Unit 3

Social Groups

Meaning of Social Groups:

Two or more persons in interaction constitute a social
group. It has common aim. In its strict sense, group is a
collection of people interacting together in an orderly
way on the basis of shared expectations about each
other’s behaviour. As a result of this interaction, the
members of a group, feel a common sense of belonging.

A group is a collection of individuals but all collectivities

do not constitute a social group. A group is distinct from
an aggregate (people waiting at railway station or bus
stand) member of which do not interact with one
another. The essence of the social group is not physical
closeness or contact between the individuals but a
consciousness of joint interaction.
This consciousness of interaction may be present even
there is no personal contact between individuals. For
example, we are members of a national group and think
ourselves as nationals even though we are acquainted
with only few people. “A social group, remarks Williams,
“is a given aggregate of people playing interrelated roles
and recognized by themselves or others as a unit of
interaction.

According to Green, “A group is an aggregate of

individuals which persist in time, which has one or more
interests and activities in common and which is
organised.”

According to Maclver and Page “Any collection of

human beings who are brought into social relationship
with one another”. Social relationships involve some
degree of reciprocity and mutual awareness among the
members of the group.

Thus, a social group consists of such members as have

reciprocal relations. The members are bound by a sense
of unity. Their interest is common, behaviour is similar.
They are bound by the common consciousness of
interaction. Viewed in this way, a family, a village, a
nation, a political party or a trade union is a social group.

In short, a group means a group of associated members,

reciprocally interacting on one another. Viewed in this
way, all old men between fifty and sixty or men
belonging to a particular income level are regarded as ‘
aggregates’ or ‘quasi-groups’. They may become groups
when they are in interaction with one another and have a
common purpose. People belonging to a particular
income level may constitute a social group when they
consider themselves to be a distinct unit with special
interest.

Following are the important characteristics of

social group:

1. Mutual Awareness:
The members of a social group must be mutually related
to one another. A more aggregate of individuals cannot
constitute a social group unless reciprocal awareness
exist among them. Mutual attachment, is therefore,
regarded as its important and distinctive feature. It
forms an essential feature of a group.

2. One or more Common Interests:

Groups are mostly formed for the fulfillment of certain
interests. The individuals who form a group should
possess one or more than one common interests and
ideals. It is for the realization of common interests that
they meet together. Groups always originates, starts and
proceed with a common interests.

3. Sense of Unity:
Each social group requires sense of unity and a feeling of
sympathy for the development of a feeling or sense of
belongingness. The members of a social group develop
common loyalty or feeling of sympathy among
themselves in all matters because of this sense of unity.

4. We-feeling:
A sense of we-feeling refers to the tendency on the part of
the members to identify themselves with the group. They
treat the members of their own group as friends and the
members belonging to other groups as outsiders. They
cooperate with those who belong to their groups and all
of them protect their interests unitedly. We-feeling
generates sympathy, loyalty and fosters cooperation
among members.

5. Similarity of Behaviour:
For the fulfillment of common interest, the members of a
group behave in a similar way. Social group represents
collective behaviour. The-modes of behaviour of the
members on a group are more or less similar.

6. Group Norms:
Each and every group has its own ideals and norms and
the members are supposed to follow these. He who
deviates from the existing group-norms is severely
punished. These norms may be in the form of customs,
folk ways, mores, traditions, laws etc. They may be
written or unwritten. The group exercises some control
over its members through the prevailing rules or norms.

In other words, a quasi-group means a number of

individuals having certain characteristics in common but
the body is devoid of any recognizable structure. For
example, the students of a college or of university may
form a quasi-group when they do not have the advantage
of their own union or an organisation of some sort.

Types of Groups:
Different sociologists have classified groups in different
ways. Social groups are not only innumerable but also
diverse. It is not possible to study all the groups. A
systematic study of groups needs a classification. Various
thinkers have chosen many criteria or bases for the
classification of social groups such as size, kind of
contact, nature of interests, degree of organisation and
degree of permanence etc. Some of these bases have
received more attention than others.

1. Dwight Sanderson has classified groups into

three types on the bases of structure such as
involuntary, voluntary and delegate groups. An
involuntary group is that to which man has no choice,
which is based on kinship such as the family, tribe or
clan. A voluntary group is one which a man joins of his
volition or wishes.

At any time he is free to withdraw his membership from

this group. A delegate group is one to which a man joins
as a representative of a number of people either elected
or nominated by them. Parliament or Assembly is a
delegate group.

2. P.A. Sorokin, an American sociologist, has divided

groups into two major types – the vertical and the
horizontal. The vertical group includes persons of
different strata or statuses. But the horizontal group
includes persons of the same status. A nation, for
instance, is a vertical group, while a class represents
horizontal grouping.

3. F.H. Giddings classifies groups into genetic and

congregate. The genetic group is the family in which a
man is born involuntarily. The congregate group is the
voluntary group to which he joins voluntarily.
4. George Hasen has classified groups into four types
on the basis of their relations to other groups. They are
unsocial, pseudo-social, antisocial and pro-social groups.
An unsocial group is one which largely lives to itself and
for itself and does not participate in the larger society of
which it is a part. It does not mix-up with other groups
and remains aloof from them.

5. C.H. Cooley classified groups on the basis of kind of

contact into primary and secondary groups. In primary
group, there is face-to-face, close and intimate
relationship among the members such as in the family.
But in a secondary group the relationship among the
members are indirect, impersonal and superficial such a
the political party, a city and trade union etc.

6. W.G. Sumner made a division of groups into in-

group and out-group. The groups with which the
individual identifies himself are his in-groups such as his
family, tribe, college, occupation etc. All other groups to
which he does not belong are his out-groups.
The concept of primary group was introduced by Charles
Horton Cooley, in his book “Social Organisation”
published in 1909. Though Cooley has never used the
term ‘secondary group’, but while .discussing the groups
other than those of primary, some sociologists like K.
Davis, Ogburn and Maclver have popularised other
groups such as secondary groups. Hence, the
classification of primary and secondary groups is made
on the basis of the nature of social contact, the degree of
intimacy, size and the degree of organisation etc.

The Primary group is the most simple and universal form

of association. It is nucleus of all social organisation. It.
is a small group in which a small number of persons
come into direct contact with on another. They meet
“face to face” for mutual help, companionships and
discussion of common questions. They live in the
presence and thought of one another. The primary group
is a small group in which the members live together.

In the words of C.H. Cooley “By primary groups I mean

those characterized by intimate face to face association
and cooperation. They are primary, in several senses, but
chiefly in that they are fundamental in framing the social
nature and ideal, of the individual”. Such groups in
Cooley’s phrase are “the nursery of human nature” where
the essential.

Characteristics of Primary group.

1. Closeness or Physical Proximity:

Physical proximity or presence provides an opportunity
for the development of intimate and close relations. In
order that relations of the people may be close, it is
necessary that their contacts also should be close.

Seeing and talking with each other makes exchange of

ideas and thoughts easy. It is because the members of
primary group meet and talk frequently that a good
feeling and a sense of identify develop among them
quickly. Prof. K. Davis remarked that physical proximity
or face-to-face relation is not indispensable for
establishing close contact or intimacy.
2. Smallness:
Primary groups are smaller in size. The smaller the size
of the group, the greater will be the intimacy among its
members. Relationship can be intimate and personal
only in a small group. It is a fact that intimacy declines as
the size of the group increases. The limited size of the
group facilitates the participation of all its members in its
common activity. Better understanding and fellow felling
among the members can be possible only when the group
is small in size.

3. Durability:
Primary group is relatively, a permanent group. Intimacy
between the members becomes deeper because they
meet frequently and are closely associated with one
another. The longer the duration of the acquaintance, the
greater the intimacy. All the members of the primary
group try to fulfill the condition of continuity or
durability of relationship.

4. Identity of Ends:
Members of a primary group have similar attitudes,
desires and objectives. They all work together for the
fulfillment of their common end. Every member tries to
promote the common welfare of his group. The
experiences, pain and pleasure, success and failure,
prosperity and adversity of an individual member are
shared by all the members of the group.

5. Relationship is an end in itself:

The Primary relationship is regarded not as a means to
an end but rather as an end itself. If the people make
friends for specific purpose or means, we cannot regard
their friendship as genuine. A genuine friendship or true
love is not formed for a purpose. It is above the
consideration of any selfish interest or interests.
Friendship is a source of pleasure, it is intrinsically
enjoyable. The primary relations are voluntary and
spontaneous because they possess intrinsic value.

6. Relationship is Personal:
The primary relationship is a matter of persons. It exists
because of them and it in sustained by them. It should be
noted that this relationship comes to an end as soon as
one of the partners disappears from the primary group.
The personal relationship is non transferable and
irreplaceable.

One individual cannot be substituted by another

individual in the same relationship, for example, no one
can take the place of our dead friend. The vacuum
created by his death cannot be filled in, nor can anybody
establish and continue the same kind of relationship with
us after his death. If the particular person in whom our
interest is centered disappears, the relationship also
disappear. Such are the relationships between friends,
husband and wife.

(vii) Relationship is Inclusive:

In the primary group, we face our fellows as total human
beings. A person comes to know his fellow in all the
details of his life, as a whole being. A person in the
primary group is not merely a legal entity, an economic
cipher or a technological Cog. He is all of these rolled
into one. He is the complete concrete person.
It thus becomes clear that primary relationships are non-
contractual, non-economic, non-political and non-
specialised; they are personal, spontaneous, sentimental
and inclusive.

Importance of Primacy Group:

The primary group is considered to be equally important
both for the individual and society.

Individual point of view:

The primary group plays a commanding role in the
development of human personality. It is fundamental in
forming the social nature and ideal of the individual. It is
regarded as a nursery of human nature. The
development of “self’ – the core of personality depends
on close, intimate and personal contacts.

It is in the primary group – the family – that the

individual in his formative stages identifies himself with
others and takes over their attitudes. In the family the
child acquires all his fundamental habits-those of his
bodily care, of speech, of obedience or disobedience, of
right or wrong, of sympathy, of love and affection.
Similarly, in the primary group – the play group, the
child learns to give and take with other children. The
play group affords him early training in meeting his
equals, learning to cooperate, to compete and to struggle.
The primary groups, such as family or the play group, are
preeminently the agencies of socialization. That is why
the family is often said to be the foundation of society
and the play group, the best school for the future citizen.

Societal point of view:

Primary groups are important not only from the
individual’s point of view, they are equally important
from societal point of view. Primary group acts a an
agency of social control. It not only provides security to
the members but also control their behaviour and
regulate their relations.

The primary groups, such as the family or the play group,

are preeminently the agencies of socialization. They
transmit culture and in this respect they are
irreplaceable. They help the individuals to acquire basic
attitudes towards people, social institutions and the
world around him.

The members are taught by the primary groups to work

in the society according to their roles with efficiency. In
this way, primary groups run the society smoothly and
maintain its solidarity. “It is the first and generally
remains the chief focus of our social satisfactions.”

The Secondary groups are of special significance in

modern industrial society. They have become almost
inevitable today. Their appearance is mainly due to the
growing cultural complexity. Secondary groups may be
defined as those associations which are characterized by
impersonal or secondary relations and specialization of
functions. K. Davis says that “The secondary groups can
be roughly defined as the opposite of everything already
said about primary groups.”

They are also called “special interest groups” or

“self-interest groups”. The examples of secondary
groups include a city, a nation, a political party,
corporation, labour union, an army, a large crowd etc.
These groups have no direct bearing on the members.
Here members are too many and too scattered. Here
human contacts are superficial, undefined and
mechanical.

Different sociologists have defined secondary group in

different ways. Some of the important definitions are
given below.

According to C.H. Cooley, “Secondary groups are

wholly lacking in intimacy of association and usually in
most of the other primary and quasi-primary
characteristics”.

As Ogburn and Nimkoff say, “The groups which

provide experience lacking in intimacy are called
secondary groups”.
According to Kingsley Davis, “Secondary groups can
be roughly defined as the opposite of everything said about
pri Characteristics:
The characteristics of secondary group are as
follows:

1. Large in size:
Secondary groups are relatively large in size. These
groups comprise a very large number of persons. For
example, a political party, a trade union, international
associations, such as Rotary Club, Lions Club, the Red
cross Society which consists of thousands of members
scattered all over the world.
2. Formality:
The relations of members in a secondary group are of a
formal type. It does not exercise primary influence over
its members. Secondary groups exert influence on the
members indirectly. They are controlled by formal rules
and regulations. Informal means of social control are less
effective in regulating the relation of members.

Formal social controls such as law, legislation, police,

court etc. are very much important for the members.
Moral control is only secondary. A formal authority is set
up with designated powers in secondary groups. Here
man is a legal and not a human entity.
3. Impersonality:
Secondary relations are impersonal in nature. In the
large scale organisation, there are contacts and they may
be face-to-face, but they are, as says K. Davis, of “the
touch and go variety.” Here contacts are chiefly indirect.
The two persons may never see each other. Relations
among them are impersonal, because members are not
very much interested in other members as ‘persons’.

They are more concerned with their self-centered goals

than with other persons. There is no sentiment attaching
to the contacts. It is not required that the parties know
each other. For example, in the large scale factory
organisation, the members are known to each other as
the boss, the foreman, skilled workers, ordinary workers
etc. The secondary relations are viewed as a means to an
end and not an end in itself.
4. Indirect Cooperation:
Indirect cooperation is another characteristic of
secondary groups. In it, members do different things
interdependently. Ali contribute to the same result, but
not in the same process. They do unlike things together.
In the large scale organisation where division of labour is
complex, the members have not only different functions
but different powers, different degrees of participation,
different rights and obligations.
5. Voluntary Membership:
The membership of most of the secondary groups is not
compulsory but voluntary. Individuals are at liberty to
join or to go away from the groups. It is not essential to
become the member of Rotary International or Red
Cross Society. However, there are some secondary
groups like nation or the State whose membership is
almost involuntary.
6. Status depends upon Role:
In secondary groups the status or position of every
member depends on his role. The determination of his
status is not influenced by ascription or by his birth or
personal qualities but by the achievement or the role he
plays. For example, the status of the President in a trade
union depends upon the role he plays in the union and
not upon his birth.

mary groups”.

1. Efficiency:
The secondary group helps its member to improve their
efficiency in their specific field of activity and in
consequences, they become experts. The emphasis is on
getting the job done. Sentiment, emotion is subordinated
to achievement. A formal authority is set up with the
responsibility of managing the organisation efficiently.
The secondary relationships are instrumental in
accomplishing certain specific tasks. In this sense, they
may be regarded as functional in character.

2. Wider Outlook:
The secondary group broadens the outlook of its
members. It accommodates a large number of
individuals and localities which widens the outlook of its
members. It is more universal in its judgement than the
primary group.

3. Wider Opportunities:
The secondary groups have opened channel, of
opportunities. A large number of professions and
occupations are opening the way for specialised careers.
Secondary groups provide a greater chance to develop
individual talents. The talented individual can nor rise
from an unknown background to the highest position in
business, industry, civil and technical services.

The functions of secondary groups are essential for our

society if we wish to enjoy our current life styles. The
people are becoming more and more dependent on these
groups. The tremendous advances in material comfort
and in life expectancy in modern world would be
impossible without the rise or goal-directed secondary
groups.
Difference between Primary Group and
Secondary Group:
It is important to mention here that dichotomy between
primary and secondary’ groups was perceived by Cooley
but it was not elaborated by him. However, the following
are the chief points of difference between the primary
group and secondary group.

1. Size:
A primary group is small in size as well as area. The
membership is limited to a small area. It is not spread
over the whole world. At the other end in a secondary
group the membership is widespread. It may contain
thousands of members scattered in different parts of the
world as is the case with a corporation.

2. Physical Proximity:
Primary groups are based on close contacts. People in
these groups do not merely know one another and
interact frequently. But they know one another well and
have strong emotional ties. Secondary groups do not give
its members feeling of close proximity that primary
groups give. In primary group, one is concerned with the
other person as a person, but as a functionary who is
fitting a role.

3. Duration:
Primary groups exist for a longer period. Relationships
in primary group are permanent in nature. Secondary
groups, on the other hand are based on temporary
relationship. For example, members of a club
infrequently and only for a few hours at a time.

4. Kinds of Cooperation:
In a secondary group, the cooperation with the fellow
members is direct. The members cooperate only to
achieve the objective of the group. In a primary group, on
the other hand, the members directly cooperate with
each other participating in the same process. They sit
together, discuss together play together.

5. Types of Structures:
Every secondary group is regulated by a set of formal
rules. A formal authority is set up with designated
powers and a clear cut division of labour in which the
function of each is specified in relation to the function of
all the rest fellows. The primary group is based on a
informal structure. The members participate in the same
process. The spontaneous adjustment in the working of
the group. No formal and detail rules are drafted. The
structure is simple.

6. End in itself versus Means to an End:

Primary groups are an end in themselves. Individuals
enter into primary relations because such relations
contribute to personal development, security and well-
being. Secondary group on the other hand is goal
oriented.

Membership is for some limited and well-defined

objective. For example, if marriage is done purely with
an economic gain, it lacks warmth and quality which we
think should go into marriage. On the other hand,
members of the secondary group value extrinsic political,
economic or other benefits of the relationship rather
than relationship itself.

7. Position:
In primary groups, the position or status of a person is
fixed according to his birth, age and sex. But in
secondary groups, the position of a person is determined
by his roles. For example, in family, the position of father
is based upon birth, whereas in a trade union the
position of the president depends upon the roles he plays
in the union.

8. Difference in Development of Personality:

Primary group is concerned with the total aspects
personality of a person and it develops his whole
personality. Secondary group, on the other hand, is
concerned with a particular aspect of personality and it
develops only that aspect. In this way, the qualities live
love, sympathy, obligation, mutual help, and tolerance
etc. flourish in primary groups, while secondary groups
promote self-interest and individuality.

9. Relationship:
The relationship of members with each other in primary
group is direct, intimate and personal. They meet face to
face and develop direct contacts. A secondary group is
based on impersonal relationships. It does not exercise a
primary influence over its members because they do not
live in presence and thought of one another.

People in primary group share their feelings, thoughts,

fears and doubts without worrying that others will think
less of them. On the other hand, in secondary group
individual interact with part of their personality. There is
a feeling of external constraints between members.

10. Social Control:

The mode of recruitment to the primary group is formal.
Therefore, formal means of social control are more
effective. As members have closeness and greater
intimacy, there is great control over a member.

Neighborhood and family control is very complete

control and the individual sometimes wishes to escape it
by getting into more impersonal life of a larger setting
such as a big city. Secondary group on the other hand,
uses formal means of checking deviation of violation of
norms. Formal agencies of social control are more
effective as formal relations exist between the members.
importance of social groups

Creating a Sense of Belonging

One of the primary reasons social groups are important is that

they create a sense of belonging. Human beings are inherently
social creatures, and we thrive when we feel connected with
others. Social groups act as a support system, providing us with a
community that shares common interests, values, and goals.
Whether it’s a sports team, a hobby club, or an online community,
these groups give us a sense of identity and acceptance.

Developing Emotional Support Networks

Life can throw unexpected challenges our way, and having a

strong support network is crucial. Social groups provide an
avenue for emotional support, allowing individuals to lean on one
another during difficult times. It’s comforting to know that you
have people who genuinely care about your well-being and are
there to lend a listening ear or a helping hand.

Fostering Personal Growth and Learning

Social groups also play a significant role in personal growth and
learning. When we surround ourselves with like-minded
individuals, we have the opportunity to learn from each other,
challenge our beliefs, and broaden our perspectives. Within these
groups, we can engage in meaningful discussions, exchange
knowledge, and acquire new skills. Whether it’s through
workshops, seminars, or simple conversations, social groups
facilitate personal development.

Promoting Social Change and Activism

Social groups have historically been at the forefront of driving

social change. When like-minded individuals come together, they
can amplify their voices and advocate for causes they believe in.
From civil rights movements to environmental activism, social
groups have played an instrumental role in pushing for positive
change. Through collective action, these groups can influence
policies, challenge societal norms, and make a lasting impact on
the world around us.

Encouraging Diversity and Inclusion

In a diverse society, social groups contribute to promoting

diversity and inclusion. By bringing people from different
backgrounds together, these groups foster understanding,
empathy, and acceptance. They provide a platform for individuals
to interact with others who may have different perspectives,
cultures, or experiences. This exposure to diversity not only
enriches our own lives but also contributes to a more inclusive
and tolerant society as a whole.

Preventing Social Isolation and Loneliness

Social isolation and loneliness have become prevalent issues in

modern society. However, social groups offer a solution to this
societal problem. By providing opportunities for social interaction
and connection, these groups help combat feelings of isolation
and loneliness. They create spaces where individuals can form
meaningful relationships, forge deep connections, and combat
the negative effects of social isolation.

In conclusion, social groups are essential pillars of society. They

provide us with a sense of belonging, emotional support, and
opportunities for personal growth. Moreover, they have the power
to drive social change, promote diversity and inclusion, and
combat social isolation. So, whether you’re part of a sports team,
a book club, or an online community, embrace the value that
social groups bring to your life and society as a whole.