RAILWAY WORKS ENGINEERING

CHAPTER 1
BUILDING MATERIAL
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Since older days various building materials have been used for construction of engineering marvels.
There have been many innovations and discoveries, many new materials have come into day to day use
of construction industry. The use of such materials ranges from user group of a villager to the space or
nuclear industry. Of the available materials, the most commonly used materials are Stones, Bricks,
Cement, Lime, Concrete, reinforced concrete etc.
1.2 STONE
Stone which is obtained from natural rock is most durable and least expensive of all the materials of
construction so far as upkeep maintenance is concerned and when properly chosen to suit climate
condition.
1.2.1 Classification of stones:
(a) Igneous, eruptive or unstratified: - Formed by the solidification of molten material which
was in a state of perfusion and is of volcanic origin. The structural feature of such rocks
depends upon the manner of its solidification and composition of the constituent materials.
They are generally strong, durable, massive and crystalline. Examples are granite, trap and
basalt. Granite has large crystals as it is formed due to slow cooling of lava. The thick covering
of earth crust at the top is responsible for the slow cooling. In case of trap and basalt, the rate
of cooling is quicker as they are formed at the surface of the earth. As a result of this, they are
non-crystalline, amorphous and glossy in texture.
(b) Sedimentary, aqueous or stratified: - it is gradually deposited in layers and formed by the
action of air or water, such as limestone, sandstone and slate.
The deposition of suspended particles is responsible for the formation of most of the
sedimentary rocks. Sometimes erosion of the primary rock and its subsequent sedimentation
gives rise to sedimentary rocks.
(c) Metamorphic, altered or foliated: - it is either of the above classes with alteration in form
caused by great heat, pressure or both; such as clay, slate, marble, dolomite and gneiss.
“Thermo”, ‘dynamo’ or ‘hydro’ metamorphosis is responsible for their formation. As a result of
metamorphosis, limestone and marl become marble, basalt and trap become schist and laterite and
granite become gneiss.
1.2.2 Use of stone:
(i) Blocks of stones are used generally in all situations where strength and durability are taken into
consideration, such as, foundations, walls, bridge piers and abutments, lighthouses, aqueducts,
retaining walls etc. Broken stones are used as aggregate in concrete, road metal and railway
ballast etc.
(ii) Thick slabs are used for paving, slates for roofing tiles, limestone for manufacture of lime and
flux in blast furnaces and moorum for covering road surface.
(iii) The crushed stone is a natural substitute for natural sand and for manufacture of artificial
stones as well as hollow and solid blocks in its crushed form.
(iv) In the manufacture of lime and calcareous cements, limestone is the basic material.
(v) Stone is used as moorum for roads, floors and floor fillings in its disintegrated form.
1.2.3 Characteristics of good stone:-
In selecting a stone for an engineering work, the following characteristics should be looked into
through the choice is in most cases further limited by the cost:
(a) General structure
 (b) Fineness of grains
(c) Compactness
(d) Porousity and absorption
(e) Durability
(f) Strength
(g) Hardness
(h) Weight
(i) Appearance
(j) Facility for working
(k) Seasoning
(l) Natural bed
(m) Weathering
1.2.4. Tests of Stones
The following tests are generally carried out for selecting stone as building material:
1. Strength test: The crushing strength of a stone is tested with the help of a compression
testing machine. The normal values of compressive strength of good stone vary between 1000
to 1400 kg./cm2. Weak stones may possess compressive strength as low as 250 to 300
kg./cm2.
2. Hardness test: The hardness of stones is tested by knife scratching. Hard stones normally do
not show any scratch.
3. Attrition test: This test is carried out with the help of Deval’s testing machine which consists
of a circular drum. About 5kg of angular pieces of stones and the required number of steel
balls are placed in the drum which is rotated at a rate of 30 r.p.m. for 4 hours. Thereafter,
these stone pieces are removed, cleaned and weight. A good quality stone should not loose
appreciable weight, in this test.
4. Water absorption test: This test is usually performed to judge the porousity of the stone. A
good stone should not absorb water more than 5% of its weight when it remains immersed for
24 hours in cold water.
5. Specific gravity test: This test is performed to know the heaviness of the stones. Stones of
higher specific gravity are preferred to those which have relatively lower specific gravity.
1.3 BRICKS
There are many different forms, such as (i) bricks, (ii) tiles, (iii) earthen wares and stone wares, (iv)
terra cotta and other clay wares, in which clay after it is burnt or baked is used by engineers and
architects. Clay when moistened possesses a high degree of tenacity and plasticity and is very useful for
making bricks, tiles etc.following various types of bricks commonly in use.

(a) Common burnt clay bricks: They shall conform to IS:1077 shall be hand moulded or machine
moulded. They shall befree from nodules of free lime, visible cracks, flaws, warpage and organic matter,
have afrog 100 mm in length 40 mm in width and 10mm to 20 mm deep on one of its flat sides. Bricks
made by extrusion process and brick tiles may not be provided with frogs. Each brick shall be marked (in
the frog where provided) with the manufacturer “identification mark or initials.
(b) Fly Ash Lime Bricks : The Fly Ash Lime Bricks (FALG Bricks) shall conform toIS.12894. Visually the
bricks shall be sound, compact and uniform in shape free from visible cracks, warpage, and flaws and
organic matter. The bricks shall be solid and with or without frog on one of its flat side.
Fly Ash: Fly ash shall conform to grade 1or grade 2 of IS. 3812.
Sand: Deleterious materials, such as clayand silt in the sand shall preferably be less than 5%.
Lime: Lime shall conform to class „C‟ hydrated lime of IS: 712.
Additives: Any suitable additive considerednot detrimental to the durability of bricks maybe used.
Note: This item will be operated only for load bearing structure up to 2 story’s and for
Non-load bearing walls 23 cms thick for multistoried building. Fly ash used as replacement of sand shall
not have more than 12% loss on ignition when tested.

(c) Clay fly Ash Bricks: The clay fly ash bricks shall conform to IS.13757. The bricksshall be sound,
compact and uniform inshape and colour. Bricks shall have smooth rectangular faces with sharp and
squarecorners. The bricks shall be free from visible cracks, flaws, warpage, nodules of free lime and
organic matter. The bricks shall be hand or machine moulded. The bricks shall havefrog of 100 mm in
length 40 mm width and10 to 20 mm deep on one of its flat sides. Ifmade by extrusion process may not
beprovided with frogs. Fly ash shall conform tograde I or grade II of IS 3812.

(d) Tile Brick: The bricks of 4 cm heightshall be moulded without frogs. Wheremodular tiles are not freely
available in the market, the tile bricks of F.P.S. thickness 44mm (1.¾ “) shall be used unless otherwise
Specified.

(e) Brick Bats: Bricks bats shall be obtained from well burnt bricks. The bats shall be stacked in
rectangular heaps, notless than one metre height. One cubic metreof bats shall be considered as equal to
265Non modular bricks of size 230 x 110 x70mm. On stack measurement shrinkageshall be deducted at
20% of the gross quantity.

(f) Jhama Bricks: These are over burnt bricks and as a result discolored and distorted in shape. They
are, therefore, normally
unfit for good brick work
Perforated Building Bricks
Perforated Bricks are light in weight and provide better thermal insulation ascompared to common bricks.
They are commonly used in walls and partitions. Thearea of perforations shall be between 30percent and
45 percent of the total area ofthe corresponding face of the bricks. The perforations shall be uniformly
distributed over the surface and may be of rectangular or circular shape. The area of each perforation
shall not exceed 500 mm2. Thethickness of any shell shall not be less than15 mm and of any web not less
than 10mm.IS 2222 may be referred to further details ongeneral quality, dimensions and tolerances,
compressive strength, water absorption efflorescence, warpage, sampling and criterion of conformity and
marking.
1.3.1 Sizes and weights of bricks:-
Bricks are made of various sizes according to the custom of the country or whims of the makers and
purchasers but in all cases the length should be double the width plus the thickness of the one vertical
joint so that one stretcher along the wall will just cover to headers placed across it with a joint between
them. The sizes of bricks also should be such that when wet they can be lifted easily and placed with
one hand and that they can also be easily burnt to the core.
It was found to be difficult to burn large bricks such as old Indian bricks (25 cm X 15cm X 6cm)
thoroughly and moreover it was too large to be handled by brick labourer with one hand. So they are
sometime reduced in size for ready manipulation with left hand leaving the other free for trowel. Smaller
bricks such as jafri bricks (10cm X 7.5cm X 2.5cm) take more mortar as the number of joints are more
though they are easy to burn and so they are expensive and require more labour.
1.3.2 Classification of Bricks:-
Classification - Bricks/Brick tiles shall be classified on the basis of their minimum compressive strength
as given in below

Table 1.1 standard sizes of bricks

TYPES OF BRICKS LENGTH in mm WIDTH in mm HEIGHT in mm

/TILES
Modular bricks 190 90 90
Modular tile bricks 190 90 40
Non- modular bricks 230 110 70
Non-modular tile 230 110 44
bricks
Special bricks for 70 110 1/3rd length of brick
obtaining proper
bond arrangement
and modular
dimension for the
brick work with non-
modular sizes

Table 1.2 classes of common burnt clay bricks

Class designation Average compressive strength not less than

N/mm2 Kg/cm2
12.5 12.5 125
10 10 100
7.5 7.5 75
5.0 5.0 50
3.5 3.5 35

1.3.3 Characteristics of bricks:

Specifications for different types of bricks are as below:-
(i) Shall be rectangular shape with well defined and sharp edges and uniform in size.
(ii) Shall have clean and even surface but not very smooth.
(iii) Shall be perfect, free from cracks, flows of lumps or any kind.
(iv) On being fractured, the interior surface shall show a uniform and compact texture.
(v) Shall be well burnt and shall not be scratched by a finger nail.
(vi) On being struck against another brick of the same type, it shall give a metallic sound and shall
not break.

1.3.4 Uses of different kinds of bricks:

Class designation 7.5 above bricks are used for all sound works of a permanent character and also in
face work of structures which are to be pointed. Class designation 7.5 bricks are used mostly in ordinary
constructions and at locations, where these are not in view due to plaster and other causes. Class
designation below 7.5 bricks are Kutcha bricks are used in structure of a temporary character and in
places not subjected to heavy showers of rain.
1.4 LIME
In engineering works, stones, bricks, and sometimes tiles are set in mortar resting on beds of
concrete and finished with plaster or pointing with or without white or colour washing. Lime or cement is
the binding material in the mixture of mortar, concrete etc.
Lime is not generally found in nature in the free state but it is obtained by running limestone, a raw
material, found in limestone hills or limestone boulders found in the beds of old rivers, or kankar
limestone; kankar is an impure limestone.
1.4.1 Varieties of lime
The three varieties of lime generally used are: (1) Stone lime (almost pure lime); (2) Kankar lime
(impure lime) and (3) shell lime (Very pure lime)
Slaked lime or hydrate of lime [Ca (OH)2] is the product formed by the absorption of required
quantity of water by quicklime. It is the ordinary pure lime that we see in the market. In this state it has
power of absorbing carbolic acid from the atmosphere in presence of moisture and forms particles of
carbonate of lime, setting free the moisture absorbed. Slaked lime when kept in a damp place is always
converted on the surface to carbonate of lime which is useless. That is why lime should be used as fresh
as possible. Setting is the hardening of lime or cement, which has been mixed to a paste; It evaporates
during drying but no setting action takes place. Hydraulicity is the property due to which lime or cement
will set in damp places or under water or in thick masonry walls where there is no free access of air
Classification of lime:
Lime obtained from limestone is divided into following classes according to its action in slaking
and setting:
1 Rich, fat common, high calcium, almost pure lime.
2 Lean, meager or poor lime.
3 Hydraulic or water lime (Slightly hydraulic lime, Moderately hydraulic lime, Eminently hydraulic
lime.)
4 Hydraulic or water cement-natural or artificial.
I.S.I. Classification of lime
I.S.I. has classified lime in the following three categories
Class A : Eminently hydraulic
Class B : Semi-hydraulic
Class C: Non-hydraulic
1.5 CEMENT
Cement is a calcareous substance similar in many respects to eminently hydraulic lime but possesses
hydraulic properties to a far greater extent. It is distinguished from lime by the property that it does not
slake but sets readily when a paste is made of it. Cement is divided into two classes: (1) Natural cement;
and (2) Artificial cement. Natural Cement is manufactured by burning and crushing to powder, of stones
containing 20 to 40% of clay, the remainder consisting chiefly carbonates of lime alone or sometimes
carbonate of lime mixed with carbonate of magnesia. It is brown in colour and sets quickly or slowly
when mixed with water, depending on the proportion of clay in stone. The best variety of natural cement
is known as Roman Cement; natural cement is not much in use in India.
The best variety of Artificial cement is known as Portland cement; this name being given due to its
resemblance in colour to Portland stone. It is a compound consisting chiefly of silicates and aluminates of
lime produced by calcination to incipient vitrification of a mechanical mixture of chalk and clay. There are
two methods of mixing chalk and clay: (1) Wet process and (2) Dry process.
Properties and tests of Portland cement
A very slight difference in the manufacture of cement may make a great difference in the quality of
the material, and so rigid testing is necessary in order to get the proper quality of cement, required for
important works:
 1. Fineness (Sieve test): Residue on I.S sieve No. 9 should not exceed 10%
Surface area test – Ordinary cement has a specific surface area of about 2250 sq cm per gram
but in case of high strength cement it is 3250 sq cm per gram.
2. Weight: It varies from 1200 to 1800kg/m3, accordingly as it is over burnt or under burnt.
3. Colour: It should be grey or greenish grey colour but it cannot be relied on the colour test only.
4. Setting: Ordinary cement shall have an initial setting time of not less than 30 minutes and a
final setting time of not more than 10 hours. Quick-setting cement shall have an initial setting
time of not less than 2 minutes and a final setting time of not more than 30 minutes. Setting is
tested by Vicat’s Needle Apparatus.
5. Soundness test: Cement containing free lime and magnesia will hydrate slowly and so the
mortar and concrete prepared with such cement is liable to expand and crack after sometimes.
In soundness test, le Chatelier apparatus is used.
6. Tensile test: This is tested by making briquettes of cement and sand (1:3) and subjecting
them to tension in the tensile testing machine. Briquettes of cement and sand (1:3) after 7
day’s immersion (Average of 6 briquettes) should bear on a averages a tensile stress not less
than 25 kg/cm2.
7. Compressive strength: This is tested by making cubes of cement and sand (1:3) of 7 cm size
and subjecting them to compression Cubes (average of 6 briquettes) after 7 day’s immersion in
water should bear a compressive stress not less than 175 kg/cm2.
8. Test for chemical composition: (a) Cementation Index:
Proportion of lime to silica, alumina and iron oxide, must be between 1.02 and 0.66.
(a) Insoluble residue not to exceed 1.5%
(b) Sulphur content not to exceed 2.75%
(c) Magnesia not to exceed 5%
(d) Loss on ignition not to exceed 3% in temperate climate and 4% in tropical climate.
Varieties of cement
The varieties of cement in common use are:
1. Normal setting cement (Portland cement);
2. Rapid hardening cement;
3. Quick setting cement;
4. Low heat cement;
5. Blast furnace cement;
6. High alumina cement (cement foudu);
7. White cement (snowcrete)
8. Coloured cement (colourcrete)
9. Portland Puzzolona cement (PPC) and
10. Sulphate resisting cement.
Note: Out of the above varieties, the most common types are 1,2, 3, 7, 8 & 9 .
The high strength of rapid hardening cement is due to finer grading, burning at higher temperature
and increased lime content in composition. Fineness of grinding and a small percentage of aluminum
sulphate accelerate the setting action of quick setting cement which is advantageous when concrete is to
be laid in water.
In low heat cement, the heat of hydration is reduced by reducing the tricalcium aluminate contents
otherwise irregular cracks may occur due to shrinkage when the mass cools to a temperature below that
attained during the setting.
For blast furnace cement, granulated slag is intimately mixed with cement clinker and durable
cement is obtained. High alumina cement is manufactured by melting a mixture of bauxite and lime and
grinding the clinker and this is rapid hardening cement.
 The whiteness of normal setting cement is secured by reducing the iron oxide to minimum and it is
sold under the trade name of Snowcrete. Colourcrete is produced by mixing intimately mineral pigments
with ordinary cement. Acid resisting cements are silicate–base cements.
Storing cement
Portland cement is stored in bags/sacks in 50kg. lot for transportation. The following precaution
should be taken in storing cement especially when in sacks:
1. It should be stored for the shortest period possible.
2. It should be kept in weather – tight room.
3. Damp godowns and direct stacking on floors should be avoided.
4. It should not be stored against walls but should be 0.6m away from walls.
5. It should be stored in close formation and covered over with tarpaulin so as to prevent
circulation of air through the stock.
6. Not more than ten cement bags should be stacked one over another as due to heavy load air –
setting takes place in bags in lowest layer. 400 bags of cement can be stacked in 4 row, 10 in a
row, 10 layer deep in each stack.
Cement is used in following cases:
1. In building construction including R.C.C. roofs building masonry and other such structures. Also
in foundation, in wet places and in all kinds of structures exposed to the action of water, such
as well foundations, reservoirs, water tight floors, dock yards, etc.
2. For important structures where great strength is required.
3. For the most exposed parts of structure, such as tops of chimneys, coping of compound walls,
ridges, etc.
4. For making cement mortar and concrete, reinforced concrete, reinforced brickwork, artificial
stone etc.
5. In drainage and water supply works.
6. For protecting outer faces of structures from weather.
7. For thin walls which require extra strength.
8. For pointing.
Note: Mortar or concrete made from cement should be mixed in small quantities at a time as
required for use, as the cement begins to set just after mixing with water.
1.6 MORTAR
Mortar is a paste generally made by mixing cement, sand and water, or lime, sand or surkhi and
water, or cement, lime, sands and water. The soft paste absorbs carbonic acid gradually from the
atmosphere and hardness into a compact solid body after a short time. The properties required of a good
building mortar are as follows:
1. The mortar should be easily workable.
2. It should set quickly to ensure the speed of construction.
3. It should develop sufficient strength for the work for which it is used in compression, tension
and bond.
4. It should bind the bricks to give a tight joint through which water cannot penetrate.
5. It should be durable and should not affect the durability for other materials.
The workability of a mortar is determined by its water retentivity and good trowelling properties.
Cement is a water repeller and lime is a water retainer. Good workability of mortar can be obtained by
using lime. The higher the proportion of lime used, the better is the workability of the mortar. Even a
rich cement mortar (1.2) is inferior to lime cement mortar in this respect. Admixture of cement will be a
mistake in case of hydraulic lime.
Use of mortar
(1) To bind together the bricks or stones in brick or stone masonry;
 (2) To give a soft even bed between the different layers of brick or stone masonry for equal
distribution of pressure over the bed;
(3) To fill up the space between bricks or stones for making wall weather tight;
(4) In concrete as a matrix;
(5) In pointing and plastering to protect the joints and surfaces of brick and stone masonry; and
(6) For moulding purposes and also to improve the appearance.
Function of sand and surkhi in mortar
Sand in mortar does not add to its strength but is used mainly as an adulterant for economy, and
also prevents shrinkage and cracking of mortar in setting; Like sand, surkhi gives strength and hydraulic
property to the mortar.
1.7 CONCRETE
Concrete is an artificial compound generally made by mixing lime surkhi or cement mortar with some
hard material, such as broken stone, gravel, broken brick, slag, breeze, burnt clay etc.
1. Design of concrete for strength and durability.
2. Selection of materials and their proportioning for requisite properties.
3. Mixing the ingredients of concrete and placing the same in position.
4. Curing of concrete for necessary reaction for strength.
Each of these has an influence on the properties of the finished concrete.
Classification of concrete
The matrix is the lime surkhi or cement mortar in which hard broken material or aggregate is
embedded. Strength and other qualities of concrete depend mostly upon matrix and upon the manner in
which the ingredients are mixed together. The proportions of lime or cement and surkhi or sand should
be such as will give a mortar of the required strength of the work for which it is meant. The points to be
attended to are the same as for mortar already explained but as a rule the mortar for concrete should be
better than that used for walls as in concrete the mortar receives less assistance. Cement used must be
of a well– known brand. Lime should be fresh, well slaked and free from impurities. Sand should be
clean, sharp, coarser, angular and well graded. Preference is given to sand containing a mixture of coarse
and fine grains. Surkhi should not contain under burnt particles, and must pass through a sieve of I.S.
Sieve No. 15. Water used must be perfectly clean. Surkhi mortar is used with brick aggregate and lime
mortar with stone aggregate.
Grading of aggregate
It indicates the art of combining the various sizes of the particles composing the aggregate to
produce a dense and an economical mixture using minimum cement per unit volume for a given strength.
The smaller particles fill up the voids if the aggregates are graded. The particles should be angular and
sharp to secure proper interlocking of the various sizes of aggregates.
Grading is proportioning fine and coarse aggregates to obtain densest and strongest concrete with
minimum quantity of cement. The proportions may be ascertained by (I) Void method, (II) fineness
modulus method, and (III) trial method.
Proportion of ingredients.
The matrix and aggregate should be in such proportions that the mortar completely fills up the voids
in the aggregate. For ordinary concrete about 40 parts of mixed dry mortar to 100 parts of aggregate
generally form a satisfactory proportion. The proportion is also expressed in ratios, thus 1:3:6 concrete
means 1 part of cement or lime, 3 parts of sand and 6 parts of coarse aggregate; similarly, 1:2:4 Cement
concrete means 1 part of cement, 2 parts of sand and 4 parts of coarse aggregate. This is the usual
proportion of cement concrete and is known as a standard mixture which is used for reinforced beams,
floors, arches, machine foundations, tanks, sewers, conduits etc.
Concrete mixture is expressed in three ways:
1. Real mix is the ratio expressed on the basis of dry materials as obtained in the design to give
the necessary strength.
 2. Field mix is the ratio modified to suit the field conditions, such as moisture in the aggregate,
value of slump, atmospheric conditions etc.
3. Nominal mix is the ratio classified on the basis of certain nominal ratio suitable for different
types of works, such as 1:2:4, or 1:3:6 etc.
Nominal Mix Cement Dry Broken Water
By. Volume of (bags) Sand Stone or (litres per bag
Cement Concrete (Cu ft)* Brick ballast cement)
(Cu ft)*
1 : 4 : 8 Mass concrete in foundations
light structures such as one floored
houses etc. 3.5 16 32 16.5
1 : 3 : 6 Mass concrete in moist
foundations, solid ground floors etc. 4.35 15.8 31.6 13.1
1 : 2 : 4 Most ordinary purposes,
general reinforced concrete, mass
walls above ground, concrete
block etc. 6.3 14.8 29.6 9.5
1 : 15 : 3 Water tight floors, tanks
extra strong reinforced concrete etc. 8 14.3 28.6 7.2
1 : 1 : 2 Long span reinforced concrete
arch bridges, high load reinforced
concrete columns, etc. 11.2 14 28 6.3
* 1 Cu.ft is equal to 0.028 cu.m.
Notes:
1. In the case of wet sand, the quantity in 3rd column should be increased by upto 25% to provide
for “bulking”, depending on the moisture present in the sand.
2. The quantities of water given in 5th column are applicable to dry non-absorbent aggregates. In
the case of wet sand, suitable allowance for moisture should be made, by reducing the quantity
of water as per moisture content of the sand.
1.7.1 Controlled Concrete:
In controlled concrete water cement ratio plays a big role. Lesser is the water/cement ratio, more
is the compressive strength of concrete. Water cement ratio may vary from 0.60 to 0.27. Workability for
less water cement ratio is generally achieved by using admixtures.
Concrete Mix is designed for the properties of ingredients available at site. After approval of the
design, trial mix is done. Thereafter depending upon the 7-days/28 days compressive strength the mix is
approved. In case of urgency trial mix samples are cured by using ACT (accelerated Curing
Tank) technique.
The concrete so designed is designated as controlled concrete of M15, M20, M25,..........., M60, M65,
M80 strengths. Here M25 means concrete with strength of 25 Mpa i.e. 250 Kg/sq. cm. Here
water/cement ratio and use of admixtures plays is a big role.
Trials have been done up to M80 in IIT Delhi.
Mixing
Concrete can be mixed either by manual labour or by mechanical mixers.
The various types of concrete mixers used are as follows:
I. Tilting drum mixers
II. Non-tilting mixers
III. Continuous mixers
IV. Pan mixers
V. Truck mixers
Laying
Concrete must be used while quite fresh. After thorough mixing the concrete is conveyed rapidly to
the place where it is to be laid in wheel-barrows for small jobs or in buckets swung from a crane or in
tipping trucks running on rails for large jobs and gently tipped or by using chute and laid into position in
horizontal layers between 15 and 30 cm thick duly consolidated.
Compacting cement concrete
(i) In order to ensure a dense structure and to remove the air bubbles concrete is compacted
thoroughly by means of hand tools or by mechanical vibrators.
(ii) The various hand tools used for compacting are rammers, templates for tamping and spading
fod For mass concrete work such as foundations heavy flat bottomed rammers are used until a thin film
or mortar or paste appears at the surface. In case of flat surfaces which are of comparatively smaller
thickness templates corresponding to the profile of the finished surface are used and temping is done till
slurry or paste appears at the top. At or near vertical faces spading is done for compacting.
(iii) The use of mechanical vibrators have revolutionised the compaction of concrete. Water cement
ratio can be considerably reduced and hence for the same mix, higher strength can be achieved by the
use of mechanical vibrators. Over vibrations which may cause stratification of layers or separation of its
ingredients should be avoided. This judgment comes by experience but the following points may be
found useful:
a. The stage, at which slurry from the concrete starts coming to the surface, is an indication of
completed consolidation. At this stage air bubbles will cease coming to the surface.
b. The presentation of a uniform surface.
c. During consolidation, there is a change in the sound produced by vibrations. The stage at which
this sound continues to be of the same tone indicates uniformed concrete and hence completion
of compact.
Joint in concrete
Two types of joints have to be provided in cement concrete work:
I. Construction Joints: These are joints necessitated due to temporary stoppage of the work
i.e. for joining the work on two different days or due to stoppage which has caused previous
concrete to set.
II. Expansion and contraction joints : Joints for allowing expansion and contraction in the
concrete.
The arrangement and position of the construction joint should be planned before hand so that the
joint may merge with the surroundings, or otherwise where the joints will have least adverse effect in
respect of the constructional stability of the structure. The location of some of the joints is given below:
I. Beam: The joint may be provided at mid span at right angles to the length of the beam, i.e. at
the plane of minimum shear. It may also be provided over the center of the vertical column supporting
the beam. The joint should be at right angles to the span.
II. Column: The joints may be provided at the branches or a few centimetres below the plane at
which the beam or slab meets the column.
III. Slab: As in case of beam, the slab joint may be provided at the center of the span. The vertical
joints should be so located where a pattern can be fitted or where the joint is least.
When work is required to be resumed at a construction joint, the hardened concrete surface should
be roughened to remove the slurry from top and ensure proper bonding between the two layers of
concrete. The surface of the joint should be cleaned, washed with clean water. No mortar shall be used
at the joint as per the latest guidelines.
IV. Expansion and contraction joints: The purpose of these joints is to allow variations in length
due to temperature changes to take place.
1.8 Reinforced concrete
Concrete: Concrete is a material obtained by cementing together inert materials like sand, gravel,
broken stone or some other suitable materials. Cementing material generally used is Portland cement.
Cement and water react chemically to bind sand, known as fine aggregate and gravel or broken stone
known as coarse aggregate. The resulting product is like an artificial stone. When the aggregates,
cement and water are mixed in proper proportions, the resulting product after some time is hard, strong
in compression and shear, brittle and weak in tension. These properties of concrete area affected by
several factors like proportions: of cement, coarse aggregate and fine aggregate; amount of water;
temperature at the time of mixing, humidity at the time of moulding of concrete in forms; temperature
and humidity maintained subsequently. This process of maintaining desired temperature and humidity is
known as curing of concrete.
The plain concrete: being strong in compression is suitable for massive construction, where it is
subjected to compressive stresses. It is not suitable at places where it is subjected to tensile stresses.
Reinforced concrete: As discussed above concrete is strong in compression and weak in tension,
so steel reinforcement is used to take up tensile stresses at places where section is subjected to tensile
stress. Such a concrete is known as reinforced concrete. Cement concrete shrinks a little and grip very
fast on the steel reinforcement. There is bond between cement concrete and steel, and thus tensile
stresses area transferred to steel reinforcement.
Concrete has good resistance for damage by fire and protects steel bars from buckling and twisting
at high temperatures. Also concrete offers very good resistance to atmospheric conditions and thus stops
steel reinforcement from rusting.
Advantages of R.C.C. Construction.
Following are the advantages or R.C.C. construction;
1. Concrete can be easily moulded to any desired shape.
2. The materials for R.C.C. are easily available.
3. It is easy to make & it is durable.
4. It is strong in compression.
5. By proper proportioning of mix, concrete can be made water-tight.
6. Its monolithic character gives it more rigidity.
7. It is fire resisting.
8. Its maintenance cost is practically nil.
But due to environmental problems, cutting of trees has been restricted resulting into shortage of
timber. A number of restrictions have been imposed upon use of timber.
Steel as Reinforcement
Steel is used as reinforcement to take up tensile stresses in R.C.C. structures because of the
following reasons:
(1) Its tensile strength is high.
(2) It can develop good bond with concrete.
(3) Its co-efficient of expansion is nearly same as for concrete.
(4) It is easily available.
The steel bars used for reinforcing concrete are generally of plain round mild steel with diametres
between 5mm and 50mm. It is only in very heavy structures that bars of diametre larger than 40 mm
are used. There is a growing practice to use high yield point steel bars which are usually mild steel bars
that have been cold drawn to increase their strength : but the difficulty of placing and bending these bars
may outweigh the initial saving in the weight of steel required.
Mesh fabric is used frequently as reinforcement in concrete roads, walls and floor slabs. It can also
be used in concrete roads, walls and floor slabs. It can also be used in column footings. It is used in
place of bar reinforcement only when there are definite advantages in cost and placing. The common
types of mesh fabrics in uses are welded fabrics, expanded metal and ribbed metal latching. The fabric is
made in standard size, lengths and widths.
 Deformed bars conforming to IS: 1139 – 1966 and cold twisted steel conforming to IS : 1566 – 1967
are being widely used. All reinforcement shall be clean and free from loose mill scales, dust, loose rust
and coats of paints, oil or other coatings which may destroy or reduce bond.
Placing of Steel in Reinforced Concrete Sections
(i) In R.C.C. structure all the tension is to be taken by steel. From the Bending moment diagram,
the position of tensile zones of beam is known which determines the position of tensile steel. For sagging
bending moment, tension will be below neutral axis and for hogging moments the tension will be above
neutral axis.
(ii) A beam carrying vertical loads is made symmetrical about vertical center line, so the vertical
loads cause uniplaner bending of the beam and no torsional effects are produced.
(iii) All concrete area in tension is neglected for design purposes and tension is entirely taken by
steel and so the depth of the beam from compression edge to center of tensile reinforcement is effective
and it is called ‘effective depth of the beam.’
(iv) In R.C.C. design it is economical to design a section such that all compression is carried by
concrete and tension by steel and both the materials are stressed to maximum allowable stresses, thus
resulting in balanced or critical section. However, it sometimes becomes necessary for a section to resist
more bending moment than it can resist as a balanced section. This becomes necessary when overall
size of a section is limited by structural, head room and architectural requirements. In such cases, the
additional moment of resistance can be provided for by designing the section as over reinforced section.
(v) A better method of designing a section, which has to resist more bending moment than it can
resist as a balanced section, is by providing extra reinforcement in compression zone nearer to the
outermost fibers and additional reinforcement on tension side more than required for balanced section.
In this way considerable economy can be achieved. Such sections reinforced both in compression and
tension sides are called doubly reinforced section.
(vi) When the slabs are supported on all four edges the loads is transferred to all the four supports
and, therefore the bending moments and deflections in such slabs are considerably less than those in
slabs supported on two opposite edges only. In case the slab is simply supported on all the four supports,
the corners get lifted up when such a slab is loaded. In case the corners are held down, the deflections
in the central portion are further reduced and thus the bending moments are reduced in such slabs.
Where the corners are held down due to monolithic construction of the slab with edge beams, there will
be torsion at the corners and, therefore, the torsion reinforcement is to be provided.
In this type of construction slab is spanning in two directions over main beams and secondary
beams. Because of monolithic construction of slab with beams the corners of slab are held down. As slab
is spanning in both directions steel in each direction is considered as main steel. The secondary beams
are in turn supported on main beams and are designed as continuous beams. The main beams are
supported on columns or walls. The load transferred to main beams from secondary beams is the
reaction coming from continuous beams.
The load carried to each support and the bending moments in slabs mentioned above are not easy
to calculate if all the conditions are to be satisfied. Therefore, empirical formulae and approximate
theories have been formulated which give bending moments in slabs supported on all four edges. The
method applicable in particular case depends on the support condition and type of load.

Admixtures
Use of admixtures such as super plasticizers for concrete may be made with the approval of the
Engineer. As the selection of an appropriate concrete admixture is an integral part of the mix design, the
manufacturers shall recommend the use of any one of his products only after obtaining complete
knowledge of all the actual constituents of concrete as well as methodologies of manufacture,
transportation and compaction of concrete proposed to be used in the project. Manufacturer should
provide satisfactory evidence that such admixtures do not have adverse effect the properties of concrete
or mortar particularly with respect to strength, volume change, durability and has no deleterious effect on
the reinforcement. Admixtures used should conform to provisions of IS: 9103.
Calcium chloride or admixtures containing calcium chloride shall not be used in structural concrete
containing reinforcement, prestressing tendon or other embedded metal. Also admixtures containing Cl
and SO3 ions or nitrates shall not be used. Admixtures based on thiocyanate can
Promote corrosion and hence are prohibited.

1.9 TIMBER
Wood has been used as an important engineering material from the inception of civilization. With the
scientific development, the wood may be seasoned and preserved before using it in the construction
work. The wood used for constructions of building or other engineering structures is called timber.
Advantages of Timber as Construction Material
The main advantages of timber as construction material over other materials are briefly given below:
1. Timber is comparatively stronger than other material, keeping their weight in mind.
2. Timber can be easily convertible to any size and shape.
3. Timber provides decorative surfaces to the structure.
4. There is very little wastage and in this aspect timber can become economical also.
5. Timber is non – conductor of heat and sound.
6. The scrap value of timber is high.
But due to environmental problems, cutting of trees has been restricted resulting into shortage of
timber. A number of restrictions have been imposed upon use of timber.
Uses of common type of timber
(i) Teak wood: It is considered the best wood for retention in shape, good finish and durability.
It is easy to saw and work to a good finish and takes polish well.
Teak wood is used for important building works and furniture etc. As it is costly timber, its use is
limited to high class work only.
(ii) Sal Wood: It does not give good finish and hence it is unsuitable for ornamental work. Sal
poles are mainly used as foundation piles, Railway Sleepers and for other structure where shock
resistance qualities are required.
(iii) Deodar Wood: Is used for the construction of building, railway sleepers piles and bridges.
(iv) Babul Wood: It is used for the construction of building of inferior type, bodies of various types
of carts and their wheels, and agricultural implements. It is very strong, hard and rough
timber.
(v) Chir Wood: It is used for the construction of inferior work in building construction matches,
etc.
(vi) Mango Wood: It is used for making packing cases, tonga bodies, inferior bodies, cheap
furniture, etc. It possesses high tensile strength.
(vii) Shisham Wood: It is used for high class furniture work, making carriage wheels used for
decorative work and carvings.
1.10 CONCRETE PUMPS
A concrete pump is a tool to transfer green (liquid) concrete, by pumping it to the location, which
otherwise is not easily accessible either due to its height or otherwise. Concrete pumps are capable of
pumping high volume of concrete in less time. There are two types of concrete pumps:
 A Transit Mixer and a Concrete Pump (Boom Placer) at work site
1. Concrete pump attached to a truck, which uses a robotic arm called boom, to pour concrete.
These are also known as boom placers.
2. Stationary concrete pumps or Line pumps: Sometimes these pumps are placed on a trailer. Steel
or rubber hoses attached to the pump lead to the required location.
1.11 TRANSIT MIXER
A transit mixer is a revolving drum mounted on a truck. It is used for transporting ready mix
concrete from a Batching Plant to the work site, may be few kilometers away. The revolving drum
continuously mixes the concrete inside it, while the truck moves on, to keep the concrete green and does
not allow the concrete to set for a longer period.
1.12 PILING RIGS
There two types of piling rigs:
1.12.1 Bored cast-in-situ piling rigs:
Bored Cast-in-situ Piling Rig
Also known as Cast-in-drilled-hole piles (CIDH piles). Rotary boring technique offers larger dia. piles than
any other piling method and permits pile construction through particularly dense or hard strata.
Construction methods depend on the geology of the site and many other factors. Boring is continued until
the hard rock or soft rock layer is reached at, in the case of end bearing piles or designed depth is
achieved in case of friction piles.
1.12.2 Driven cast-in-situ piling rigs:

Driven cast-in-situ Piling Rig

A pipe casing is first driven into the earth and thereafter concreting is done. While concreting, the pipe
casing is pulled out. Steps are taken to ensure that the pipe casing does not come out before
concreting.1.12.3
In addition to above, use of a tripod stand is traditional way of casting piles. The tripod system is easy
and less expensive, making it ideal for smaller jobs. It can work at restricted sites e.g. where there is
limitation of height. It is reliable, and can be used in almost all ground conditions.

1.13 BATCHING PLANT

A plant where RMC (Ready Mix Concrete) is prepared is called a Batching Plant. Different components like
cement, aggregates, sand, water, admixture, if any, etc. are mixed as per design mix and delivered to
work site, by transit mixer. This results into a precise mixture of desired strength. Computerised Batching
plants produce better concrete. Quantities of cement, sand, aggregates, water, admixtures etc. are
controlled by a computer. Even moisture content of sand and aggregates is also taken into consideration.
RMC is preferred over on-site concrete mixing because of the precision of the quality control at Batching
Plant, which in general is not possible at site. However for small works, RMC is not feasible due to
economy.