Building Materials

Chapter-1: Rock

Rock minerals
Quartz, Mica, Gypsum, Dolomite, Amphibole,
Calcite, Feldspar etc.
Hardness of stone based on Moh’s scale
Talc  1 Scratched

Gypsum  2 by the finger nail
Calcite  3 Scratched

Fluorite  4 by
 5 knife
Apatite 
Feldspar  6 Scarcely scratched

Quartz  7 by knife
Topaz  8 Not scratched

Corundum  9 by
10 knife
Diamond 
Properties of Minerals
Cleavage Measurement of the capability
of some minerals to split along
certain planes parallel to the
crystal faces
Streak Colour of the mineral in
powder form
Lustre Shine on the surface due to
reflection of light of a mineral
Texture It is defined as shape,
arrangement, distribution and
coarseness of grains of a Metamorphism of Rocks
mineral.
Original Rock Metamorphic form
Classification of Rocks
Granite Gneiss
Syenite Gneiss
Sand Stone Quartzite
Lime Stone Marble
Marl Marble
Dolomite Marble
Shale Slate
Mud Stone Slate

1
 Dolerite/Basalt Schist Digging To get stone at a Serpentine,
Use of various types of stone small scale. Gypsum,
Aterite.
Name of Rock Use
Channeling Obtaining stone
Granite Railway ballast, Roofing, in the form of
Abutment, Pier and Sea block.
walls
Blasting To obtain stone
Marble Ornamental work at a large scale.
Lime Stone Manufacture of cement Steps for Blasting
Slate Flooring, Roofing
Boring → Cleaning → Charging → Tamping
Quartzite Retaining wall
→ Firing
Basalt Marine work, Rubble
masonry Explosive Material Used in blasting

Kankar Manufacture of Hydraulic Name of Chemical Composition

lime Explosive
Tools Used in Quarrying of Stone
Blasting Nitroglycerine (93%) +
Jumper To make hole
Gelatine Gun – cotton (7%)
Scraping For Cleaning hole
Use- In deep wells,
spoon
underground works, in wet
Dipper For making deep hole
conditions.
Priming To make space for fuse
Needle Gund Cotton Cotton with the solution of
Tamping Rod For tamping of explosive (Most (HNO3+H2SO4)
Length - 600 mm powerful) Use- where demolitions are
Dia  - 16 mm required
Crow bar To removed the wedge
Dynamite Nitroglycerine (75%) +
Wedge For split the rock slab
Fine sand (25%)
Methods of Quarrying
Use- Both under water and
Method Suitability Example surface blasting
Wedging Costly, Soft and Sand
Blasting/Gun Potassium nitrate (65%) +
Stratified rock. stone,
Lime powder Sulphur (25%) + Charcoal
stone, powder 20%
Laterite,
Use- In quarrying large
Marble and
Slate etc. blocks
Heating Those rock Granite, Rock-a-Rock Potassium Chlorate (79%)
whose thermal Gneiss etc. + Nitro benzol (21%)
expansion is
very low. Use- Under water and
damp situation blasting

2
Types of Stones Finishing Specific Gravity of Various Types of Stone
For making non- Name of Specific gravity
continuous parallel marks Stone
Boasted
on the surface of stone. Sand Stone 2.65 – 2.95
finishing
It is done by a tools called Marble 2.7 – 2.85
boaster.
Granite 2.65 – 2.79
Sides are sunk up to 20 mm Basalt 2.6 – 3
Furrowed width and the middle
Slate 2.72 – 2.89
finishing portion is projected by 15
Laterite 2 – 2.2
mm.
Lime Stone 2 – 2.75
Provided for marbles,
Polished Gniess 2.5 – 2.7
granite which are mostly
finish
used for floor tiles. Various types of test and purpose for stone
A margin of 20 mm wide is Type of Test Determine for
marked on the sides of Abrasion Test wearing resistance
Reticulated
surface and irregular (By Dorry
finish
sinking type finish is made Testing
in the middle area. machine)
It is a classic finish which Attrision Test Hardness, Toughness and
Tooled finish consists parallel (By Deval rate of wearing resistance
continuous marks. Testing
Rough surface finish Machine)
achieved after removing Crushing Compressive strength
Scrabbling
irregular projections on the Strength Test
finish
stone surface by the
(By C.T.M)
scrabbling hammer.
(IS : 1121-1974)
Sinking in this type of
Smith’s Test Soluble minerals/Muddy
Vermiculated finish is more curved and
matter
finish like worm eaten
appearance. Brard’s Test Frost resistance
Note: Acid Test Frost resistance

● Time required for perfect seasoning of Acid Test Weather resistance

stone is 6 to 12 month. Crystallization Durability

Test
Stone crusher and equipment (IS : 1126-1974)
Crusher Type Equipment Hardness Test Hardness
(Moh’s Scale)
Primary Jaw, Impact and Gyratory
Impact Test Toughness
crusher and Hammer mill
(By Page Impact
Secondary Roll crusher, Cone crusher Machine)

Tertiary Ball mill, Roll mill and Rod Water % Voids (  5% for good
Absorption Test stone)
mill
(IS 1124-1974)

3
Dorry Testing Machine Test Functions of Various Brick Ingredients
Loss in weight Ingredients Function
Friction Factor = 20 –
3 Silica Imparts Strength
Friction Factor Type of Rock Excess- Brittle
0-14 Soft rock (Due to loss of cohesion)
14-17 Medium hard Alumina Impart plasticity
> 17 Hard rock Excess- Cracks developed,
corner deformed
Impact Test
Lime Used as flux (Reduce
Toughness Toughness
melting point)
coefficient
Excess- Brick over burnt
19 or More Very tough and shape changed
16 to 17 Moderate tough
Iron Oxide Red colour, Used as flux
16 or below Poor tough
Excess- Provide dark blue
Attrision Test or blackish colour
Friction Co- Quality of Stones Magnesia Yellow colour and its
efficient prevent to shrinkage,
2% Good Excess- Give yellowish
3% Medium colour
5% or More Useless Note:
● Steel moulded bricks are good compared to
Chapter-2 : Brick wooeden moulded bricks.
Common Brick Size ● Steel moulded bricks are used in facing
work.
Brick Usual size Nominal
● Mould are made by steel or timber of
size
Shisham.
Conventional 3" 3" 1"
9" 4  2 9" 4  3" Frog 10 cm × 4 cm × 1 or 2 cm
/ Traditional/ 8 4 2
user size Stock Board 21 cm × 10 cm × 6 cm
(23 × 11.2 × (23 × 11.4 ×
7.0) cm 7.6) cm (To make frog)

Standard/ (19 × 9 × 9) (20 × 10 × Pallet Board 30 cm × 12 cm × 1 cm

Modular/ cm 10) cm (To dry the
Normal size brick

Ingredients of Good Brick Earth Sequence for the Preparation of Brick Earth

Ingredients % in brick Unsoiling → Digging → Weathering →

Blending → Tempering / Kneeding
Silica (SiO2) 50 – 60
Burning Zone of Bricks
Alumina (Al2O3) 20 – 30
Burning Temperature- 900 – 1200°C
Lime (CaO) 2–5
Dehydration Oxidation Vitrification
Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) 3–5
Zone Zone Zone
Magnesia (MgO) <1
400-650°C 650-900°C 900-1200°C
Alkalies <1

4
 1st Class Remark
Types of kiln Brick >50% Severe
outcome
Pazawah 50-60% —
Presence in large amount Serious
Allahabad kiln 60-70% Intermittent
Bull's Trench kiln 70-80% Semicontinuous Tolrance in brick dimension test
Hoffman's kiln 80-90% Continuous
For 20 Dimension Tolerance
Clas of Brick on the Basis of Strength brick (cm) (mm)
IS : 10719557-1970
Length 380  80
Class Comp. Strength Width 180  40
Grade AA  140 kg/cm2 Height- 180  40
Grade A  105 kg/cm2
(i) 9 cm 80  20
(ii) 4 cm
Grade B  70 kg/cm2 Special Forms of brick
Grade C  35 kg/cm2 Brick Figure Brick
Figure Name Name
Types of Refractory Bricks and its
composition Cant
Round
Bricks Composition ed
Acid Doubl Compa
Silica- 95-97%, Lime- 1-2%
Refractory e cant ss
Basic Magnesia - 85% (max), CaO - Bull Perfora
Refractory 25% (max), Silica - 5.5% (max) nosed ted

Neutral Chrome + Iron ore + Bauxite ore+ Hollo Coping

Refractory Silica + Magnesia w

Efflorescence Test- According to IS 3495 Queen King

(part-III) : 1992 closer Closer
Whtie Composition
3 Bat
Up to 10% Slight 4
10 – 50% Moderate Brick

General Data about bricks

Water Compressive Use
Types of bricks absorption Strength
(%) (Kg/cm2)
1st Class  20 >105 Facing work R.B. Slab
2nd Class  22 >70 Hidden Structure
3rd Class > 25 >35 Temporary brick masonry
4th Class (Jhamma 10-12 350 Bricks ballast, lime concrete foundation,
or over burnt bricks road metals
Perforated Bricks 15 70 Partition Wall
(IS 2222)
Hollow Bricks (IS 20 35 For making heat proof, sound proof, damp
3952) proof walls

5
Paving Bricks (IS <5 350 Road pavement
3583)
Soling Bricks (IS < 20 50 Soling of road
5779)
Refractory Bricks 4-10 350 Kiln lining, furnace boiler combustion
(IS 6902)
Engineering Brick 4-5 >125 D.P.C
Class-A
Class-B 7 75 Multistorey building
Sundry bricks - 15-25  21 -

Defects of Bricks Causes

Chapter-3 : Lime
Under brunt Caused due to insufficient
heat. Types of Lime
Obtained After Type of lime
Over burnt Occurs due to extremely
Calcination of
high heat.
Pure lime stone Pure lime
Lime bursting Caused by the hydration of
problem quick lime particles. Dolomite Magnesia lime

Efflorescence Due to present of alkalis in Kankar Hydraulic lime

bricks. Chalk Pure lime
Chuffs Caused by the rain water Gypsum Pure lime
falling on hot brick.
Calcined lime stone Quick lime
Blister Due to air imprisoned
during their molding Non-hydraulic
Calcined dolomite stone lime
Lamination It produce thin lamina on
brick faces. Shale Pure lime
Cause- Entrapped air in
clay voids.
Chemical Formula Name of lime
Bloating Defect observed as spongy
swollen mass over the Calcium carbonate Lime Stone
surface of burnt brick. [CaCO3]
Occurs due to excess of
carbonaceous matter and Quick lime, Lump
Calcium oxide
sulphur in brick clay. lime, White lime,
[CaO]
Checks or Occurs due to presence of Rich lime, Pure lime

Cracks lumps of lime or excess of Calcium Hydroxide Slaked lime, Fat lime
water. [Ca(OH)2]

Black core Prime cause of brick black Calcium Sulphate Plaster of Paris
1
core is improper burning. [CaSO4. H2O]
2
Spots Due to presence of iron
Calcium Sulphate Gypsum
sulphide in brick earth.
[CaSO4.2H2O]

6
Chemical Reaction of Lime Slaking of lime

816C Type of lime Slaking time

1. CaCO3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Calcination
→ CaO + CO2 
Pure lime
Lump lime, Quick lime, Rich
lime, Pure lime, Fat lime. 2 to 3 hrs.
2. CaO + H2O → Ca (OH)2
White lime
3. Ca (OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O + Heat Hydraulic lime, Poor lime, 12 to 48 hrs.
Lean lime

Item Feebly Hydraulic lime Moderate Hydraulic Eminently Hydraulic Lime

description lime

% 11 to 20% 21 to 30%
05 to 10%
impurities

Slacking
Few minutes
action 1 or 2 hours 1 day or more

Setting action 3 week or more 1 week or more 1 days or more

Hydraulicity Feebly Moderate Eminently

For superior type of Use in very damp places

Use For ordinary masonry work masonry work

Chapter-4 : Cement Alumina (AL2O3) Responsible for quick

setting excess of its
Chemical Components of Portland Cement 3-8%  6% lowers strength

Oxide/Composition Function Iron oxide (Fe2O3) Used as flux

/Average composition 0.5-6%  3%
Lime (CaO) Strength & soundness Magnesia (MgO) 0.1- Imparts colour &
60-65%  63% control 4%  2% hardness

Silica (SiO2) Due to excess reduces Gypsum Used as retarder

17-25%  20% strength 3-6%  3%

7
Sulphur (SO3) Impart soundness % Value of C3A is increases then-
1-3%  1% ● Initial setting time is decrease.
● Rate of hydration is increase.
Alkalies Used as flux &
● The value of total heat of hydration is
0.2-1%  < 1% Imparts efflorescence
increase.
Chemical Compositions or Bogue’s ● There is no effect on strength.
compound of cement If % value of C2S is increases and C3S is
Chemical/Bo Composition Function decreases then-
gue's /Avg. ● Increase the ultimate strength.
Compound composition ● The value of 28 day's strength is decreases.
● Increase the capacity to resist chemical
7 days
attack.
C3S (Alite) 25-50%  42% hardness &
strength ● Value of total heat of hydration is
decreases.
Ultimate ● Prefer in the construction of hydraulic
C2S (Belite) 20-45% 32%
strength structure.
Note-
C3A (Celite) 8-12%  11.5% Flash set
● Surkhi is added to lime mortar to impart
Poorest hydraulicity.
C4AF (Felite) 6-10%  9% cementing ● Lime is mixed with brick earth to prevent
value shrinkage.
● Chemical reaction of cement with water is
Decreasing order of Bogue's compound
an exothermic.
based on the following properties;
Water required for hydration-
Strength
C3S > C2S > C3A > C4AF ● Bound water = 23% by weight of cement
Reaction with
C3A > C4AF > C3S > C2S ● Gel water = 15% by weight of cement
water Heat of
C3A > C3S > C4AF > C2S ● Total minimum water for Complete
hydration Rate of
hydration = 38%
hydration C4AF > C3A > C3S > C2S
Note- Cement reaction is an exothermic.
If quantity of C3S is increase and C2S is Field Test of Cement-
decrease then-
● Increase the rate of hardening, rate of heat Colour test Colour of OPC should be
greenish grey.
of hydration and increase 28 day's strength.
● Decrease the ultimate strength, capability to Lump Test Cement should be free from
presence of any lumps.
resist the chemical and Sulphur attack.
Float test Cement particle should sink in
If fineness of cement is increases then-
water it should not float over the
● Strength of cement, rate of hydration and water surface.
rate of heat of hydration is increases.
● No effect on total heat of hydration. Temperatur Thrust your hand into the cement
● No effect on setting time. e test bag. It must give you a cool
● Rate of gain of strength increases. Feeling.
● Value of shrinkage/contraction increases.

8
Rubbing When cement is rubbed between Setting Time & use of various types of
cement
test fingers, there should be smooth
Setting time Use
feeling. Cement
Type Initial Final
Smell test A thin paste of cement with
water should feel sticky between Bridge, Road
Rapid 30 maintenance
the fingers. 10 Hrs.
Hardening Min. or Repairing
(IS:8041) work
Strength Cement block given below
test should not fail while loading Precast
(340N) is applied in that manner. structure,
High 30 refractory
Alumina Min - bricks, used
5 Hrs.
Cement 3.30 where
(IS: 6452) Hrs. chemical
attacks are
more
Lab Test/Physical Test Foundation
Required Consistency for Various Cement basement,
test at (27  2°C) Quick under water
Setting 5 Min. 30 Min. structure,
Initial & final setting 0.85P
Cement mass
time test concrete raft
Soundness test 0.78P foundation

Compressive strength Low Heat Mass cone,

60 600
Cement work such as
test P  Min. Min.
 4 + 3.5  %
(IS: 12600) Dam
After 3 days - 16 N/mm2  
Portland Running
After 7 days - 22 N/mm2
Pozzolana water
30 600
Tensile strength test Cement structure
Min. Min.
P  (IS:1489 P- foundation,
After 3 days - 2 N/mm2  5 + 2.5  %
  I) basement
After 7 days - 2.5 N/mm2
Rcc pipes,
Reduction in comp. strength of cement due to where
aging Super sulphate
30 600
Sulphate attack is
3 months 20% Min. Min.
Portland more,
6 months 30% Cement Hydraulic
(IS: 6909) structure
12 months 40%
600 Sea water
24 months 50% 30
Sulphate works,
Min. Min.
Resisting sewers,

9
Cement lining of Macro Structure of Exogenous Tree
(IS: 12330) canals Medulla The innermost part or core
(Pith) of the stem of a tree
Portland
Heart wood Death portion of the tree
Slag 30 600 Mass
Cement Min. Min. concreting Outer layers of a log of
Sap wood wood
Effect while adding Pozzolana in OPC
Shrinkage ↑ Cambium To growth wood cells

Initial Strength ↓ Bark

Protect the wood against
mechanical damage
Heat of hydration ↓
Transverse
Workability ↑ septa
Curing period ↑ (Medullary The vascular tissue which
rays) Encloses the pith
Capacity of sulphate attack resistance ↑
A cellular tissue and woody
No effect on overall strength. Annual rings fibre arranged in distinct
concentric circle
Chapter-5 : Timber
Trunk of tree obtained after
Log
the removal of branches.

It is a log pieces of timber

Lumber sawn into pieces of desired
shape.

Properties of a Good Timber

Density 540 kg/m3
Specific gravity 1.54
Moisture content 10-12%
Conifers Tree
Shrinkage 0.1-0.3% along fibers
These trees having pointed needle like leaves.
Most Conifer tree are evergreen tree but not all Swelling 0.1-0.8% along length
of them. (Ex.- Larch tree (larix Laricina) or 2-17 time more than
Tamarack) Sound Conductivity air
Seasoning of Timber (IS : 1141)-
Purpose of Seasoning-
1. Reduce the weight of timber.
2. Reduce the shrinkage and warping after
placement in structure.
3. Increase strength, durability and
workability.
4. Make it suitable for painting.
5. Reduce its tendency to split and decay.

10
Method of Seasoning and its property- Sawing Method of Timber

Method Property Method Property

(A). Natural It take long time but best Best method of sawing and most
commonly used.
or Air quality of seasoned wood
• Easiest and economical
Seasoning- are obtain.
Ordinary method.
(6 month to • Easy and most Sawing • Wastage of timber is very less.
1 Year) economical method. Disadvantage-
• Reduce moisture up to • Strong possibility of twisting
12- 15% and warping

• Suitable for timber whose

(B). Artificial Seasoning-
annual rings are clearly visible.
1. Water It is quick process but • Sawing is done tangentially to
the annual rings.
Seasoning elastic property and strength
• Economical due to very less
(2-4 weeks) are reduced. Tangential
wastage.
Sawing
Disadvantage
2. Boiling This process is very quick
• Low strength due to less
(3 - 4 Hour) but expensive. annual ring and medulary rays.
• Possibility of warping and
3. Kiln Most effective and
twisting also occurs.
Seasoning economical method.
(3-5 days) • Loss in strength < 10% • Each log is sawed at a radial
Kiln dried • Used for rapid Quarter angle into four quarters.
Air dried seasoning on large scale. Sawing • This method is popular for
Oak and Maple.
• Kiln seasoning causes
case hardening.
• Sawing is done perpendicular
to the annual ring and parallel to
4. Charring • It is used for lower part of
medullary rays.
or wood pole which is below
Radial • Durable and strong timber
Scorching the ground level. pieces are obtained.
Sawing
• Wastage of timber is more.
5. Me. Neil's • Best but most expensive
• Time and labor is more.
Process (15- method.
• Useful for best class of timber.
60 days)

6. Electric • Timber losses their

Seasoning strength and may split.
• Most expensive
method.

11
 Burl It is a deformed growth occurs
when the tree receives shock
or injury in its young age.

Callus It is the soft tissue or skin

which cover the wound of a
tree.

Druxiness White spots are formed on the

top surface of wood.

Twisted It is caused by wind turning the

Defects of Timber fiber trunk of young tree in one
direction.
Checks Longitudinal cracks which is
normal to the annual rings • Reaction wood is the wood
with twisted fiber.
Shakes Longitudinal separation b/w
the Annual rings. Upsets In this case wood fibers
damaged by compression or
Star Wide at outside and diminish crushing.
shake inside
Rupture It is due to injury or impact.
Heart Wide at center and diminish
Defect Due to Conversion of Timber
shake out side
Defect Description
Cup Caused due to rupture of
shake tissue in circular direction. It
Chip A mark or sign placed by
is developed due to non
uniform growth Mark planer on finished surface of
timber.
Ring When cup shake cover the
shake entire ring. Wane It is the original rounded
Radial When timber is exposed to sun surface on the manufactured
shake for seasoning after being felled part of timber.
down
Torn Small depression occurs on
Knots These are the base of branches
which are broken or cut-off Grain the finished surface (along
from the trees. the fiber of timber) due to

Rind Abnormal growth or curved falling of tool.

Galls swellings on the body of tree.
Diagonal It is formed because of
Foxiness It is a sign of decay appearing Grain improper timber sawing
in the form of yellow or red
tinge. indicate by diagonal mark on
Cause-Over maturity lack of the straight-grained surface
ventilation. of the timber.

12
Defect due to seasoning Abie's It is used to make wood Fire
Warp Duc to unequal shrinkage the Process resistance.
curved deformation formed along Chloride, Borex, Boric Acid,
the length of board. Sodium arsenate and
Ammonium sulphate is used
Bow Curve along the face of board in Abie's Process of
caused by the wood on one face Preservation of timber.
shrinking more than face.
It is used when max.
This is the hollowing of the board Bethel absorption of the preservative
Cup throughout its length on its bark Process is desired.
side face
Boucherie It is used to treatment of green
In this defect the end of timber is Process wood.
Twist
rotate in opposite direction.
Empty cell It's aimed at a maximum
Preservation of Timer (IS: 401) /pressure penetration of the preservative
It is a process of heating the process with a minimum net retention.
Tarring coal tar to make it in workable
It is the method of treatment
condition.
Diffusion of timber
Charring It is a old method of
process (poles and planks) and other
preservation of timber. It is
plant material like in green
not suitable for exterior wood
condition.
works.

Oil Paint It is suitable for well seasoned Chapter-6 : Paint

wood and generally applied 2- Ingredients of Paint
3 coats.
Ingredient Properties
Creosote It is derived from wood or
Oil coal tar and best antiseptic Base It provide opaque layer and
material. possesses binding properties
and prevent the shrinkage
>It is applied at 50°C and and cracks in the film on
pressure of 0.7- 1.0 N/mm2 drying.

This treatment well suitable Ex.- White lead, Red lead,

Solignum for preserving timber from Zinc oxide, Aluminium
Treatment white ants. oxide, Iron oxide,
Lithophone etc.
AsCu It is developed at forest
Vehicle/ • Holds the constituent of
Treatment research institute Dehradun.
Binder paint and spread over surface
Dipping In this method timber is • It forms the body of the
paint
dipped directly in the
• Most widely used vehicle
preservative solution. The
Linseed oil.
solution penetrates the timber
Ex.- Linseed oil, Nut oil,
better than the case of Poppy oil and Tung oil
brushing or spraying.

13
Solvent/ •Used to thin the paints and • Best Adultrant is Barium
Thinners increase the covering Sulphate.
properties Ex.-Barium Sulphate,
Calcium Carbonate,
• Turpentine is used Magnesium Silicate and
extensively Silica.
Ex.-Petroleum, Spirit,
Naptha, benzene, Turpentine Colouring Pigments
oil etc.
Lamp black, Ivory black Black
Driers/ • Accelerate drying of the
Prussian blue, Indigo Blue
Plasticizers vehicle
• Quantity limited to 8% Chrome yellow, Yellow orchre Yellow
• Red lead is best for prime
coat over steel. Burnt umber, Burnt Sienna Brown
Ex.- Letharge (Oxidized
Vermillion, Red lead Red
lead), Lead acetate [Red lead
(Pb3O4)] Copper sulphate, Chromium
oxide Green
Adultrants/ • Reduce weight, increase
Extenders durability. White lead Lithophonc White

Ingredient for Different Types of Paint

Base Vehicle Use
Types of paints
Aluminium Aluminium powder Sprit /oil Vamish Painting in Poles, Tower, Metal
Paint roofs

Asbestos/ Fire proof Asbestos minerals Stopping leakage in sloppy roof,

paint painting of gutters etc.

Bitumcnous Paint Natural Asphalt or Mineral spirit or High water Resistance

residual bitumen Ncptha

Plastic Paint Plastic powder Water Interior of offices auditorium

and Showrooms.

Cellulose Paint Methyl or Ethyl Petrolium Painting cars, ships and

Cellulose aeroplanes.

Cement Paint White or Coloured Water Exterior surface of building

[IS :5410] cement

Enamel paint Varnish

White Zinc, White Lead Acid resistance, alkalis & water
proof
Luminous paint Calcium Sulphide Vamish Metal surface & sign board

14
Defects of Paint
Thick paint film run
Swelling occurs is due to oil Sagging downward.
Blistering
or grease on the surface.
Thin paint film run
Swelling is caused by Running downward.
Peeling moisture.
Curtaining Long distance of sagging
Cracking It is caused due to -
• Excess quantity of drier Wrinkling or It occurs when the top coat
in Paint. Crawling dries before the bottom
layers and paint film shrinks
• Paint applied on glossy due to drying in course of
surface and painting on time.
improperly seasoned
wood.
Loss of Gloss Due to application of old
paint or excess quantity of
Detachment of paint film drier it loss the shining.
Flaking
from the surface.
Popping It is the formation of Pin
Checking It is similar to alligatoring holes in the surface of a
but hair cracks are limited to coating as it dries.
a small area, unlike
alligatoring cracks.
Fading Discoloration of the paint
surface due to atmospheric
These defects cracking area agencies like sunlight,
Crazing.
is small. moisture and thermal
difference.
• These defects have small
Crocodiling
cracking area is large. Flashing It is characterized by the
appearance of certain glossy
Chalking Formation of powder due to patches on the painted
insufficient oil in primer, is surface.
called chalking.
Saponification It is due to chemical action
Bloom It is the dull patches formed of alkalies and formation of
on the finished, surface due soap patches on the painted
to defect in the quality of surface.
paint or poor ventilation.
Alligatoring One layer of paint film
It is a form of fungus which sliding over the another
Mildew grows in warm, moist and layer, when a hard paint is
dark places. applied over a soft one or
vice versa.
The background and its
Grinning
defects can be seen clearly.

15
 Type of Varnish Resin or Base Solven Remark

Oil varnish Copal, Amber Boiled linseed oil It is most durable.

(Hard resin) Suitable for both Interior &
exterior work

Spirit varnish Lac, Shellac (soft Methylated spirit It dries very quickly but not
Ex.- French polish, resin) durable.
lacquer and Shellac Easily affected by weathering
varnish action.

Turpentine varnish Gum dammar, Turpentine oil, Dry quickly but not so durable.
Mastic Raw Copal Naphtha It is cheaper than oil varnishes.

Asphalt varnish Melted hard asphalt Linseed oil With a thinner such as turpentine
or petroleum sprit.
It is used over shop fabricated
steel work.

Water varnish Shellac Hot water Either ammonia or borax or soda

or potash is added.
It is used for varnishing map and
pictures.

Flat varnish or Wax Was, metallic soap Turpentine Oil For highlighting grain over
varnish or finely divided wooden surface.
silica.

Chapter-7 : Metals Production process of iron

Iron Ore Quantity

Magnetite [Fe3O4] 72% Types of Iron Manufacturing process

Pig Iron Blast furnace or electric

Hematite [Fe2O3] 70% reduction furnace.

Limonite [2Fe3O3.3H2O] 60% Cast Iron Cupola furnace

Wrought Iron Reverberatory or puddling

Iron Pyrite [FeS3] 47%
furnace by Astor's process

Siderite [FcCO3] 40% Steel Bessemer process

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Pig iron is classified as following type - Casting Lens, mirror
1. Bessemer pig
2. Foundry pig/grey pig Spinning Heat, sound and electric insulator
3. Forge pig/White pig glass.
4. Mottled pig
Commercial Forms of glass
Heat treatment process and related steel
property- Type of Glass Remark

Process Steel property Pyrex glass It is fire resistance and use for
making laboratory apparatus
Tempering Toughness
and insulator.
Malleability, ductility
Annealing softness Optical Glass • It contain phosphorus, lead
silicate and cerium oxide.
Normalizing Grain refinement
• It is absorb UV ray and use
Hardening Brittleness for making lenses.

Chapter-8 : Glass It is used where high thermal

Opal glass or
shock resistance & chemical
milk glass
Constituent of glass and their function durability is desired.
Constituent Function Used for bedroom, toilets and
Ground glass
It is the major constituent of for making black board.
Silica/Sand glass.
Obscured glass
Lime It makes the glass fluid and or Patterned It is used in doors and window
suitable for blowing, glass of bedroom and bathroom.
drawing, rolling, pressing or
spinning. Bullet Proof or It produced by placing vinyl
Laminated plastic and glass in several
Soda Impart durability and
glass alternate layers and pressing
toughness. Acts as an
accelerator for the fusion of them with outer layer of glass •
glass. Used in banks, Jewelry stores
and display window.
Potash It renders glass infusible and
makes fire resistance. Sheet glass It is used for glazing door,
window and partition.
Lead oxide Imparts colour, brightness
and shine. made by blowing, available
with in 2 - 6 mm thickness.
Various manufacturing Process of Glass
Plate Glass It is used for all engineering
Process Used for
purpose and is superior than
Blowing Glass bottle and Jar sheet glass.

Drawing Tube, Rod, window glass

Rolling Glass sheet

Pressing Open pot

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