Stones

STONES

1.0 Introduction:

All the building structures are composed of different

types of materials. These materials are either called building
materials or materials of construction. It is very essential for a
builder, may be an architecture or engineer or contractor, to
become conversant thoroughly with these building materials.
The knowledge of different types of material, their properties
and uses for different purposes provides and important tool in
the hands of the builders in achieving economy in material
cost. The material cost in a building ranges 30 to 50 percent
cost of total cost construction. In addition to material
economy, the correct use of material results in better
structural strength, functional efficiency and esthetic
appearance

1.1 Classification of Rocks:

Building stones are obtained from rocks occurring in

nature and classified in three ways.
1. Geological classification
2. Physical classification
3. Chemical classification

I. Geological Classification:

According to this classification, the rocks are of the

following types.
 Building Materials & Construction

a. Igneous rocks: Rocks that are formed by cooling of Magana

(molten or pasty rocky material) are known as igneous rocks.
Eg: Granite, Basalt and Dolerite etc.

b. Sedimentary rocks: these rocks are formed by the deposition

of production of weathering on the pre-existing rocks.
Examples: gravel, sandstone, limestone, gypsum, lignite etc.

c. Metamorphic rocks. These rocks are formed by the change

in character of the pre-existing rocks. Igneous as well as
sedimentary rocks are changed in character when they are
subject to great heat and pressure. Known as metamorphism.
Examples: Quartzite, Schist, Slate, Marble and Gneisses.

II. Physical Classification:

This classification based on general structure of rocks.

According to this, the rocks are classified into three types
a. Stratified Rocks: These rocks posses planes of stratification
or cleavage and such rocks can be easily split along these
planes
Ex: sedimentary rocks
b. An stratified rocks: The structure may be crystalline
granular or compact granular. Examples: Igneous rocks and
Sedimentary rocks affected by movements of the earth.
c. Foliated Rocks: These rocks have a tendency to split up in a
definite direction only. Ex: Metamorphic rocks.

III. Chemical Classification:

According to this classification rocks are classified into three
types.
Stones

a. Siliceous rocks: In these rocks, silica is predominates. The

rocks are hard; durable and not easily effected by weathering
agencies. Ex: Granite, Quartzite, etc.

b. Argillaceous Rocks: In these rocks, clay predominates. The

rocks may be dense and compact or may be soft.

Ex: slates, Laterites etc.

c. Calcareous rocks: In these rocks, calcium carbonate

predominates. The durability to these rocks will depend upon the
constituents present in surrounding atmosphere. Ex: Lime Stone,
marble etc.

1.2 Uses of stones:

1. Structure: Stones are used for foundations, walls, columns,
lintels, arches, roofs, floors, damp proof course etc.
2.Face works. Stones are adopted to give massive appearance
to the structure. Wall are of bricks and facing is done in stones
of desired shades. This is known as composite masonry.
3. Paving stones: These are used to cover floor of building of
various types such as residential, commercial, industrial etc.
They are also adopted to form paving of roads, foot paths etc.
4. Basic material: Stones are disintegrated and converted to
form a basic material for cement concrete, morum of roads,
calcareous cements, artificial stones, hallow blocks etc.
5.Misalliances: Stones are also used for (i) ballast for
railways (ii) flux in blast furnace (iii) Blocks in the
construction of bridges, piers, abutments, retaining walls,
light houses, dams etc.
 Building Materials & Construction

1.3 Qualities of a good building stone:

The following are the qualities or requirements of a good building

stone.

1. Crushing strength: For a good building stone, the crushing

strength should be greater than l000kg per cm2.

2. Appearance: Good building stone should be a uniform

colour, and free from clay holes, spots of other colour bands
etc capable of preserving the colour for longtime.

3. Durability: A good building stone should be durable. The

factors like heat and cold alternative wet and dry, dissolved
gases in rain, high wind velocity etc affect the durability.

4. Fracture: For good building stone its fracture should be

sharp, even and clear.

5. Hardness: The hardness greater than 17, treated as hard used

in road works. It is between 14 to 17, medium hardness, less
14 said be poor hardness.

6. Percentage wear: For a good building stone, the percentage

wear should be equal to or less then 3 percent.

7. Resistance to fire: A good building stone be fire proof.

Sandstone, Argillaceous stone resists fire quite well

8. Specific gravity: For a good building stone the specific

gravity should be greater then 8.7 or so.

9. Texture: A good building stone should have compact fine

crystalline structure should be free from cavities, cracks or
patches of stuff or loose material.
Stones

10. Water absorption: For a good building stone, the percentage

absorption by weight after 24 hours should not exceed 0.60.

11. Seasoning: Stones should be well seasoned before putting

into use. A period of about 6 to 12 months is considered to be
sufficient for proper seasoning.

12. Toughness Index: Impact test, the value of toughness less

than 13 – Not tough, between 13 and 19 – Moderate, greater
than 19- high

1.4 Characteristics of stones

In order to ensure suitable selection of stone of
particular work, one must be conversant with its composition,
characteristics, uses and place of availability.

1.4.1 Granite

1. Igneous rock

2. Composed of quart, felspar and mica and minerals

3. Available in grey, green, brown and pink and red

4. Hard and durable

5. High resistance to weathering

6. The texture varies with its quality

7. Specify gravity 2.7 and compressive strength 700 to 1300

kg/cm2

8. Used for ornamental, road metal, railway ballast, aggregate

for concrete; for construction of bridges, piers and marine
works etc.
 Building Materials & Construction

1.4.2 Balast
1. Igneous rock
2. It is compact, hard and heavy
3.Available in red, yellow grey, blue and greenish black
colour
4. Specific gravity is 3 and compressive strength varies 1530
to 1890 kg/cm2.
5. Used for ornamental, rail road ballast, aggregates for
concrete etc.

1.4.3 Sand Stone:

1. Sedimentary rock
2. It is available in variety of formations fine grained, coarse
grained compact or porous
3. Available in white, green, blue, black, red and yellow.
4. Specific gravity 2.65 to 2.95
5. Compressive strength is 650kgs / cm2
6. Used for ashlar works

1.4.4 Lime Stone:

1. Sedimentary rock: It is available in a variety of forms
which differ from one another in colour Compaction, texture,
hardness and durable
a. Compact lime stone
b. Granular lime stone
c. Magnesia lime stone
d. Kanker lime stone
f. Used for paving, road metal, etc
Stones

1.4.5 Marble
1. Metamorphic rock
2. Available in white, blue, green, yellow black and red colour
3. High compactness,
4. Suitable for decorative works, wall lining columns, pile,
table slabs, hearths, tiled floors, steps of stair case etc.

1.4.6 Slate:
1. Metamorphic rock
1. Non absorbent, compact fine grained and produce metallic
ringing sound when struck
2. Available in black, dark blue, grey, reddish brown etc.
3. Used for providing damp proof course, paving dados etc

1.6 Aggregates - Grading: Aggregates is derived from igneous,

sedimentary and metamorphic rocks or is manufacture from
clays, slag etc. The properties of concrete are directly related
to those of its constituents and should be hard, strong,
 Building Materials & Construction

durable, and free from clay, loam, vegetables and other such
foreign matters. The presence of clay or dirt coating prevents
the adhesion of cement on the surface of aggregates and
ultimately retards the setting and hardening of cement and
reduces the strength, durability and soundness of concrete.

Depending upon their size, the aggregates are classified as (i)

Fine Aggregative (ii) coarse aggregates.

(i) Fine Aggregates: The material, most of when passes through

4.75mm I.S. sieve size, is termed as fine aggregates. It should
not contain more than 1 to 8% of fine particles, which may be
obtained from sea, river, lake or pit may be used as fine
aggregates but care should be taken all its impurities must be
removed

(ii) Coarse Aggregates: The material whose particles are of such

size as are retained on 4.75mm, I.S sieve are called coarse
aggregates. The size of the coarse aggregates used depends
upon the nature of work. The maximum size may be 23mm
for mass concrete such as dams etc. and 63mm for plain
concrete. Crushed hard stone and gravel is the common
materials used as coarse aggregates for structural concretes.
Coarse aggregates usually obtained by crashing granite,
gneiss, crystalline lime stone and good variety of sandstone
etc.
 BRICKS

Bricks are obtained by moulding clay in rectangular blocks of uniform size

and then by drying and burning these blocks. As bricks are ofuniform size,
they can be properly arranged, light in weight and hence bricks replace
stones.

2.1 Composition - Manufacture Process.

Composition – Following are the constituents of good brick earth.

Alumina: - It is the chief constituent of every kind of clay. A good brick

earth should contain 20 to 30 percent of alumina. This constituent imparts
plasticity to earth so that it can be moulded. If alumina is present in excess,
raw bricks shrink and warp during drying and burning.

Silica-A good brick earth should contain about 50 to 60 percent of silica.

Silica exists in clay either as free or combined form. As free sand, it is
mechanically mixed with clay and in combined form; it exists in chemical
composition with alumina. Presence of silica prevents crackers shrinking
and warping of raw bricks. It thus imparts uniform shape to the bricks.
Durability of bricks depends on the proper proportion of silica in brick
earth. Excess of silica destroys the cohesion between particles and bricks
become brittle.

Lime – A small quantity of lime is desirable in finely powdered state to

prevents shrinkage of raw bricks. Excess of lime causes the brick to melt
and hence, its shape is last due to the splitting of bricks.
Bricks

Oxide of iron- A small quantity of oxide of Iron to the extent of 5 to 6

percent is desirable in good brick to imparts red colour to bricks. Excess
of oxide of iron makes the bricks dark blue or blackish.

Magnesia- A small quantity of magnesia in brick earth imparts yellow tint

to bricks, and decreases shrinkage. But excess of magnesia decreases
shrink leads to the decay of bricks.

The ingredients like, lime, iron pyrites, alkalies, pebbles, organic

matter should not present in good brick earth

Manufacture of bricks:

The manufacturing of brick, the following operations are involved

1. Preparation of clay

2. Moulding

3. Drying

4. Burning

(i) Preparation of clay :- The preparation of clay involves

following operations

a) Unsoiling :- Top layer of 20cm depth is removed as it contain

impurities.
b) Digging: - Clay dug out from ground is spread on level ground
about 60cm to 120cm heaps.

c) Cleaning:-Stones, pebbles, vegetable matter etc removed and

converted into powder form.

d) Weathering:- Clay is exposed to atmosphere from few weeks

to full season.

e) Blending:- Clay is made loose and any ingradient to be added

to it is spread out at top and turning it up and down in vertical
direction.

f) Tempering:- Clay is brought to a proper degree of hardness,

then water is added to clay and whole mass is kneaded or
pressed under the feet of men or cattle for large scale,
tempering is usually done in pug mill as shown in the fig 2.1
Bricks

Fig 2.1 Pug Mill

Process:- Clay with water is placed in pug mill from the top. When the
vertical staff is rotated by using electric pair, steam or diesel or turned by
pair of bullocks. Clay is thoroughly mixed up by the actions of horizontal
arms and knives when clay has been sufficiently pugged, hole
at the bottom of tub, is opened cut and the pugged earth is taken out from
ramp for the next operation of moulding.

Moulding: Clay, which is prepared form pug mill, is sent for the next
operation of moulding. Following are the two ways of moulding.

Hand Moulding: Moulds are rectangular boxes of wood or steel, which

are open at top and bottom. Steel moulds are more durable and used for
manufacturing bricks on large scale as shown in fig 2.2. Bricks prepared
by hand moulding are of two types.

Fig 2.2 Wooden mould & Steel mould

a) Ground moulded bricks

b) Table moulded bricks

(a) Ground moulded bricks: ground is first made level and fine sand is
sprinkled over it. Mould is dipped in water and placed over theground
to fill the clay. Extra clay is removed by wooden or metal strike after
the mould is filled forced mould is then lifted up and raw
Bricks

brick is left on the ground. Mould is then dipped in water every time
lower faces of ground moulded bricks are rough and it is not possible
to place frog on such bricks.

Ground moulded bricks of better quality and with frogs on their

surface are made by using a pair of pallet boards and a wooden block

(b) Table-moulded bricks: Process of moulding these bricks is just

similar to ground bricks on a table of size about 2m x 1m.

(1) Machine moulding: This method proves to be economical when

bricks in huge quantity are to be manufactured at the same spot. It is
also helpful for moulding hard and string clay. These machines are
broadly classified in two categories

(a) Plastic clay machines

(b) Dry clay machines

a) Plastic clay machines: This machine containing rectangular opening

of size equal to length and width of a brick. Pugged clay is placed in
the machine and as it comes out through the opening, it is cut into strips
by wires fixed in frames, so there bricks are called wire cut bricks.

b) Dry clay machines: In these machines, strong clay is first converted

into powder form and then water is added to form a stiff plastic paste.
Such paste is placed in mould and pressed by machine to form hard
and well shaped bricks. These bricks are behavior than ordinary hand
 moulded bricks. They carry distinct frogs and exhibit uniform
texture.

(2) Drying: The damp bricks, if burnt, are likely to be cracked and
distored. Hence moulded bricks are dried before thay are taken for
the next operation of burning. Bricks are laid along and across the
stock in alternate layers. The drying of brick is by the following means

(i) Artificial drying – drying by tunnels usually 1200C about 1 to 3

days

(ii) Circulation of air- Stacks are arranged in such a way that

sufficient air space is left between them free circulation of air.

(iii) Drying yard- special yards should be prepared slightly higher

level prevent the accumulation of rain water

(iv) Period for frying – usually about 3 to 10 days to bricks to

become dry

(v) Screens – screens are necessary, may be provided to avoid direct

exposure to wind or sun.

(3) Burning: This is very important operation in the manufacturing of

bricks to impart hardness, strength and makes them dense and durable.
Burning of bricks is done either in clamps or in kilns. Clamps are
temporary structures and they are adopted to manufacture
Bricks

bricks on small scale. Kilns are permanent structures and they are
adopted to manufacture bricks on a large scale. A typical clamp is as
shown in fig 2.3

Fig 2.3 Clamp

(1) A trapezoidal shape in plan with shorter is slightly in excavation and

wider end raised at an angle of 150 from ground level

(2) A brick wall with mud is constructed on the short end and a layer of
70cm to 80cm thick fuel (grass, cow dung, ground nuts, wood or
coal) laid on the floor.
(3) A layer consists of 4 or 5 courses of raw bricks laid on edges with small
spaces between them for circulation of air

(4) A second layer of fuel is then placed, and over it another layer of raw
bricks is putap. The total height of clamp in alternate layers of brick
is about 3 to 4 m

(5) When clamp is completely constructed, it is plastered with mud on

sides andtop and filled with earth to prevent the escape of heat

(6) The period of burning is about one to two months and allow the same
time for coding

(7) Burnt bricks are taken out from the clamp

Advantages:

(i) The bricks produced are tough and strong because burning and
cooling are gradual

(ii) Burning in clamps proves to be cheap and economical

(iii) No skilled labour and supervision are required for the

construction of clamps

(iv) There is considerable saving of clamps fuel

Bricks

Disadvantages:

(i) Bricks are not of required shape

(ii) It is very slow process

(iii) It is not possible to regulate fire in a clamp

(iv) Quality of brick is not uniform

Kilns: A kiln is a large oven, which is used to burnt bricks by

1) Intermittent kilns

2) Continuous kilns
Bricks

COMPARISON BETWEEN CLAMP-BURNING AND KILN-BURNING

No. Item Clamp-burning Kiln-burning

1. Capacity About 20000 to 100000 Average 25000 bricks
bricks can be prepared can be prepared per day.
at a time.
2. Cost of fuel Low as grass, cow dung, Generally high as coal
litter, etc. may be used. dust is to be used.
3. Initial cost Very low as no structures More as permanent
are to be built. structures are to be
constructed.
4. Quality of Percentage of good Percentage of good
bricks quality bricks is small quality bricks is more
about 60% or so. about 90% or so.
5. Regulation It is not possible to Fire is under control
of fire control or regulate fire throughout the process of
during the process of burning.
burning
6. Skilled Not necessary through- Continuous skilled super
supervision out the process of burn- vision is necessary.
ing.
7. Structure Temporary structure. Permanent structure.
8. Suitability Suitable when bricks areSuitable when bricks
to be manufactured on are to be manufactured on
a small scale and when a large scale and when
the demand of bricks is there is continuous
not continuous. demand of bricks.
9. Time of burn- It requires about 2 to Actual time for burning of
ing and cool- 6 months for burning one chamber is about 24
ing. and cooling of bricks. hours and only about 12
days are required for
cooling of bricks.
10. Wastage of There is considerable Hot flue gas is used to dry
heat. wastage of heat from top and pre-heat raw bricks.
and sides and hot flue Hence wastage of heat is
gas is not properly the least.
utilised.
2.2 Classification:

Bricks can broadly be divided into two categories.

(i) Unburnt or sundried bricks

(ii) Burnt bricks

(i) Un burnt or Sun dried bricks- UN burn or sun dried with the
help of heat received from sun after the process of moulding. These
bricks can only be used in the constructions of temporary and
cheap structures. Such bricks should not be used at places exposed
to heavy rains.

(ii) Burnt Bricks: The bricks used in construction works are burnt
bricks and they are classified into the following four categories.

a. First Class bricks: These bricks are table moulded and of

standard shape. The surface and edges of the bricks are
sharp, square, smooth and straight. The comply all the
qualities of good bricks and used for superior work of
permanent nature.

b. Second class bricks: These bricks are ground moulded and

they are burnt in kilns. The surface of bricks is some what
rough and shape is also slightly irregular. Thesebricks are
commonly used at places where brick work is to be
provided with a coat of plaster.

c. Third class bricks: These bricks are ground moulded and

they burnt in clamps. These bricks are not hard and they
have rough surfaces with irregular and distorted edges.
Bricks

These bricks give dull sound when struck together. They

are used for unimportant and temporary structures and at
places where rainfall is not heavy.

d. Fourth class bricks: These are over burnt bricks with

irregular shape and dark colour. These bricks are used as
aggregate for concrete in foundation, floors, roads, etc
because of the fact that the over burnt bricks have
compacted structure and hence, they are some times found
stronger than even first class bricks.

2.3 Qualities of Good Brick:

(i) Bricks should be table moulded, well burnt in kilns, copper

coloured, free from cracks and with sharp and square edges.

(ii) Bricks should be uniform shape and should be of standard size.

(iii) Bricks should give clear ringing sound when struck each other.

(iv) Bricks when broken should show a bright homogeneous and

compact structure free from voids.

(v) Bricks should not absorb water more than 20 percent by weight
for first class bricks and 22 percent by weight for second class
bricks, when soaked in coldwater for a period of 24 hours.
 (vi) Bricks should be sufficiently hard no impression, should be
left on brick surface, when it is scratched with finger nail.

(vii) Bricks should be low thermal conductivity and they should be

sound proof.

(viii) Bricks should not break when dropped flat on hard ground
from a height of about one meter.

(ix) Bricks, when soaked in water for 24hours, should not show
deposits of white salts when allowed to dry in shade.

(x) No brick should have crushing strength below 55kg/cm2

2.4 Special Types: Bricks are made in a wide range of shapes and to
suit the requirements of the location where they are to be used.
Special form of bricks may be needed due to structural
consideration or for ornamental decoration as defined by the
architect. Specially moulded bricks avoid the cumbersome process
of cutting and rounding the rectangular bricks to thedesired shape.
Some of the special types of bricks commonlyused are given
below.

a. Squint Bricks: These bricks are made in a variety of shapes and

are used to the construction of a cute and obtuse squint quoins as
shown in the fig2.7.
Bricks

Fig 2.7 Types of Special Bricks

b. Bull Nosed Bricks: These bricks are used to form rounded

quoins.
c. Perforated Bricks: These bricks may be standard size bricks
produced with perforations running through their thickness.
Perforated bricks are easy to burn and their light weight makes it
possible to cut down the weight of the structure and effect in
foundations. The aperture of the perforations is such that it gives
maximum amount of ventilation. But does not permit the entry of
rats or mice. These bricks are used for constructing load bearing
walls of low buildings, panel walls for multistoried buildings and
for providing partition walls.

d. Hallow Bricks: These bricks are made of clay and are provided
with one or more cavities. Hallow bricks are light in weight and
are used to increase insulation against heat and dampness. They
are used for the construction of load bearing walls, partition walls
or panel walls to multistoried buildings.

e. Circular Bricks: These bricks have internal and external faces

curved to meet the requirement of the particular curve and radius
of the wall. These bricks are used for wells, towers etc

f. Plinth cornice and String Course Brick: These bricks are

moulded in several patterns with the object of adding architectural
beauty to the structure and at the same time to helping to throw the
rack water off the face of the walls.

g. Coping Bricks: These bricks are manufactured in a variety of

shapes to set the thickness of the wall and are throated on the
underside to throw off rain water as shown in the fig2.7
Bricks

h. Paving Bricks: These bricks are specially made for paving the
surface of streets and highways. These bricks are usually made
from shale, fire clay on a mixture of the two. They are unaffected
by weather and ordinary traffic wear. They are loaded on the bed
of sand which in term rests on foundation of stone or concrete. The
bricks are laid by grouting with cement mortar or asphalt. They are
machine moulded and are burnt in a continuous kiln to ensure high
degree of vitrification.

2.5 Tests for bricks :

A brick is generally subjected to following tests to find out its

suitability of the construction work.

ii. Absorption

iii. Crushing strength or compression strength

iv. Hardness

v. Presence soluble salts

vi. Shape and size

vii. Soundness

viii. Structure

1) Absorption: A good should not absorb not more than 20 percent

of weight of dry brick

2) Compressive strength: crushing or compressive strength of brick

is found out by placing it in compression testing machine. It is
pressed till it breaks. Minimum crushing strength of brick is
 35kg/cm2 and for superior bricks, it may vary from 70 to 140
kg/cm2.

3) Hardness: No impression is left on the surface the brick is

treated to be sufficiently hard

4) Presence of soluble salts: The bricks should not show any grey
or white deposits after immerted in water for 24 hours

5) Shape and size: It should be standard size and shape with sharp
edges

6) Soundness: The brick should give clear ringing sound struck

each other

7) Structure: The structure should be homogeneous, compact and

free from any defects
Cement

CEMENT

Cement in its broadest term means any substance which acts as a

binding agent for materials natural cement (Roman Cement) is obtained
by burning and crushing the stones containing clay, carbonates of lime and
some amount of carbonate of magnesia. The clay content in such stones is
about 20 to 40 percent. Natural cement resembles very closely eminent
hydraulic lime. It is not strong as artificial cement, so it has limited use in
practice.

Artificial cement is obtained by burning at very high temperature

a mixture of calcareous and argillaceous materials in correct proportion.
Calcined product is known as clinker. A small quantity of gypsum is added
to clinker and it is then pulverized into very fine powder is known as
cement. Cement was invented by a mason Joseph Aspdin of leeds in
England in 1824. The common variety of artificial cement is known as
normal setting cement or ordinary cement or Portland cement.

3.1 Ingradeints – Functions

Ordinary Portland cement contains two basic ingredients,
namely argillaceous and calcareous. In argillaceous materials,clay
predominates and in calcareous materials, calcium carbonate
predominates. Good ordinary cement contains following
ingradients.
1. Lime (cao) ………. 62%
 Building Materials & Construction

2. silica (Sio2) ………. 22%

3. Aluminca(Al2 u3) ………. 5%
4. Calcium sulphate (CaSo4) ………. 4%
5. Iron Oxide (Fe2 O3) ………. 3%
6. Magnescia (Mgo) ………. 2%
7. Sulphur ………. 1%
8. Alkalies ………. 1%

Functions of Ingradients:
1. Lime: Lime is the important ingredient of cement and its proportion is
to be maintained carefully. Lime in excess makes the cement unsound and
causes the cement to expand and disintegrate. On the other hand, if lime
is in deficiency the strength of the cement is decreased and it causescement
to set quickly

2. Silica: This also an important ingredient of cement and it gives or

imparts quick setting property to imparts strength to cement.

3.Alumina: This ingredient imparts quick setting properly to cement.

Express alumina weakens the cement.

4. Calcium Sulphate: This ingredient is in the form of gypsum and its

function is to increase the initial setting time of cement.

5. Magnesia: The small amount of this ingredient imparts hardness and

colour to cement.
Cement

6. Sulphur: A very small amount of sulphur is useful in making sound

cement. If it is in excess, it causes the cement to become unsound.

7. Alkalies: Most of the alkalies present in raw material are carried away
by the flue gases during heating and only small quantity will be left. If
they are in excess in cement, efflorescence is caused.

3.2 Types of Cement

In addition to ordinary cement, the following are the other varieties
of cement.
a. Acid Resistance Cement: This is consists of acid
resistance aggregates such as quartz, quartzite’s, etc,
additive such as sodium fluro silicate (Na2SiO6) and
aqueous solution of sodium silicate. This is used for acid-
resistant and heat resistant coating of installations of
chemical Industry. By adding 0.5 percent of unseed oil or
2 percent of ceresil, its resistance to water is increased and
known as acid water resistant cement.
b. Blast Furnace Cement: For this cement slag as obtained
from blast furnace in the manufacture of pig iron and it
contains basic elements of cement, namely alumina, lime
and silica. The properties of this cement are more or less
the same as those of ordinary cement and prove to be
economical as the slag, which is waste product, is used in
its manufacture.
c. Coloured Cement: Cement of desired colour may be
obtained by intimately mixing mineral pigments with
 Building Materials & Construction

ordinary cement. The amount of colouring may vary from

5 to 10 percent and strength of cement if it is exceeds 10
percent. Chromium oxide gives brown, red or yellow for
different proportions. Coloured cements are used for
finishing of floors, external surfaces, artificial marble,
windows
d. Expanding Cement : This type of cement is produced by
adding an expanding medium like sulpho – aluminate and
a stabilizing agent to ordinary cement. Hence this cement
expands where as other cement shrinks. Expanding cement
is used for the construction of water retainingstructures and
also for repairing the damaged concretesurfaces.
e. High alumina Cement: This cement is produced by
grinding clinkers formed by calcining bauxite and lime.
The total content should not be less than 32 percent and the
ratio by weight of alumina to lime should be between
0.85 and 1.30.
Advantages
1. Initial setting time is about 31/2 hours therefore, allows more time
for mixing and placing operations.

2. It can stand high temperatures.

3. It evolves great heat during setting therefore not affected by frost.

4. It resists the action of acids in a better way.

5. It lets quickly and attains higher ultimate strength.

Cement

Disadvantages:
1. It is costly
2. It cannot be used in mass construction as it evolves great heat and as
it sets soon.
3. Extreme care is to taken to see that it does not come in contact with
even traces of lime or ordinary cement.

f. Hydrophobic Cement: This type of cement contains admixtures,

which decreases the wetting ability of cement grains. The usual
hydrophobic admixtures are acidol napthene soap, oxidized
petrolatum etc when hydrophobic cement is used, the fire pores
in concrete are uniformly distributed and thus the frost resistance
and the water resistance of such concrete are considerably
increased.

g. Low Heat Cement: Considerable heat is produced during the

setting action of cement. In order to reduce the amount of heat, this
type of cement is used. It contains lower percentage of tri calcium
aluminates C3A and higher percentage of dicalcium silicate C2s.
This type of cement is used for mass concrete works because it
processes less compressor strength.

h. Pozzuolona Cement: Pozzuolona is a volcanic powder and the

percentage should be between 10 to 30.
Advantages
1. It attains compressive strength with age.
2. It can resist action of sulphates.
 Building Materials & Construction

3. It evolves less heat during setting.

4. It imparts higher degree of water tightness.
5. It imparts plasticity and workability to mortar and concrete
prepared from it.
6. It offers great resistance to expansion
7. It possesses higher tensile strength

Disadvantages:
1. Compressive strength in early days is less.
2. It possesses less resistance to erosion and weathering action.

i. Quick Setting Cement: This cement is prepared by adding a small

percentage aluminum sulphate which reduce the percentage of
gypsum or retarded for setting action and accelerating the setting
action of cement. As this cement hardness less than 30 minutes,
mixing and placing operations should be completed. This cement
is used to lay concrete under static water or running water.

j. Rapid Hardening cement: This cement has same initial andfinal

setting times as that of ordinary cement. But it attains high strength
in early days due to
1. Burning at high temperature.
2. Increased lime content in cement composition.
3. Very fine grinding.
Advantages:
1. Construction work may be carried out speedily.
Cement

2. Formwork of concrete can be removed earlier.

3. It is light in weight.
4. It is not damaged easily.
5. This cement requires short period of curing.
6. Use of this cement also higher permissible stresses in the
design.
7. Structural member constructed with this cement may be
loaded earlier.

k. Sulphate Resisting Cement: In this cement percentage of

tricalcium aluminates is kept below 5 to 6 percent and it results in
the increase in resisting power against sulphate. This cement is
used for structure which are likely to be damaged by sever alkaline
condition such as canal linings, culverts, siphons etc.

l. White Cement: This is a variety of ordinary cement and it is

prepared form such raw materials which are practically free from
colouring oxides of Iron, manganese or chromium. For burning
of this cement, oil fuel is used instead of coal. It is used for floor
finish; plaster work, ornamental works etc.

3.3. Uses of Cement:

1. Cement mortar for masonry work, plaster, pointing etc
2. Concreter for laying floors, roofs and constructing lintels,
beams, weather sheds, stairs, pillars etc.
 Building Materials & Construction

3. Construction of important engineering structure such as

bridges, culverts, dams, tunnels storage reservoirs, light
houses, deckles etc.
4. Construction of water tanks, wells, tennis courts, septic tanks,
lampposts, roads, telephone cabins etc.
5. Making joints for drains, pipes etc.
6. Manufacture of pre cast pipes, piles, garden seats, artificially
designed urns, flowerpots, etc dustbins, fencing posts etc.
7. Preparation of foundations, watertight floors, footpaths etc.

3.4. Admixtures – Uses.

These are the ingredients or substance, which are added to concrete
to improve its properties like strength, hardness, water resisting power,
workability etc. Many admixtures like alum etc are commonly used
for this purpose.

* * *
 Building Materials & Construction

MORTAR

The term mortar is used to indicate a paste prepared by adding

required quantity of water to a mixture of binding material like cement or
Lime and fine aggregates like sand. The two components of mortarnamely
the binding material and fine aggregates are some times referred to as
matrix the durability, quality and strength of mortar will mainly depends
on quantity and quality of the matrix. The combined effect ofthe two
components of mortar is that the mass is able to bind the bricksor stones
firmly

5.1 Properties – Uses:

The important properties of a good mortar mix are

mobility, placeability and water retention. The mobility is used to
indicate the consistency of mortar mix, which may range from stiff
to fluid
The mobility of mortar depends upon composition of
mortar and mortar mixes to be used for masonry work, finishing
works, etc are made sufficiently mobile.
The placeability or the ease with which the mortar mix
can be placed with minimum cost in a thin and uniform layer over
the surface depends on the mobility of mortar. The placeablity of
mortar mix should be such that a strong bond is developed with the
surface of the bed.
Mortar

A good mortar mix should posses the ability if retaining

adequate humidity during the transportation and laying over the
porous bed.
If water retention power of mortar mix is low it separates
into layers during transportation and when it comes contact with
the porous bed like brick, wood, etc, it gives away its water to
that surface. Thus the mortar becomes poor in a amount of water
and remaining water proves to be insufficient for its hardening.
Hence required strength of mortar will not be achieved with such
a mortar mix will.

Properties of good mortar

1. It should be capable of developing good adhesion with the
building units such as bricks, stones etc.
2. It should be capable of developing the designed stresses.
3. It should be capable of resisting penetration of rainwater.
4. It should be cheap.
5. It should be durable.
6. It should be easily workable.
7. It should not affect the durability of materials with which it
comes into contact.

Uses:
1. To bind the building units such as bricks, stones etc.
2. To carry out painting and plaster works on exposed surfaces
of masonry
3. To form an even bedding layer for building units
 Building Materials & Construction

4. To form joints of pipes

5. To improve the appearance of structure.

5.2 Types of Mortar

The mortar are classified on the bases of the following
1. Bulk density
2. Kinds of binding material
3. Nature of application
4. Special mortars

5.2.1 Bulk density:

According to bulk density of mortar in dry state, the mortars are
two types
a. Heavy mortars bulk density is more than 1500kg/m3 and
prepared from heavy quartz
b. Lightweight mortars – bulk density is less than 1500/mg3
and prepared from light porous sands.
5.2.2. Kinds of binding Material
According to the kinds of
binding material, several factorssuch as expected working
conditions, hardening temperature, moisture conditions, etc should
be considered. The mortars are classified into four categories.
a. Lime Mortar - in this motor, lime is used as binding material.
Lime may be fate lime or Hydraulic lime. Fat lime mortar 1:2 to
1:3 and hydraulic lime mortarmay be1:2 by VOLUME.
Mortar

b. Cement mortar: In this mortar, cement is used as binding

material. Depending upon the strength required and importance
of work, the proportion of cement to sand varies from 1:2 to 1:6
or more.

c. Gauged Mortar or composite mortar:

The process of adding cement to lime mortar to improve the quality

of lime mortar is known as gauging. It makes lime mortar
economical, strong and dense. The usual proportion of cement to
lime by volume is about 1:6 to 1:8

d. Gypsum mortar:

These mortars are prepared from gypsum binding material such

as building gypsum and anhydrite binding materials.

5.2.3 Nature of Application:

According to the nature of application, the mortars are
classified into two categories.

A. Brick laying mortars: Mortars for brick laying are intended to

be used for brick works and walls. Depending up on the working
conditions and type of construction, the composition of masonry
mortars with respect to the kind of binding materials is decided.

B. Finishing Mortars: these mortars include common plastering

work and mortars for developing architectural or ornamental
effects. Generally cement or lime is used as binding material.
Mortar

CONCRETE
Cement concrete is a mixture of cement, sand, pebbles or crushed rock and
water. When placed in the skeleton of forms and allowed to cure, becomes
hard like a stone. Cement concrete is important building material because
of the following reasons.

1. It can be moulded into any size and shape of durable structural

member.

2. It is possible to control the properties of cement concrete.

3. It is possible to mechanise completely its preparation and placing

processes.

4. It possesses adequate plasticity for mechanical working.

The cement concrete has the following properties

1. It has high compressive strength

2. It is free from corrosion

3. It hardens with age and continues for a long time after concrete has
attained sufficient strength

4. It is proved to be economical than steel

5. It binds rapidly with steel and it is weak in tension, steel

reinforcement is placed in cement concrete at suitable places to
take up tensile concrete or simply R.C.C.

6. It forms a hard surface, capable of resisting abrasion stresses.

This is called reinforced cement.
Concrete

7. It has tendency to be porous to avoid this proper grading &

consolidation of the aggregates, minimum water-cement ratio
should be adopted.

6.1 Constituents - Requirements.

The main constituents of concrete are

a) Cement / Lime: Before introduction of ordinary Portland

cement, lime was used as cementing material. At present most of
the cement concrete works in the building construction is done
with ordinary Portland cement. But other special varieties of
cement such as rapid hardening cement, high alumina cement
are used under certain circumstances. The cement should comply
with all standard specifications

b) Fine Aggregates: The material, which is passed through

4.7625mm B.S.test sieve, is termed as fine aggregates. Usually
natural river sand is used as fine aggregates. But places where
natural sand is not available economically, finely crushed stone
may be used as fine aggregates.

c) Coarse Aggregates: The material retained on 4.7625mm size

B.S.test sieve is termed as coarse aggregates. Broken stone is
generally used as coarse aggregates. For thin slabs, and walls,
the maximum size of coarse aggregates should be limited to
one third the thickness of the concrete section

d) Water: Water to be used in the concrete work should have the

following properties.

1) It should be free from oils

 Building Materials & Construction
2) It should be free from acids or alkalies

3) It should be free from Iron, Vegetables matter or other

substance, which is likely to have adverse effect on concrete.

4) It should be fit for drinking purpose

Function of Water

1. It acts as lubricant for fine and coarse aggregates.

2. It acts chemically with cement to form binding paste with coarse

aggregates and reinforcement.

3. It is necessary to flux the cementing material over the surface of

the aggregates.

4. It is employed to damp the concrete in order to prevent them

absorbing water vitally necessary for chemical action

5. It enables the concrete mix to blow into moulds.

6.2. Uses and types

Uses of Concrete:

1:2:2 - For heavy loaded R.C.C columns and R.C.C arches of long
spans

1:2:2 - For small pre cast members of concrete like fencing poles,
telegraph poles etc. watertight construction.

1:2:3 - For water tanks, bridges, sewers etc.

1:2½:3½ - For foot path, concrete roads

Concrete

1:2:4 - For general work of RCC such as stairs, beams, columns,

slabs, etc

1:4:8 /

1:5:10 For mass concrete for heavy walls, foundation footings

etc.

6.3 Preparation of concrete mix:

There are two types of concrete mixing

(i) Hand mixing

(ii) Machine mixing

6.4 Curing of concrete:

Curing of concrete is one of the essential requirement of process

of concreting. Curing is process of keep the set concrete damp for
some days in order to enable the concrete gain more strength

Purposes:

(i) Curing protects concrete surfaces from sun and wind

(ii) Presence of water is essential to cause the chemical action

which a companies the setting of concrete

* * *
 Building Materials & Construction
TIMBER

Timber denotes wood, which is suitable for building or carpentry or

various other engineering purposes like for construction of doors,
windows, roofs, partitions, beams, posts, cupboards, shelves etc

Uses of timber:

(i) Used in the form of piles, posts, beams, lintels, door/window

frames and leaves, roof members etc

(ii) Used for flooring, ceiling, paneling and construction of

partition walls

(iii) Used for form work for concrete, for the timbering of trenches,
centring for arch work, scaffolding, transmission poles and
fencing

(iv) Used in wagon and coach building, marine installations and

bridges

(v) Used in making furniture of agriculture implements, sports

goods, musical instruments, well curbs, mortar bodies, carts
and carriages, railway sleeps, packing cases etc

7.1 Classification of trees

Depending upon their mode of growth trees may be divided in

the following two categories

(i) Endogeneous trees – These trees grow inwards and fibrous

mass is seen in their longitudinal sections. Timber from
Timber

these trees has very limited engineering applications Ex:

bamboo, cane , palm etc

(ii) Exogeneous trees: These increases in bulk by growing

outwards and used for engineering purposes.

Exogeneous trees are further sub divided into two groups

a) conifers b) deciduous

a) Conifers or evergreen trees: These trees having pointed,

needle like or scale like leaves and yield soft wood

b) Deciduous trees: The trees having flat broad leaves and

leaves of those trees fall in autumn and new ones appear
in spring season. Timber for engineering purpose is
mostly derived from deciduous trees. These trees yield
hard wood.

Ex: ash, beach, oak, sal, teak, shishum and wallnut

Comparison of softwood and hard wood

S.No. Item Soft wood Hard wood

1. Annual rings Distinct Indistinct
2. colour light dark
3. fire resistance poor more
4. modullary rays Indistinct distinct
5. Structure resinous and non-resinous
split easily & close grained
6. weight light heavy
7. strength strong for direct equally strong
Pull & weak for for resisting
Resisting thrust tension,compr
or shear -ession & shear
 Building Materials & Construction
Structure of tree: From the visibility aspect, the structure of a tree can
be divided into two categories

1. Macro structure

2. Micro structure

I. Macro structure: The structure of wood visible to the naked

eye or at a small magnification is called macro structure. Fig
7.1 shows the macro structure of exogenous tree.

Fig 7.1 Micro structure of exogenous tree

(i) Pith: The innermost central portion or core of the tree

is called pith or medulla

(ii) Heart wood: The inner annual rings surrounding the

pith is known as heart wood. It imparts rigidity to tree
Timber

(iii) Sap wood: The cuter annual rings between heart wood
and cambium layer is known as sap wood

(iv) Cambium layer: Thin layer of sap between sap wood

and inner bark is known as cambium layer

(v) Inner bark: The inner skin or layer covering the

cambium layer is known as inner bark

(vi) Outer Bark: The outer skin or cover of the tree is

known as outer bark

(vii) Medullary rays: The thin radial fibres extending from

pith to cambium layer are known as medullary rays

II. Micro structure: The structure of wood apparent only atgreat

magnifications is called micro structure under microscope,
it becomes evident that the wood consists of living and lead
cells of various sizes and shapes.

7.2 Defects in Timber:

Defects occurring in timber are grouped into the following

divisions.

a) Defects due to conversion: During the process of converting

timber to commercial form, the following defects may occur.

(i) Chip mark: mark or sign placed by chip on finished

surface of timber

(ii) Diagonal grain: Due to improper sawing of timber

 Building Materials & Construction
(iii) Torn grain: Due to falling of tool small impression is
formed

(iv) Wane: Presence of original rounded surface on the

manufactured piece of timber

b) Defects due to fungi: The attack of timber by fungi when moisture

content of timber is above 20% and presence of air and warmth for
the growth of fungi the following defects are caused

(i) Blue stain: Sap of wood is stained to bluesh colour

(ii) Brown rot: Decay or disease of timber by removal of

cellulose compounds from wood and wood assumes the
brown colour

(iii) Dry rot: Convert the wood into dry powder form

(iv) Heart rot: This is formed when branch has come out of a
tree and the tree becomes weak and gives out hallowsound
when struck with a hammer

(v) Sap stain: The sap wood looses its colour because of feed
on cell contents of sap wood.

(vi) Wet rot: Caused chemical decomposition of wood of the

timber and timber converts to grayish brown powder
known as wet rot.

(vii) White rot: Attack lignin of wood and wood assumes the
appearance of white mass
Timber

c) Defects due to insects:

(i) Beetles: Small insects form holes of size about 2mm diameter
and attack sap wood of all spacies of hard woods. Tunnels are
formed in all directions in sapwood by the larvae of these beetles
and converted into fine flour like powder. They do not disturb outer
cover and looks sound.

(ii) Marine borers: These make holes or bore tunnels in wood

for taking shelter. The wood attacked by marine borers loses colour
and strength

(ii) Termites: White ants are very fast in eating away the wood from
the core of the cross section. They make tunnels insidein
different directions and usually donot disturb the outershell or
cover

d) Defects due to natural forces:

The main natural forces responsible for causing defects in timber

are abnormal growth and rapture of tissues

(i) Burls: Irregular projections appear on the body of timber

because of shock at younger age

(ii) Callus: Soft tissue or skin which covers the wound of

tree.

(iii) Chemical stain: Discoloured due to the chemical action

caused

(iv) Coarse grain: Annual rings are widened, tree grows

rapidly hence timber possesses less strength
 Building Materials & Construction
(v) Dead wood: Timber obtained from dead standing tree

(vi) Druxiness: White decayed spots by fungi

(vii) Foxiness: Due to poor ventilation during storage or by

commencement of decay due to over maturity indicated
by red or yellow tinge in wood

(viii) Knots: Bases of branches or limbs which are broken or cut

off from the tree as shown in the fig 7.2.

Fig 7.2 Knot

(ix) Rind galls: Rind means bark and gall indicates abnormal
growth and pecullar curved swellings found on the body
of a tree.

(x) Shakes: These are cracks which partly or completely

separate the fibres of wood as shown in fig. 7.3.
Timber

Fig 7.3 Different types of shakes

(xi) Twisted fibres: or Wandering hearts: caused by twisting

of young trees by fast blowing wind as shown in fig 7.4.
 Building Materials & Construction

Fig 7.4
(xii) Upsets or ruptures: Indicate wood fibres which are
injured by crushing or compression as shown in fig 7.5.

Fig 7.5
7.4. Characteristics of good timbers:

1. Appearance: A freshly cut surface of timber should exhibit

hard and of shining appearance.

2. Colour: A colour should preferably be dark

3. Defects: A good timber should be free from series defects such

as knots, flaws, shakes etc

4. Durability: A good timber should be durable and capable of

resisting the action of fungi, insects, chemicals, physical
agencies, and mechanical agencies.

5. Elasticity: The timber returns to its original shape when load

causing its deformation is removed
Timber
6. Fibres: The timber should have straight fibres
 Building Materials & Construction
7. Fire resistance: A dense wood offers good resistance to fire

8. Hardness: A good timber should be hard

9. Mechanical wear: A good timber should not deteriorate

easily due to mechanical wear or abrasion

10. Shape: A good timber should be capable of retaining its

shape during conversion or seasoning

11. Smell: A good timber should have sweet smell. Unpleasant

smell indicates decayed timber

12. Sound : A good timber should give a clear ringing sound

when struck

13. Strength: A good timber should be sufficiently strong for

working as structural member such as joist, beam, rafter etc.

14. Structure: The structure should be uniform

15. Toughness: A good timber should be tough (i.e.) capable of

offering resistance to shocks due to vibration

16. Water permeability: A good timber should have low water

permeability, which is measured by the quantity of water
filtered through unit surface area of specimen of wood.
17. Weathering effects: A good timber should be able to stand
reasonably the weathering effects (dry & wet)

18. Weight: The timber with heavy weight is considered to be

sound and strong.
19. Working conditions: Timber should be easily workable. It
should not clog the teeth of saw.
 Building Materials & Construction
ii) Plywood
iii) Fibre boards
iv) Impreg timbers
v) Compreg timbers
6. A good timber should have
i) Shinning appearance
ii) Dark colour
iii) Free from defects
iv) Durable to action of fungi, insects, chemicals etc
v) Fire resistance
vi) Should hard
vii) Mechanical wear
viii) Sweet smell
ix) Should give char ringing sound
x) Structure should be uniform
xi) Should have low water permeability

* * *
1. AGGREGATE:
Classification, Physical and mechanical properties, soundness, alkali-aggregate reaction,
thermal properties of aggregate
Aggregates are the important constituents of the concrete which give body to the concrete and
also reduce shrinkage. Aggregates occupy 70 to 80 % of total volume of concrete. So, we can
say that one should know definitely about the aggregates in depth to study more about concrete.

Classification of Aggregates as per Shape and Size:

Aggregates are classified based on so many considerations, but here we are going to discuss
about their shape and size classifications in detail.

i) Classification of Aggregates Based on Shape:

We know that aggregate is derived from naturally occurring rocks by blasting or crushing etc.,
so, it is difficult to attain required shape of aggregate. But, the shape of aggregate will affect
the workability of concrete. So, we should take care about the shape of aggregate. This care is
not only applicable to parent rock but also to the crushing machine used.

Aggregates are classified according to shape into the following types

 Rounded aggregates
 Irregular or partly rounded aggregates
 Angular aggregates
 Flaky aggregates
 Elongated aggregates
 Flaky and elongated aggregates
Rounded Aggregate:
The rounded aggregates are completely shaped by attrition (the resistance of a granular
material to wear) and available in the form of seashore gravel. Rounded aggregates result in
the minimum percentage of voids (32 – 33%) hence gives more workability. They require a
lesser amount of water-cement ratio. They are not considered for high-strength concrete
because of poor interlocking behavior and weak bond strength.

Irregular Aggregates:
The irregular or partly rounded aggregates are partly shaped by attrition and these are available
in the form of pit sands and gravel. Irregular aggregates may result 35- 37% of voids. These
will give lesser workability when compared to rounded aggregates. The bond strength is
slightly higher than rounded aggregates but not as required for high strength concrete.
Angular Aggregates:
The angular aggregates consist well defined edges formed at the intersection of roughly planar
surfaces and these are obtained by crushing the rocks. Angular aggregates result maximum
percentage of voids (38-45%) hence gives less workability. They give 10-20% more
compressive strength due to development of stronger aggregate-mortar bond. So, these are
useful in high strength concrete manufacturing.

Flaky Aggregates:
When the aggregate thickness is small when compared with width and length of that
aggregate it is said to be flaky aggregate, or on the other, when the least dimension of
aggregate is less than the 60% of its mean dimension then it is said to be flaky aggregate.

Elongated Aggregates:
When the length of aggregate is larger than the other two dimensions then it is called
elongated aggregate or the length of aggregate is greater than 180% of its mean dimension.
Flaky and Elongated Aggregates:
When the aggregate length is larger than its width and width is larger than its thickness then it
is said to be flaky and elongated aggregates. The above 3 types of aggregates are not suitable
for concrete mixing. These are generally obtained from the poorly crushed rocks.

ii) Classification of Aggregates Based on Size:

Aggregates are available in nature in different sizes. The size of aggregate used may be related
to the mix proportions, type of work etc. The size distribution of aggregates is called grading
of aggregates. Following are the classification of aggregates based on size:
Aggregates are classified into 2 types according to size

 Fine aggregate
 Coarse aggregate
Fine Aggregate:
When the aggregate is sieved through a 4.75mm sieve, the aggregate passed through it called
fine aggregate. Natural sand is generally used as fine aggregate, silt and clay also come under
this category. The soft deposit consisting of sand, silt, and clay is termed as loam. The purpose
of the fine aggregate is to fill the voids in the coarse aggregate and to act as a workability
agent.

Fine aggregate Size variation (mm)

Coarse Sand 2.0mm – 0.5mm

Medium sand 0.5mm – 0.25mm

Fine sand 0.25mm – 0.06mm

Silt 0.06mm – 0.002mm

Clay <0.002
Coarse Aggregate:
When the aggregate is sieved through 4.75mm sieve, the aggregate retained is called coarse
aggregate. Gravel, cobble and boulders come under this category. The maximum size
aggregate used may be dependent upon some conditions. In general, 40mm size aggregate
used for normal strengths, and 20mm size is used for high strength concrete. The size range
of various coarse aggregates given below.

Coarse aggregate Size variation (mm)

Fine gravel 4mm – 8mm

Medium gravel 8mm – 16mm

Coarse gravel 16mm – 64mm

Cobbles 64mm – 256mm

Boulders >256mm

1.1 Physical Prosperities of Aggregate:

1.1.1 Grading:
 Grading is the particle-size distribution of an aggregate as determined by a sieve
analysis using wire mesh sieves with square openings.

As per IS:2386(Part-1):
 Fine aggregate: 6 standard sieves with openings from 150 μm to 4.75 mm. (150 μm,
300 μm, 600 μm, 1.18mm, 2.36mm, 4.75mm)
  Coarse aggregate: 5 sieves with openings from 4.75mm to 80mm. (4.75mm, 10mm,
12.5mm, 20mm, 40mm)
 Grain size distribution for concrete mixes that will provide a dense strong mixture.
 Ensure that the voids between the larger particles are filled with medium particles.
The remaining voids are filled with still smaller particles until the smallest voids are
filled with a small amount of fines.

Grading Limit for Single Sized Coarse Aggregates:

(Based on Clause 4.1 and 4.2 of IS: 383- 1970)

IS Sieve Percentage passing for single sized aggregates of nominal size (mm)

63 mm 40 mm 20 mm 16 mm 12.5 mm 10 mm

80 mm 100 - - - - -

63 mm 85 – 100 100 - - - -

40 mm 0 - 30 85 - 100 100 - - -

20 mm 0-5 0 - 20 85 - 100 100 - -

16 mm - - - 85 - 100 100 -

12.5
- - - - 85 - 100 100
mm

10 mm 0-5 0-5 0 - 20 0 - 30 0 - 45 85 - 100

4.75
- - 0-5 0-5 0 - 10 0 - 20
mm

2.36
- - - - - 0-5
mm
Grading Limits for Fine Aggregates:

(Based on Clause 4.3 of IS: 383 - 1970)

Percentage Passing
IS Sieve
Designation Grading Zone Grading Zone Grading Zone Grading Zone
I II III IV

10 mm 100 100 100 100

4.75 mm 90 – 100 90 – 100 90 – 100 95 – 100

2.36 mm 60 – 95 75 – 100 85 – 100 95 – 100

1.18 mm 30 – 70 55 – 90 75 – 100 90 – 100

600 microns 15 – 34 35 – 59 60 – 79 80 – 100

300 microns 5 – 20 8 – 30 12 – 40 15 – 50

150 microns 0 – 10 0 – 10 0 – 10 0 – 15

1.1.2 Fineness Modulus:

 The results of aggregate sieve analysis is expressed by a number called Fineness
Modulus. Obtained by adding the sum of the cumulative percentages by mass of a
sample aggregate retained on each of a specified series of sieves and dividing the
sum by 100.
 The following limits may be taken as guidance:
 Fine sand: Fineness Modulus: 2.2 - 2.6
 Medium sand: F.M.: 2.6 - 2.9
 Coarse sand: F.M.: 2.9 - 3.2
 A sand having a fineness modulus more than 3.2 will be unsuitable for making
satisfactory concrete.

1.1.3 Flakiness Index:

 The flakiness index of aggregate is the percentage by weight of particles in it whose
least dimension (thickness) is less than three-fifths of their mean dimension.
 The test is not applicable to sizes smaller than 6.3 mm.
 The flakiness index is taken as the total weight of the material passing the various
thickness gauges expressed as a percentage of the total weight of the sample taken.
 The below table shows the standard dimensions of thickness and length gauges.
  The flakiness index of aggregate is the percentage by weight of particles in it whose
least dimension (thickness) is less than three-fifths of their mean dimension.

1.1.4 Elongation Index:

The elongation index on an aggregate is the percentage by weight of particles whose
greatest dimension (length) is greater than 1.8 times their mean dimension.
 The elongation index is not applicable to sizes smaller than 6.3 mm.
 The elongation index is the total weight of the material retained on the various length
gauges expressed as a percentage of the total weight of the sample gauged. The presence
of elongated particles in excess of 10 to 15 per cent is generally considered undesirable,
but no recognized limits are laid down.

1.2 Mechanical Properties of Aggregate

 Property # 1. Toughness:
 Property # 2. Hardness:
 Property # 3. Specific Gravity:
 Property # 4. Porosity and Absorption of Water by Aggregate:
 Property # 5. Bulking of Sand:

1.2.1 Toughness: It is defined as the resistance of aggregate to failure by impact. The impact
value of bulk aggregate can be determined as per I.S. 2386, 1963.
Procedure: The aggregate shall be taken as in the case of crushing strength value test i.e., the
aggregate should pass through 12.5 mm I.S. sieve and retained on 10 mm I.S. sieve. It should
be oven dried at 100°C to 110°C for four hours and then air cooled before test.

Now the prepared aggregate is filled upto 1/3rd height of the cylindrical cup of the equipment.
The diameter and depth of the cup are 102 mm and 50 mm respectively. After filling the cup
upto 1/3rd of its height, the aggregate is tamped with 25 strokes of the rounded end of the
tamping rod.

After this operation the cup shall be further filled upto 2/3rd of its height and a further tamping
of 25 strokes given. The cup finally shall be filled to over flowing and tamped with 25 strokes
and surplus aggregate removed and the weight of aggregate noted. The value of weight will be
useful to repeat the experiment.

Now the hammer of the equipment weighting 14.0 kg or 13.5 kg is raised till its lower face is
380 mm above the upper surface of the aggregate and., allowed to fall freely on the aggregate
and the process is repeated for 15 times.
The crushed aggregate is now removed from the cup and sieved through 2.36 mm I.S. sieve.
The fraction passing through the sieve is weighed accurately.

Let the weight of oven dry sample in the cup = W kg.

Weight of aggregate passing 2.36 mm sieve = W1 kg.

Then impact value = [(W1/W) x 100]

1.2.2 Hardness:
It is defined as the resistance to wear by abrasion, and the aggregate abrasion value is
defined as the percentage loss in weight on abrasion.

Deval Attrition Test:

This test has been covered by IS 2386 Part (IV)-1963. In this test particles of known weight
are subjected to wear in an iron cylinder rotated 10,000 (ten thousand) times at the rate of 30
to 33 revolutions per minute. After the specified revolution of the cylinder the material is taken
out and sieved on 1.7 mm sieve and the percentage of material finer than 1.7mm is determined.
This percentage is taken as the attrition value of the aggregate. The attrition value of about 7
to 8 usually is considered as permissible.

Dorry Abrasion Test:

This test has not been covered by Indian standard specifications. In this test a cylindrical
specimen having its diameter and height of 25 cm is subjected to abrasion against a rotating
metal disk sprinkled with quartz sand. The loss in weight of the cylinder after 1000 (one
thousand) revolutions is determined.

Then the hardness of rock sample is expressed by an empirical relation as follows:

Hardness or sample = 20 – Loss in weight in grams/3
For good rock this value should not be less the 17. The rock having this value of 14 is
considered poor.

Los-Angeles Test:
This test has been covered by IS 2386 (Part-IV) 1963. In this test, aggregate of the specified
grading is placed in a cylindrical drum of inside length and diameter of 500 mm and 700 mm
respectively. This cylinder is mounted horizontally on stub shafts. For abrasive charge, steel
balls or cast-iron balls of approximately 48 mm diameter and each weighting 390 grams to
445 gram are used. The numbers of balls used vary from 6 to 12 depending upon the grading
of the aggregate. For 10 mm size aggregate 6 balls are used and for aggregates bigger than
20 mm size usually 12 balls are used.
PROCEDURE: For the conduct of test, the sample and the abrasive charge are placed in the
Los-Angeles testing machine and it is rotated at a speed of 20 to 33 revolutions per minute. For
aggregates up to 40 mm size the machine is rotated for 500 revolutions and for bigger size
aggregate 1000 revolutions. The charge is taken out from the machine and sieved on 1.7 mm
sieve.
Let the weight of oven dry sample put in the drum = W Kg.

Weight of aggregate passing through 1.7 sieve = W1 Kg.

Then abrasion value = [(W1/W) x 100]
The abrasion value should not be more than 30% for wearing surfaces and not more than
50% for concrete used for other than wearing surface. The results of Los Angeles test show
good correlation not only the actual wear of aggregate when used in concrete, but also with the
compression and flexural strength of concrete made with the given aggregate.

1.2.3 Specific Gravity and Water Absorption:

The specific gravity of a substance is the ratio of the weight of unit volume of the substance
to the unit volume of water at the stated temperature. In concrete making, aggregates generally
contain pores both permeable and impermeable hence the term specific gravity has to be
defined carefully. Actually, there are several types of specific gravity. In concrete technology
specific gravity is used for the calculation of quantities of ingredients. Usually, the specific
gravity of most aggregates varies between 2.6 and 2.8.

Specific gravity of certain materials as per concrete hand book CA-1 Bombay may be assumed
as shown in Table 4.9.

Absolute Specific Gravity:

It can be defined as the ratio of the weight of the solid, referred to vacuum, to the weight of
an equal volume of gas free distilled water both taken at the standard or a stated temperature,
usually it is not required in concrete technology. Actually, the absolute specific gravity and
particle density refer to the volume of solid material excluding all pores, while apparent
specific gravity and apparent particle density refer to the volume of solid material including
impermeable pores, but not the capillary pores. In concrete technology apparent specific
gravity is required.
Apparent Specific Gravity:
It can be defined as the ratio of the weight of the aggregate dried in an oven at 100°C to
110°C for 24 hours to the weight of water occupying a volume equal to that of the solid
including the impermeable pores. This can be determined by using pycno-meter for solids
less than 10 mm in size i.e., sand.

Bulk Specific Gravity:

It can be defined as the ratio of the weight in air of a given volume of material (including
both permeable and impermeable voids) at the standard temperature to the weight in air of an
equal volume of distilled water at the same standard temperature (20°C). The specific gravity
of a material multiplied by the unit weight of water gives the weight of 1 cubic metre of that
substance. Sometimes this weight is known as solid unit weight. The weight of a given quantity
of particles divided by the solid unit weight gives the solid volume of the particles.

Solid vol. in m3 = 3 wt. of substance in kg/specific gravity x 1000

Bulk Density:
The weight of aggregate that would fill a container of unit volume is known as bulk density of
aggregate.

Voids:
With respect to a mass of aggregate, the term voids refers to the space between the aggregate
particles. Numerically this voids space is the difference between the gross volume of aggregate
mass and the space occupied by the particles alone. The knowledge of voids of coarse and fine
aggregate is useful in the mix design of concrete.

Percentage voids = [(Gs – g)/Gs] x 100

where Gs = specific gravity of aggregate and g is bulk density in kg/litre.
Unit Weight:
The weight of a unit volume of aggregate is called as unit weight. For a given specific gravity,
greater the unit weight, the smaller the percentage of voids and better the gradation of the
particles, which affects the strength of concrete to a great extent.

Method of Determination of Specific Gravity of Aggregate:

Specific gravity test of aggregates is done to measure the strength or quality of the material
while water absorption test determines the water holding capacity of the coarse and fine
aggregates. The main objective of these test is to,

1. To measure the strength or quality of the material.

2. To determine the water absorption of aggregates
Specific Gravity is the ratio of the weight of a given volume of aggregate to the weight of an
equal volume of water. It is the measure of strength or quality of the specific material.
Aggregates having low specific gravity are generally weaker than those with higher specific
gravity values.

Observations of Test
Weight of saturated aggregate suspended in water with basket = W1g Weight of basket
suspended in water = W2 g Weight of saturated surface dry aggregate in air = W3g Weight of
oven dry aggregate = W4 g Weight of saturated aggregate in water = W1 – W2 g Weight of
water equal to the volume of the aggregate = W3–(W1–W2)g

Formulas:
(1) Specific gravity = W3 / (W3– (W1– W2))
(2) Apparent specific gravity = W4/ (W4– (W11– W2))
(3) Water Absorption = ((W3 – W4) / W4) X 100
The size of the aggregate and whether it has been artificially heated should be indicated.
Though high specific gravity is considered as an indication of high strength, it is not possible
to judge the suitability of a sample aggregate without finding the mechanical properties such
as aggregate crushing, impact and abrasion values.
1.2.4 Porosity and Absorption of Water by Aggregate:

All aggregates, particles have pores with in their body. The characteristics of these pores are
very important in the study of the properties of aggregate. The porosity, permeability, and
absorption of aggregates influence the resistance of concrete to freezing and thawing, bond
strength between aggregate and cement paste, resistance to abrasion of concrete etc.

The size of pores in the aggregate varies over a wide range, some being very large, which could
be seen even with naked eye. The smallest pore of aggregate is generally larger than the gel
pores in the cement paste, pores smaller than 4 microns are of special interest as they are
believed to affect the durability of aggregates subjected to alternate freezing and thawing.
Some of the pores are wholly within the body of the aggregate particles and some of them are
open upto the surface of the particle.

The cement paste due to its viscosity cannot penetrate to a great depth into the pores except the
largest of the aggregate pores. Therefore, for the purpose of calculating the aggregate content
in concrete, the gross volume of the aggregate particles is considered solid. However, water
can enter these pores, the amount and rate of penetration depends upon the size, continuity and
total volume of pores.

When all the pores in the aggregate are full with water, then the aggregate is said to be saturated
and surface dry. If this aggregate is allowed to stand in the laboratory, some of the moisture
will evaporate and the aggregate will be known as air dry aggregate. If aggregate is dried in
oven and no moisture is left in it, then it is known as bone dry aggregate. Thus the ratio of the
increase in weight to the dry weight of the sample, expressed as a percentage is known as
absorption.

The knowledge of absorption of aggregate is important in adjusting water-cement ratio of the

concrete. If water available in the aggregate is such that it contributes some water to the dilution
of cement paste, in that case the water-cement ratio will be more than the required and the
strength will go down.

On the other hand, if the aggregate is so dry that it will absorb some of the mixing water, in
that case the mix will have lower water-cement ratio and the mix may become unworkable.
Hence, while deciding the water-cement ratio, it is assumed that the aggregate is in saturated
but surface dry condition, i.e. neither it will add water to cement paste, nor it will absorb water
from the mix.

Surface Water:
While using aggregate in the concrete, water on the surface of the aggregate should be taken
into account, as it will contribute to the water in the mix and will affect the water-cement
ratio of the mix, causing lower strength of the concrete. It is difficult to measure surface
water of the aggregate.

1.2.5 Bulking of Sand:

The moisture present in fine aggregate causes increase in its volume, known as bulking of
sand. The moisture in the fine aggregate develops a film of moisture around the particles of
sand and due to surface tension pushes apart the sand particles, occupying greater volume.
The bulking of the sand affects the mix proportion, if mix is designed by volume batching.
Bulking results in smaller weight of sand occupying the fixed volume of the measuring box,
and the mix becomes deficient in sand and the resulting concrete becomes honeycombed and
its yield is also reduced.

The extent of bulking depends upon the percentage of moisture present in sand and its fineness.
The increase in volume relative to that occupied by a saturated and surface dry sand increases
with an increase in the moisture content of the sand upto a value of 5 to 8%, causing bulking
ranging from 20 to 40%.

As the moisture content increases, the film of water formed around the sand particles merge
and the water moves into the voids between the particles so that the total volume of sand
decreases, till the sand is fully saturated. The volume of fully saturated sand is same as that
of the dry sand for the same method of filling the container.
Soundness:
It is the percentage loss of material from an aggregate blend during the sodium or
magnesium sulfate soundness test. This test, which is specified in ASTM C88 and AASHTO
T104, estimates the resistance of aggregate to in-service weathering. It can be performed on
both coarse and fine aggregate.
Alkali-silica reaction (ASR):
In most concrete, aggregates are more or less chemically inert. However, some aggregates
react with the alkali hydroxides in concrete, causing expansion and cracking over a period of
many years. This alkali-aggregate reaction has two forms: alkali-silica reaction (ASR) and
alkali-carbonate reaction (ACR). Alkali-silica reaction (ASR) is the chemical reaction that
occurs between alkali cations and hydroxyl ions in the pore solution of hydrated cement
paste and certain reactive silica phases present in the aggregates used in concrete.

Alkali–silica reaction (ASR), more commonly known as "concrete cancer", is a deleterious

swelling reaction that occurs over time in concrete between the highly alkaline cement paste
and the reactive amorphous (i.e., non-crystalline) silica found in many common aggregates.

Alkali-silica reaction (ASR) is of more concern because aggregates containing reactive silica
materials are more common. In ASR, aggregates containing certain forms of silica will react
with alkali hydroxide in concrete to form a gel. These gels can induce enough expansive
pressure to damage concrete.

Typical indicators of ASR are random map cracking and, in advanced cases, closed joints and
attendant spalled concrete. Cracking usually appears in areas with a frequent supply of
moisture, such as close to the waterline in piers, near the ground behind retaining walls, near
joints and free edges in pavements, or in piers or columns subject to wicking action.
Petrographic examination can conclusively identify ASR.

Alkali-silica reaction can be controlled using certain supplementary cementitious materials. In-
proper proportions, silica fume, fly ash, and ground granulated blast-furnace slag have
significantly reduced or eliminated expansion due to alkali-silica reactivity. In addition, lithium
compounds have been used to reduce ASR. Although potentially reactive aggregates exist
throughout North America, alkali-silica reaction distress in concrete is not that common
because of the measures taken to control it. It is also important to note that not all ASR gel
reactions produce destructive swelling.

Alkali-carbonate reaction (ACR) is observed with certain dolomitic rocks. Dedolomitization,

the breaking down of dolomite, is normally associated with expansion. This reaction and
subsequent crystallization of brucite may cause considerable expansion. The deterioration
caused by alkali-carbonate reactions is similar to that caused by ASR; however, ACR is
relatively rare because aggregates susceptible to this phenomenon are less common and are
usually unsuitable for use in concrete for other reasons. Aggregates susceptible to ACR tend to
have a characteristic texture that can be identified by petrographers. Unlike alkali carbonate
reaction, the use of supplementary cementing materials does not prevent deleterious expansion
due to ACR. It is recommended that ACR susceptible aggregates not be used in concrete.
Prevention of Alkali-Silica Reaction in New Concrete

Follow the steps in the flowchart below to determine if potential for ASR exists and to select
materials to control it. For more information move your mouse over the individual flowchart
boxes.

1.3 Thermal Properties of Aggregates

The properties of concrete that are needed for fire-resistance analysis are thermal, mechanical,
deformation, and special properties, such as fire-induced spalling. Thermal properties include:

 Thermal conductivity,
 Specific heat,
 Thermal diffusivity,
 Thermal expansion, and

1.3.1 Thermal conductivity:

The thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of its ability to conduct heat. Heat
transfer occurs at a lower rate in materials of low thermal conductivity than in materials of
high thermal conductivity. For instance, metals typically have high thermal conductivity and
are very efficient at conducting heat, while the opposite is true for insulating
materials like Styrofoam. Correspondingly, materials of high thermal conductivity are widely
used in heat sink applications, and materials of low thermal conductivity are used as thermal
insulation.

1.3.2 Specific heat:

Specific heat, the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of a
substance by one Celsius degree. The units of specific heat are usually calories or joules per
gram per Celsius degree. For example, the specific heat of water is 1 calorie (or 4,186 joules)
per gram per Celsius degree. It is the heat capacity of a sample of the substance divided by
the mass of the sample. The heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water
by 1 Kelvin is 4184 joules, so the specific heat capacity of water is 4184 J⋅kg−1⋅K−1.

1.3.3 Thermal diffusivity:

The concept of Thermal diffusivity is frequently confused with that of thermal conductivity.
They are closely related concepts; however, thermal conductivity appears to be more prevalent
in the scientific community. Even as the less popular of the two heat transfer measurements,
thermal diffusivity still plays an important role in influencing the movement and behavior of
heat.
Thermal diffusivity is a measure of the rate at which heat disperses throughout an object or
body. Thermal conductivity is a measure of how easily one atom or molecule of a material
accepts or gives away heat. The main idea behind thermal diffusivity is the rate at which heat
diffuses throughout a material.

1.3.4 Thermal expansion:

Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change its shape, area, volume,
and density in response to a change in temperature, usually not including phase transitions.
When a substance is heated, molecules begin to vibrate and move more, usually creating more
distance between themselves. Substances which contract with increasing temperature are
unusual, and only occur within limited temperature ranges (see examples below). The relative
expansion (also called strain) divided by the change in temperature is called the
material's coefficient of linear thermal expansion and generally varies with temperature. As
energy in particles increases, they start moving faster and faster weakening the intermolecular
forces between them, therefore expanding the substance.

Following are three thermal properties of aggregate relevant to the performance of concrete:

 Coefficient of thermal expansion

 Specific heat
 conductivity

 Specific heat and conductivity of aggregate are of interest in mass concrete to which
insulation is applied, but usually not in ordinary structural work
 The difference between coefficients of thermal expansion of aggregate and cement
paste is important for the durability of concrete
 If the difference between coefficients of thermal expansion of aggregate and cement
paste is smaller, durability of concrete is not adversely affected within a temperature
range of 4 to 60 °C
 If the difference between coefficients of thermal expansion of aggregate and cement
paste is more than 5.5 x 10-6/oC , durability of concrete subjected to freezing and
thawing may be adversely affected
 The coefficient of thermal expansion for: hydrated cement paste lies between 11 and
16 x 10-6/oC and rocks commonly used for aggregate lies between 5 and 13 x 10-
6 o
/C

2 BRICKS AND MASONRY BLOCKS:

Types, properties and field and laboratory tests to evaluate quality
BRICK:
A brick is a type of block used to build walls, pavements and other elements in masonry
construction. Properly, the term brick denotes a block composed of dried clay, but is now also
used informally to denote other chemically cured construction blocks. Bricks can be joined
using mortar, adhesives or by interlocking them. In India, standard brick size is 190 mm x 90
mm x 90 mm as per the recommendation of BIS. With mortar thickness, the dimension of the
brick becomes 200 mm x 100 mm x 100 mm which is also known as the nominal size of the
modular brick.
Block is a similar term referring to a rectangular building unit composed of similar materials,
but is usually larger than a brick. Lightweight bricks (also called lightweight blocks) are