INTRODUCTION
The Heat Engine’s lab is the most important lab for mechanical
engineering department. As the name implies, it is the laboratory for
conducting experiments on heat engines. Besides the experiments on heat
engines it is also intended for the experiments connected with heat; thus it is
also known as thermal engineering lab.
In general, in a heat engine lab, there two types of experiments: one set
related to properties of materials as connected with heat / temperature such as
determination of calorific value, flash & fire points, viscosity of oils, saturation
temperature of water, psychrometric properties of air, etc.; and the other set
based on the performance of various equipments such as heat engine,
refrigerator, etc .
Since heat engine lab needs some exclusive tools and equipments, they
are also dealt separately. Hence this manual has 3 parts.
I. Study of:-
1) Tools and Equipments those used in Heat Engine Lab.
2) Equipments used for experiments
connected with heat and properties of
materials as affected by heat.
.i.e. property based experiments.
3) Experiment test rigs for various heat engines
and refrigeration equipments. i.e. performance
based experiments
II . Experiments:-
1) Experiments associated with heat and properties of materials
i.e. property based experiments.
2) Experiments for performance evaluation of heat
engines and refrigeration equipments. i.e.
performance based experiments
III . Appendix
Containing necessary charts, tables, conversion tables, etc.
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FUELS
Fuels are the chemical substances which produces heat when it
burns
I.I Properties of fuels
Density
Density is the ratio of the mass of the fuel to the volume of the fuel at a
reference temperature typically 15°C. The knowledge of density is useful for
quantity calculations and assessing ignition quality. The unit of density is
kg/m3.
Flash Point
The flash point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which the fuel can
be heated so that the vapour gives off flashes momentarily when an open flame
is passed over it. Flash point for furnace oil is 66oC. Refer the appendix for
other fuels.
Fire point
The fire point is defined as the lowest temperature at which a fixed
volume of oil produces vapour which when mixed with a known volume of air
produces a flash which continues to exist for some time as a standard wick (lit)
is introduced into it. This point is usually 4 to 5 0 C above the flash point.
Pour Point
The pour point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which it will pour
or flow, when cooled under prescribed conditions. It gives a very rough
indication of the lowest temperature at which fuel oil is readily pumpable.
Specific Heat
Specific heat is the amount of heat needed in kJ to raise the temperature
of 1 kg of oil by 1oC. The unit of specific heat is kJ / kg.oC. It varies from 0.92
to 1.17 for furnace oil depending on the oil specific gravity. The specific heat
determines how much steam or electrical energy it takes to heat oil to a desired
temperature. Light oils have a low specific heat, whereas heavier oils have a
higher specific heat.
Viscosity
The Viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its internal resistance to flow.
It depends on temperature and decreases as temperature increases. It
influences the degree of pre heat required for handling, storage and
satisfactory atomization.
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II. VISCOMETER
It is essentially a device to be used to observe the time for the drain out of a
definite amount of liquid through a standard orifice. The temperature of the
liquid is maintained constant by using water / oil bath. There are basically two
types of viscometers viz., RedWood Viscometer & SayBolt Viscometer. The
former uses an orifice where the later uses a capillary tube for the drain out of
oil.
In the RedWood Viscometers, there are 2 sizes, Viz, No: I & No: II.
Both the No: I & No: II measures the time taken in seconds to flow out a
standard (50ml) quantity of oil through a calibrated jet (orifice) downward.
No: I – is suitable for the measurement of viscosity of oils whose drain out
time is less than 2000 sec (per 1 liter) and No: II – is suitable for the
measurement of viscosity of oil whose drain out time is greater than 2000 sec
(for 1 liter)
REDWOOD VISCOMETER
The Redwood Viscometer consists of a heavily silver plated oil cup
with a dished bottom mouth in a bright chrome plated water bath. The water
bath is mounted on a stand with leveling screws. The level to which the oil be
filled in the cup is given by an index fixed inside wall of the oil cup.
A standard size jet (Φ1.5mm) made out of stainless steel is fitted at the bottom
center of the cup for the flow out of oil or liquid under observation. The oil cup
is kept in a liquid bath with electrical heating element (immersed type) with
suitable control for regulating the power supply & thus the temperature of the
liquids. The bath liquid used is water for determination of viscosity below
93.30C and oil for above 93.30C.
A stirrer cum cover for liquid bath is provided with vanes for stirring
the liquid bath. A thermometer is also fitted on it to measure the temperature of
the liquid bath.{Caution : care is to be taken so that the thermometer should
not fouls – while stirring}. An insulated handle is provided for rotating stirrer
just diametrically opposite to the thermometer holder.
It is recommended to fill the bath liquid to a level not less than 10 mm
below the rim of the oil cup. A ball carried on a stiff wire both heavily silver-
plated and polished to suit the drain valve seat is used to and start / stop the
flow of liquid under observation. The upper end of the wire is bent to provide a
hook to hang the ball valve to keep it opened. Another thermometer to measure
the liquid temperature is supported in a spring clip on a block, sliding in an
upright rod on the oil cup, and passing through the arch shaped slot of the
cover so that the liquid under observation can be stirred well.
III.FLASH POINT & FIRE POINT
3.1FLASH POINT
The flash point of a volatile material is the lowest temperature at which it can vaporize to
form an ignitable mixture in air. Measuring a flash point requires an ignition source. At the
flash point, the vapor may cease to burn when the source of ignition is removed.
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3.2FIRE POINT
The fire point of a fuel is the temperature at which the vapour produced by that given fuel
will continue to burn for at least 5 seconds after ignition by an open flame. At the flash point,
a lower temperature a substance will ignite briefly, but vapor might not be produced at a rate
to sustain the fire.
FLASH AND FIRE POINT APPARUTUS
V. ENGINE MEASUREMENT
5.1 MEASUREMENT OF BRAKE POWER
Dynamometer
In engineering laboratory work, a device measure the torque or force,
while doing work, is classified as a dynamometer. The force may be measured
directly by an elastic deformation device as the torque being exerted along a
rotating shaft. Power measurement involves simultaneous torque and rotating
speed measurement.
There are two main types of Dynamometers:
Transmission Dynamometer – measure while the power is transmitted
Absorption Dynamometer – measure by dissipating/absorbing the
power in the form of heat.
We have two types of the later, viz. hydraulic and rope brake.
Hydraulic dynamometer
A typical cross section arrangement of dynamometer is shown in
figure. The shaft is running on ball bearings mounted on bearing pedestals. The
rotor is mounted on the shaft and the two stators are fixed in the two half
castings which forms the casing. The stator casing in turn, supported on
bearing pedestals with trunion bearings, is free to swing about the shaft. Each
face of the rotor is formed with pockets of semi elliptical cross section. The
internal faces of the casings are provided with blade rings, which are pocketed
in the same way, thus constitutes the stator. The pockets in the stator blade
rings and rotor form elliptical receptacles around which the water courses at
high velocity. A pair of sliding gates operating inside the casing, and form
partition between the stator and rotor, controls the opening between them &
thus the power absorbing capacity of the dynamometer; (ie, open to increase
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the loading)
During the test, the engine is directly coupled to the shaft transmitting power to
a rotor revolving inside the casing, through which water is circulated. The rotor
discharges water from its periphery at high speed into the pockets, formed in
the casing blade rings, by which it is then returned at diminished speed into the
rotor pockets at a point near the shaft. (As shown in fig. Near F.)Thus the
resistance offered by the water to the motion of the rotor reacts upon the
casing, which tends to turn it on its anti friction bearings mounted in pedestal
supports. This tendency is counteracted by means of a load measuring device
consisting of lever arm, spring balance & loading weights ; which measures
the load.
Load adjuster of hydraulic dynamometer, consisting of the sluice gate,
can be operated to and fro with the help of simple screw and hand wheel
mechanism. By adjusting the sluice opening load can be varied and the load
applied can be read out after aligning the pointers for that purpose.
The calibration of the spring balance and the length of load arm will be such that,
the power absorbed can be calculated from a simple formula, usually punched on the
dial/ name plate.
P = WN / C
Where P - the power in kW
W - the load indicated by the
dynamometer. N - the shaft
speed in r.p.m.
C - a constant, a convenient round number,
usually stamped on the dial /name plate.
Rope Brake dynamometer.
It is very simple and extensively used for testing of engines. It is easy
to fabricate and very inexpensive. It consists of a rope wrapped round the
flywheel of an engine whose power is to be measured. One end of the rope is
hooked to a threaded shackle and the other end to the spring balance, which in
turn to the frame. The load can be varied by adjusting the tension of the rope
through the hand wheel fitted on the threaded shackle & supported on the
frame.
Let S = Spring balance of reading in kgf.
N = Speed of the engine in rpm
R = Effective radius of the brake drum in m
= rd + rr
Where rd = radius of the
brake drum and rr =
radius of the rope.
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Brake drum for the Dynamometer may be flywheel itself and necessary
cooling arrangement for dissipating the heat generated by its operation – i.e.,
braking.
5.2 MORSE TEST
Morse test is a method to measure the frictional power of a multi cylinder SI engine.
Morse Test – This test carried out on multi cylinder I.C. engine. In this test, first engine is
allowed to run at constant speed and brake power of engine is measured when all cylinders are
working and developing indicated power. (Considering Four cylinders)
I1+I2+I3+I4 = (BP)engine +(F1+F2+F3+F4)
Where I1, I2, I3 and I4 – Indicated power of four cylinders
(BP)engine – Brake power of engine when all cylinders are working
F1, F2, F3, F4 – Frictional power of all four cylinders
Then the first cylinder is cut off by short circuiting spark plug in case S.I. engine (or cutting fuel
supply in case C.I. engine). This causes the speed to drop due to non firing of first cylinder. It
should be noted that although first cylinder is not producting power still it is moving up and
down so its frictional power must be considered. This speed is once again maintained to its
original value by reducing load on the engine
I2+I3+I4 = (BP)2,3,4 +(F1+F2+F3+F4)
Where (BP)2,3,4 – Brake power of 2,3 & 4 cylinders only.
Repeat the above procedure for remaining cylinders and calculate I.P. of the engine.
Cylinder 2 is cut off – I1+I3+I4 = (BP)1,3,4 +(F1+F2+F3+F4)
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Cylinder 3 is cut off – I1+I2+I4 = (BP)1,2,4 +(F1+F2+F3+F4)
Cylinder 4 is cut off – I1+I2+I3 = (BP)1,2,3 +(F1+F2+F3+F4)
I.P. of cylinder 1 is calculated as ,
I1 = (BP)engine – (BP)2,3,4
Similarly I2,I3 and I4 is calculated as follows
I2 = (BP)engine – (BP)1,3,4
I3 = (BP)engine – (BP)1,2,4
I4 = (BP)engine – (BP)1,2,3
Total Indicated power of engine = I.P.
IP = I1+I2+I3+I4
Frictional power of engine
FP = IP – (BP)engine
and mechanical efficiency
Thus Morse test is used to calculate IP, FP and mechanical efficiency by assuming FP of each
cylinder remains constant.
vi. VALVE TIMING DAIGRAM OF 2 & 4 STROKE ENGINE
6.1 Four stroke petrol engine :
● In suction stroke of 4-stroke engine the inlet valve opens 10-20 degree advance to TDC
for the proper intake of air-fuel(petrol) or air (diesel) ,which also provides cleaning of
remaining combustion residuals in the combustion chamber.
● When the piston reaches BDC the compression stroke starts and again the piston starts
moving towards TDC ,The inlet valve closes 25-30 degree past the BDC during the
compression stroke,which provide complete seizure of the combustion chamber for the
compression of air-fuel(petrol engine)and air(diesel engine).
● During the compression stroke as the piston moves towards TDC, combustion of fuel takes
place 20-35 degree before TDC which provides the proper combustion of fuel and proper
propagation of flame.
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● The expansion strokes starts due to the combustion of fuel which in turn releases the
pressure inside the combustion chamber and provide rotation to the crank shaft, the piston
moves from TDC to BDC during expansion stroke which continuous 30-50 degree before
BDC.
The exhaust valve opens 30-50 degree before BDC which in turn starts the exhaust stroke
and the exhaust of the combustion residual takes place with movement of the piston from
BDC to TDC which continues till the 10-20 degree after the piston reaches TDC.
● As we can see in the entire cycle of engine valves overlap 2 times i.e.closing of both valves
during compression stroke and opening of both valves during exhaust stroke.
6.2 Four stroke diesel engine :
● In suction stroke of 4-stroke engine the inlet valve opens 10-20 degree advance to TDC for
the proper intake of air-fuel(petrol) or air (diesel) ,which also provides cleaning of
remaining combustion residuals in the combustion chamber.
● When the piston reaches BDC the compression stroke starts and again the piston starts
moving towards TDC ,The inlet valve closes 25-30 degree past the BDC during the
compression stroke,which provide complete seizure of the combustion chamber for the
compression of air-fuel(petrol engine)and air(diesel engine).
● During the compression stroke as the piston moves towards TDC, combustion of fuel takes
place 20-35 degree before TDC which provides the proper combustion of fuel and proper
propagation of flame. The expansion strokes starts due to the combustion of fuel which in
turn releases the pressure inside the combustion chamber and provide rotation to the crank
shaft, the piston moves from TDC to BDC during expansion stroke which continuous 30-
50 degree before BDC.
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● The exhaust valve opens 30-50 degree before BDC which in turn starts the exhaust stroke
and the exhaust of the combustion residual takes place with movement of the piston from
BDC to TDC which continues till the 10-20 degree after the piston reaches TDC.
● As we can see in the entire cycle of engine valves overlap 2 times i.e.closing of both valves
during compression stroke and opening of both valves during exhaust stroke.
6.3 Twostroke petrol engine :
● Before the expansion stroke i.e.completion of the compression stroke,the inlet port open
10-20 degree before the piston reaches the TDC which in turn starts the expansion stroke
due to the combustion of air-fuel (petrol engine) from the crankcase and air (diesel engine)
entered from the inlet port which in turn pushes the piston towards BDC.
● The inlet port closes 15-20 degree after TDC during the expansion stroke of the 2-stroke
engine.
● Due to the movement of piston from TDC to BDC during expansion stroke exhaust port
opens 35-60 degree before the piston reaches BDC which in turn starts the exhaust of the
combustion residual.
● Transfer port open 30-45 degree before BDC for scavenging process.
● When the piston moves towards TDC from BDC the transfer port closes 30-45 degree after
BDC which in turn stops the scavenging process.
● During the movement of piston from BDC to TDC exhaust valve closes 35-60 degree after
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BDC which seizes the combustion chamber and pressure inside the combustion chamber
increases due to the start of compression stroke. and the cycle starts again.
● The air fuel mixture (petrol engine) and air (diesel engine) is transported to the cylinder
during the opening of the transfer port.
Note - The opening and closing of valves few degrees before TDC and BDC is required for
normal working of the engine as this degree gaps provides proper completion of the operation of
strokes and prevents the engine from defects like knocking, and also causes less emission.
For power modification this valve timing is adjusted which in turn increases the power and
torque of the engine but decreases the economy.
2 stroke diesel engine :
● Before the expansion stroke i.e. Completion of the compression stroke, the inlet port open
10-20 degree before the piston reaches the TDC which in turn starts the expansion stroke
due to the combustion of air-fuel (petrol engine) from the crankcase and air (diesel engine)
entered from the inlet port which in turn pushes the piston towards BDC.
● The inlet port closes 15-20 degree after TDC during the expansion stroke of the 2-stroke
engine.
● Due to the movement of piston from TDC to BDC during expansion stroke exhaust port
opens 35-60 degree before the piston reaches BDC which in turn starts the exhaust of the
combustion residual.
● Transfer port open 30-45 degree before BDC for scavenging process.
● When the piston moves towards TDC from BDC the transfer port closes 30-45 degree after
BDC which in turn stops the scavenging process.
● During the movement of piston from BDC to TDC exhaust valve closes 35-60 degree after
BDC which seizes the combustion chamber and pressure inside the combustion chamber
increases due to the start of compression stroke. and the cycle starts again.
● The air fuel mixture (petrol engine) and air (diesel engine) is transported to the cylinder
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during the opening of the transfer port.
Note - The opening and closing of valves few degrees before TDC and BDC is required for
normal working of the engine as this degree gaps provides proper completion of the operation of
strokes and prevents the engine from defects like knocking, and also causes less emission.
For power modification this valve timing is adjusted which in turn increases the power and
torque of the engine but decreases the economy.
AIR COMPRESSOR
The machine which takes in air or any other gas at low pressure and compresses it to high
pressure are called compressors. They are power consuming machines in which mechanical work
is converted into the pressure head of air or gas. They are also considered as reversed heat
engine. Generally, the compressors are driven by electric motors, l.C.engine or gas turbines. A
compressor is used for increasing the pressure of air is called air compressor.
Classification of compressors
1. Method of compression
a. Reciprocating compressors:.
b. Rotary compressors:
c. Centrifugal compressors
2. Delivery pressure
a. Low pressure
b. Medium pressure
c. High pressure
d. Very high pressure
3. principal of operation
a. Positive of displacement
b. Rotodynamic or steady flow compressor
4. The number of stages
a. Single stage compressor - pressure up to 5 bar
b. Multistage compressor- pressure above 5 bar
5. The number of cylinder
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a. Single cylinder
b. Multi cylinder
6. Volume of air delivered
a. Low capacity
b. Medium capacity
c. High capacity
Reciprocating compressor
A single stage reciprocating compressor. It used for compressing air and it is satisfactory for all
ranges of pressure it consist of the cylinder in which a piston reciprocates the piston is driven by
crank through connecting rod .the crank is mounted in a crank case. the value are generally
pressure differential type.
Centrifugal compressor
A general arrangement of this compressor is similar to a centrifugal pump Fig.shows main
components of a centrifugal compressor It consist of a rotating elements called impeller and a
volute casing impeller rotates at a very high speed may be up to 30,000 RPM T' into the
compressor through the suction eye of the impeller.due to t Volute rotation of the impeller at a
high velocity.Then air with high velocity enter into a diffuser ring.the diffuser blade of the
diffuser ring are so shaped that these provided an increased area of passage to the air which is
passing outward due to which the velocity of air leaving the impeller is reduced and its pressure
is increased the high pressure air then flows to the divergent passage of volute casing the
velocity air is further reduced due to increased cross sectional area of volute casing causing very
small rise in pressure from the casing the compressor air leads to exit pipe and finally
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