Unit 2
Water - covers about 70% of the planet’s surface, water can exist in three states: solid, liquid
or gas.
Water starts to boil at 100ºC, the temperature doesn’t change when it boils.
Ice - starts to melt at about 0ºC, the temperature doesn’t change when it melts.
Melting
From solid state → liquid state = melting
The temperature melting takes place is called the melting point = 0ºC
Ice absorbs energy when it is melting. (e.g. air and water)
Freezing
From liquid state → solid state = freezing
The temperature freezing takes place is called the freezing point = 0ºC
Water releases energy when it is freezing.
Boiling
Water can change its state from liquid to gas through: boiling and evaporation
The temperature boiling takes place is called the boiling point = 100ºC
Water absorbs energy when it is boiling.
Evaporation
Evaporation of water can take place at any temperature. When water evaporates, it changes to water
vapour.
Clothes become dry because water in the clothes slowly evaporates to form water vapour which then
goes into the air.
Water absorbs energy when it evaporates into water vapour.
Condensation
Water can change from gas to liquid through condensation. Water releases energy when it
condenses from water vapour or steam to water.
The water cycle
1. Evaporation
2. Condensation
3. Clouds carried by wind
4. Water droplets in clouds grow larger and heavier, becoming rain, snow or hail
5. When water absorbs energy from the Sun, the water is cycled continuously
Key point
The rate of evaporation increases when
- the temperature is higher
- the humidity is lower
- there is more airflow
- the surface area exposed is larger
Examples of solute, solvent and solution
Sugar and water.
If you add sugar to water, we can say the sugar dissolves in water →
When a substance (sugar) dissolves in a liquid, a solution is formed →
The substance (sugar) that dissolves is called a solute →
The liquid (water) in which the substance dissolves in is a called a solvent
Dissolving
A solute dissolves in a solvent to form a solution
Water is often called a universal solvent as it can dissolve many different substances
When some substances don’t dissolve in water, they are insoluble in water.
Factors affecting the rate of dissolving
- stirring
- temperature of solvent
- surface area of solute
The rate of dissolving increases when
- the solution is stirred
- the temperature of the solvent is higher
- the surface area of the solute is larger
Examples of substances that are insoluble in water: soil, corn flour
Soluble in wate: table salt, sugar
A fixed amount of solvent can dissolve a limited amount of solute. This limited amount
depends on the solubility of the solute.
Solubility of substances in 100 cm3 of water at 25ºC
Sugar – 211
Table salt – 37
Copper (II) sulphate – 22
**Different substances have different solubilities in water**
Water
Water makes up about 70% of our body weight, 50% of a tree’s weight and 98% of a
jellyfish’s weight.
Two microorganisms often found in natural water
- Amoeba
- E. Coli
These microorganisms may cause diarrhoea diseases and other diseases such as typhoid and
cholera.
Methods of water purification
1. Sendimentation
During sendimentation, the heavy insoluble impurities sink to the bottom of the
container and form a layer of sediment. However, small insoluble impurities are still
suspended in it.
2. Filtration
Filter columns and filter papers are commonly used filters for filtering water.
(Impurities removed by filtration: insoluble impurities, not removed: soluble
impurities, microorganisms)
The impurities that cannot pass through the pores are called residue. The liquid that
passes through the filter paper is called filtrate.
3. Distillation
In distillation, water boils → steam → condenses back to water in the condenser (the water
collected is called distilled water)
Distillation can remove the insoluble impurities, soluble impurities and microorganisms in
water
Methods to kill microorganisms in water
1. Chlorination
Kill microorganisms in water by adding chlorine to it.
Negative side: Chlorine is toxic and has an irritating smell and can irritate skin and eyes if we
don’t use moderately.
2. Ozone
Ozone is widely used to kill microorganisms in water. It is often used to sterilize the water in
swimming pools.
Positive side: Doesn’t have an irritating smell, more effective than chlorine
Negative side: Ozone is more expensive than chlorine
Inhaling too much ozone can cause headache and vomiting
3. Ultraviolet light
Ultraviolet light can kill microorganisms in water. It is commonly used in portable water
purifiers, drinking fountains and aquariums.
Fluoridation
Fluoride can help prevent tooth decay. Fluoride is added to drinking water to prevent tooth
decay.
Hong Kong water treatment
70%-80% of fresh water we use comes from Dongjiang water. 20%-30% comes from
rainwater collected in reservoirs
Steps:
1. Water is filtered through screens to remove large objects
2. Alum is added and mixed in a rapid mixing champter. This makes the insoluble
impurities in water stick together. Then, the water passes into a sedimentation tank,
where insoluble impurities sink.
3. Water is filled through layers of sand and gravel in a filtration sink. Small and
suspended insoluble impurities that remain are removed.
4. Chlorine is added to kill microorganisms
5. Fluoride is added to water to prevent tooth decay
**The water treatment process in Hong Kong involves sedimentation, filtration, adding
chlorine to kill microorganisms and adding fluoride to prevent tooth decay**
Water conservation and pollution
Only 3% out of 70% of sea water is fresh water. Only about 0.4% of the fresh water on earth
is in rivers and lakes
- Africa, India and China are the examples of countries that will face severe water
shortage by 2050.
Ways to conserve water at home:
- Take a short shower instead of a bath or a long shower
- Run the washing machine only when you have a full load
- Wash dishes in a basin rather than under running water
- Use water saving devices such as washing machines with the Grade 1 efficiency label
- Repair any dripping taps as soon as possible
- Save water used to wash fruit and vegetables to water plants
- Turn off the tap instead of letting the water run while you brush your teeth
** Water is a precious resource. We should conserve it. **
Common causes of water pollution
Human activities produce various kinds of pollutants. If pollutants are discharged directly
into rivers,, lakes or seas, they may cause water pollution.
Sources of waste water and pollutants produced
Homes: detergents, food and human waste
Restaurants: detergents, food waste, cooking oil
Farms: animal waste, pesticides, fertilisers
Factories: toxic chemicals such as heavy metals
Harmful effects
- Human waste, animal waste, detergents and fertilisers promote the growth of algae. If
algae grow rapidly in a short period of time, they use up the oxygen in water. Fish and
other aquatic life may die due to suffocation.
- Pesticides and toxic chemicals cause harmful effects to nearly all life forms.
Controls of water pollution
- Use only the needed amount of detergent for washing
- Do not throw rubbish into seas and onto beaches
- Take part in a beach clean-up campaign
- Dispose of chemical waste properly in laboratories
- Do not dispose of solid waste in toilets or street drains.
Water pollution is caused mainly by discharging waste water directly, littering and oil spills.
We have a responsibility to reduce water pollution, and take necessary actions.
Unit 3
Vital functions of living things
- Nutrition
- Respiration
- Movement
- Growth
- Sensitivity
- Excretion
- Reproduction
Living things can detect and react to stimuli in the environment
** Living things have seven vital functions. These are nutrition, respiration, movement,
growth, sensitivity, excretion and reproduction. Reproduction is necessary to ensure the
continuous survival of living things**
There is a wide variety of living things on Earth, from small microorganisms to large animals
and plants.
Grouping of living things
Organising objects by grouping similar objects together is called classification.
Scientists classify living things into groups by ovserving the key features in living things.
Scientists classify animals into two main groups based of whether or not they have a
backbone
Have back bone: vertebrates
No back bone: invertebrates
Five small groups of vertebrates:
- Fish
- Amphibians
- Reptiles
- Birds
- Mammals
Fish: slimy scales, fins, fills
- Have gills for breathing
- Have fins for swimming
- Body temperature changes with surroundings
- Lay eggs in water
Amphibians: moist skin
- Can live in fresh water and on land
- Have moist skin but no scales
- Young have gills for breathing in water, adults breathe through lungs and skin
- Body temperature changes with the surroundings
- Lay eggs in fresh water
Reptiles: dry scales
- Have lungs for breathing
- Body temperature changes with the surroundings
- Lay shelled eggs on land
Birds: feathers, beaks
- Have lungs for breathing
- Have beak for feeding
- Have wings
- Body temperature not easily affected by the surroundings
- Lay shelled eggs on land
Mammals: hair, mammary glands
- Have lungs for breathing
- Have mammary glands that product milk for feeding the young
- Body temperature not easily affected by the surroundings
- Do not lay eggs but give birth to live young
Classifying plants
Plants can be classified into vascular plants and non-vascular plants based on whether or not
they have vascular tissues
Non-vascular plants
They do not have vascular tissues. They are small plants that usually grow in damp places
and do not have roots to absorb water, but absorb water directly through their body surface.
(E.g. moss)
Seed plants and seedless plants
Vascular plants can be further classified into seed plants and seedless plants.
Seed plants produce seeds for reproduction. Seeds are usually protected inside a fruit
Seedless plants do not produce seeds. Fern is a kind of seedless plant. Ferns produce spores
for reproduction. Spores are smaller than seeds.
Flowering plants and non-flowering plants
Some seed plants produce flower and fruits. They are flowering plants
Other seed plants do not produce flowers. They are non-flowering plants. E.g. pine. Pine does
not produce flowers but it produces pine cones, which contains seeds.
