and the biological ecosystem is not perfect, but much
seriously and put into practice on a large scale, even could be gained if the industrial system were to mimic
though they were already diffusely present in the USA the best features of the biological analogy’.
and Europe70. The consequences of this are not to be On the occasion of the first symposium on industrial
neglected, given that it is through technology developed ecology, which took place in Washington in May 1991
in the context of an economy that has fully integrated under the authority of the National Academy of Science
ecological constraints that Japan intends to maintain and chaired by Kumar Pate1 of Bell Labss9, Robert
its status as a great economic power. Frosch pointed out that the idea had been around for
A basic principle underlies this strategy: replace a long time: ‘The idea of industrial ecology has been
material resources with technology. This is why techno- evolving for several decades. For me the idea began
logical dynamics is at the heart of Japanese thinking in Nairobi with discussions at the United Nations
on industrial ecology7 1-77. Environment Program (UNEP), where we were con-
This approach, however, is not original per se: cerned with problems of waste, with the value of
research on technological dynamics has been pursued materials, and with the control of pollution. At the
in Europe and the USA for many years by a number same time, we were discussing the natural world and
of authors such as Jesse Ausubel and Amulf Gri.ibler78- the nature of biological and ecological systems. There
86. However, whereas this thinking has been incorpor- was a natural ferment of thinking about the human
ated in long-term and large-scale industrial strategies world, its industries, and its waste products and prob-
in Japan, it has been traditionally (and still remains) lems and about the coupling of the human world with
mainly academic in the West. the rest of the natural world.. .‘90.
In contrast to preceding attempts, Frosch and Gal-
lopoulos’s article sparked off strong interest. There are
A new departure with Scienti! American
many reasons for this: the prestige of Scientijc Amer-
Every year in September, the popular scientific monthly ican, Frosch’s reputation in governmental, engineering
Scientific American publishes an issue on a single and business circles, the weight carried by the authors
topic. In September 1989, the special issue was on because of their affiliation with General Motors, and
‘Managing Planet Earth’, edited by William C. Clark the general context, which had become favorable to
(Harvard University), himself an influential member of environmental issues, with, among other features, dis-
the early industrial ecology ‘invisible college’87. The cussions around the Brundtland Commission report on
issue featured an article by Robert Frosch and Nicholas sustainable development. The article manifestly played
Gallopoulos, both then at General Motors, called ‘Stra- a catalytic role, as if it had crystallized a latent intuition
tegies for Manufacturing’ (the original title proposed in many people, especially in circles associated with
by the authors was ‘Manufacturing-The Industrial industrial production, who were increasingly seeking
Ecosystem View’, but was not accepted). new strategies to adopt with regard to the environment.
In their article, the two authors offered the idea that Although the ideas presented in Frosch and Gal-
it should be possible to develop industrial production lopoulos’s article were not, strictly speaking, original,
methods that would have considerably less impact on the Scientijc American article can be seen as the
the environment. This hypothesis led them to introduce source of the current development of industrial ecology.
the notion of industrial ecosystem. Projections regard- In Washington, the National Academy of Engineering
ing resources and population trends ‘lead to the recog- (NAE) had shortly before launched the Technology
nition that the traditional model of industrial activity- and the Environment Program, organizing symposia
in which individual manufacturing processes take in and publishing their reports. The first of these, pub-

J. Cleaner Prod., 1997, Volume 5, Number l-2 5

industrial ecology: an historical view: S. Erkman

lished in 1989, ‘Technology and the Environment’, idea of systemic waste exchanges can be extended
already contains many of the ideas that evolved in the beyond the boundaries of an industrial zone, and can
direction of industrial ecology’. Braden Allenby, an lead to regional thinking, like the concept of ‘islands
AT&T executive who spent a l-year fellowship with of sustainability’25~1l’s’la.
the NAE Technology and the Environment Program, However, in order to design sound industrial ecosys-
presented the first doctoral dissertation on industrial tems, EIP or larger structures, there is an urgent need
ecology in 199291-95. for good industrial metabolism studies, based on the
Ideas on industrial ecology were also disseminated relevant methodology for a given socioeconomic and
among business circles on the basis of the Scientific geographical context (at present there are different
American article, but indirectly. Hardin Tibbs, a British methodologies for industrial metabolism). It should be
consultant who was working in Boston in 1989 for the strongly reminded that Kalundborg also has its draw-
company Arthur D. Little, says that reading Frosch backs, and that almost all the published literature on
and Gallopoulos’s article inspired him to write a 20- the Kalundborg symbiosis is second-hand information
page brochure called ‘Industrial Ecology: A New or very preliminary work. One of the first tasks of
Environmental Agenda for Industry’. Arthur D. Little the newly created Symbiosis Institute devoted to the
published the text in 1991. It was published again in development and promotion of the Kalundborg experi-
1993 by Global Business Network, a consulting com- ence will be to perform a detailed study of the material
pany near San Francisco joined by Hardin Tibbs, which flows, and a thorough assessment of the economic and
develops prospective scenarios for its member compa- policy aspects as well.
nies96. In addition, there is an urgent need for a systematic
In substance, Tibbs’s brochure basically reproduces exploration of the concepts of scientific ecology in the
the ideas contained in the Frosch and Gallopoulos perspective of industrial ecology, since the work done
article, but Hardin Tibbs’ decisive contribution was to so far in this direction has been very preliminary”9.
translate them into the language and rhetoric of the This will also prevent the excessive development of
business world, and to present them in a very summar- a ‘feel-good industrial ecology’ based on ideological
ized form in a document just a few pages long, stamped assumptions like ‘in Nature there are no wastes’, or
first with the Arthur D. Little label, then with that of that ‘natural ecosystems live in a fragile equilibrium’.
the Global Business Network. The Hardin Tibbs bro- Especially misleading is the idea that we should ‘mimic
chure quickly sold out, then hundreds of xeroxed copies nature’: in the industrial ecology perspective, we should
of it were circulated, spreading Frosch and Gallopou- certainly get inspiration from the biosphere, and design
10s’~ ideas throughout the business world. Other human structures compatible with its normal func-
authors, also inspired by the Frosch and Gallopoulos tioning, but this may not necessarily mean designing
article, began to write papers disseminating the idea structures and objects with ‘organic shapes’, using only
in both academic and business circles97-99. ‘natural’ materials.

Demateralization-decarbonization and the service

Directions and challenges for industrial economy
ecology The second main direction relates to the development
Eight years after the seminal article of Frosch and of concepts and strategies for the optimization of the
Gallopoulos, one can see the industrial ecology flows of materials within the economy, which is largely
approach evolve in two main directions: based, as said earlier, on technological evolution. This
implies an increase in resource productivity, or dema-
terialization, which is not a trivial concept (for
Eco-Industrial parks, and islands of sustainability
example, lighter objects might have a shorter life,
The most immediate application of the ecological con- generating more waste). The concept of resource pro-
cept of food webs between companies lies in the ductivity has a long history, and was raised originally
creation or retrofitting of industrial zones where waste in the context of the relative diminishing demand for
or by-products of one company are used as resources mineral resources, and later of the fear of scarcity’20-
by another company: hence the concept of ‘eco-indus- 125.In the past few years, the issue of dematerialization
trial parks’ (EIP) 1W108. A number of EIP projects are has attracted renewed interest, dematerialization being
under way in the USA, Europe and Asia. This systemic seen as a positive trend and a desirable strategy’2G’36.
approach goes further than the case-by-case waste Obviously, dematerializing the economy would also
exchanges programmes; many of them where launched imply diminishing the global consumption of energy
in the 1970s with a limited success, although quite a (since there would be less matter to extract, transform
few are still in operation today1W-112. and transport). Already now, a company like Shell
More generally, there is the idea of creating explicitly considers a ‘dematerialization scenario’ in its
‘industrial biocenoses’ around certain specific indus- long-term prospective studies’37. For the time being,
trial activities (thermal power plants, steel mills, however, the main approach in relation to energy is
paper mills, sugar cane, etc.). Such industrial clusters the ‘decarbonization’ strategy, with the objective of
would have minimal emissions56~‘13-‘16. In fact, the decreasing the relative content of carbon in fuels,

6 J. Cleaner Prod., 1997, Volume 5, Number l-2

 Industrial ecology: an historical view: S. frkman

which means shifting from coal to petrol, then to of the industrial ecology, says: ‘The goal of industrial
natural gas and ultimately to solar or nuclear hydro- ecology is a more elegant, less wasteful network of
gen 138-142 . industrial processes’ 150. A more elegant industrial
One very promising approach to what may be called society, a more intelligent economy: this is probably
‘systemic dematerialization’ is the strategy of service a challenge that engineers should engage, and, with
economy, which promotes the selling of services them, many political and economic players, and ordi-
instead of products 143-146.Systemic dematerialization nary citizens.
refers to the fact of increasing the resource productivity
not only at the level of the product, but at the level References
of global infrastructures, in order to reduce not only the
1 Ausubel, J. H. and Sladovich, H. E., Technology and Environ-
total material throughput, but also, most importantly, to ment. National Academy of Engineering, National Academy
decrease its speed within the industrial system, thus Press, Washington, DC, 1989.
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