1

This manual is prepared by:

• Engr. Muhammad Abdullah (Faculty, ChE Department)
• Osama Masood (ChE-11)
• Hamza Ishaq (ChE-11)
• Nosheen Zahra (ChE-11)
• Ammar Adil (ChE-10)

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 Table of Contents

1. Equipment In Fuels Engineering Lab……………………..... 4

I. Redwood Viscometer…………………………………………………………..5
II. Engler Viscometer……………………………………………………………...6
III. Pensky Marten Closed Cup………………………………………………….....7
IV. Abel Flash Point Apparatus…………………………………………………....7
V. Cleveland Open Cup…………………………………………………………...8
VI. Cloud and Pour Point Apparatus…………………………………………….....8
VII. Junker Gas Calorimeter………………………………………………………...9

2. Important Definitions ............................................................. 10

3. List of Experiments & CLO’s ................................................ 14

4. Sample Lab Experiments........................................................ 16

I. Lab no.1 ……………………………………………………………………..18
II. Lab no.2 ……………………………………………………………………..20
III. Lab no.3 ……………………………………………………………………..22
IV. Lab no.4 ……………………………………………………………………..24
V. Lab no.5 ……………………………………………………………………..26
VI. Lab no.6 ……………………………………………………………………..27
VII. Lab no.7 ……………………………………………………………………..28
VIII. Lab no.8 ……………………………………………………………………..29
IX. Lab no.9 ……………………………………………………………………..30
X. Lab no.10 ……………………………………………………………………31
XI. Lab no.11 ……………………………………………………………………32
XII. Lab no.12…………………………………………………………………….33

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 1

Equipment in Fuels Engineering

Lab

4
 I. Redwood Viscometer
These viscometers are used to determine the viscosity of petroleum products. Two adoptions of the Red
Wood viscometer are available No. 1 for liquids having Red Wood flow of 20 seconds to 2000 seconds and
No. 2 for liquids whose flow time exceeds 2000 seconds. Redwood Viscometer is used for the determination
of redwood viscosity and can be converted to Kinematic viscosity also. It is also used for observing the
effect of temperature on viscosity by plotting graphs. The equation for conversion is:
𝟏.𝟏𝟕𝟒
𝑽𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟔𝒕 −
𝒕

• Type of Bath: Electrically Heated Immersion Heater.

• Max Working Temperature: - 99 0C
• Continuous Working Temperature: - 95 0C
• Capacity: 1 Sample at a Time.
• Sample pot volume:100 cm3
• Sample flask: 50cm3
• Heater: SS Tubular Immersion Heater
• Accuracy: +/- 2 0C
• Readability: +/- 0.5 0C
• Temperature Controller: By Energy Regulator Which Will Turn On & Off Heater as Time Switch.
• Input Power Supply: 230 V Ac, 50 Hz, 1 Phase with 6 Amp Current Rating.
• Heating Load: 1 kW.
• Stirrer: Manual Motor Stirrer with Stirrer Blade for Maintaining Uniformity throughout Chamber.
• Top Lid Made of Stainless Steel with Provision of Mounting of One Thermometer.
• Control Panel/Display: Energy Regulator/ Heater Indicator/ Kettle Plug for Heater Connection.
• Construction: Double Walled Construction, Thermally Insulated with Inside Body Made of Stainless
Steel Outside Gi. / Powder Coated External Surface for Esthetic Appearance.

The standard test method is IP-70/62 for Redwood Viscometer

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 II. Engler Viscometer
Engler viscometer is used for measuring the viscosity of lubricating oils. The prototype of the Engler
viscometer is probably the unit constructed by Lomonosov in 1752. It measured the viscosity of liquids by
the number of drops. This idea was the basis for the Engler viscometer.
The device consists of an oil cup with a spherical bottom. In its centre, there is an oil tube with a plug at the
top. On the inner surface of the oil cup, there are three marks. The liquid is poured up to the 300 cm3 mark.
Viscous fluids can be influenced by ambient temperature. To compensate, the cup is surrounded by a
thermostat with a thermometer.
Engler viscosity is expressed in Engler degrees and is determined by a special formula: calculating the ratio
of time of outflow of 100 ml of liquid at 20 ° C to the time of outflow of the same volume of distilled water
at 25 °C. The equation for conversion to kinematic viscosity is:
𝟑.𝟕𝟒
𝑽𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟒𝟕𝒕 −
𝒕

The standard test method is D1615-98 for Engler Viscometer

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 III. Pensky Marten’s Closed Cup Apparatus
Flash Point is the lowest temperature at which the application of the ignition source causes the vapour of a
specimen of the sample to ignite under the specified condition of the test. The temperature of the
approximately 70 ml test specimen is increased rapidly at first and then at a slower constant rate as the flash
point is approached. At specified intervals a test flame is passed across the cup, to measure the tendency of
the test specimen to form a flammable mixture with air under controlled laboratory conditions. The
temperature range for PMCC is 50⁰C - 120⁰C
Pensky marten flash point tester closed cup as per IP-34, ASTM D 93 & IS 1448(P-21) electrically heated
model with a motorized stirrer with digital temperature controller.

IV. Abel Flash Point Apparatus (currently unavailable)

AS Per IP-33 and IS-1448 (p-20). Electrically heated model with voltage variance for control. The
temperature range is less than 50⁰C

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 V. Cleveland Open Cup currently unavailable
Cleveland open cup flash & fire point apparatus as per IP 36, ASTM D 92, IS 1448 (P-69). Electrically
heated model with voltage variance or Energy Regulator. The temperature range is greater than 120⁰C

VI. Cloud and Pour Point Apparatus

Cloud point and pour point are indicators of the lowest temperature of utility for petroleum products. The
sample is periodically examined while it is being cooled in the cloud and pour point apparatus. The highest
temperature at which haziness is observed (cloud point), or the lowest temperature at which movement of
the oil is observed (pour point), is reported as the test result. Temperature ranges are up to -40⁰C.
The standard test method is D 2500 for Cloud Point and D97 for Pour Point.

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 VII. Junker Gas Calorimeter
This Gas Calorimeter works on Junker's principle of burning a known volume of gas and imparting the heat
with maximum efficiency to steadily flowing water and finding out the rise in temperature of a measured
volume of water. The formula, Calorific Value of Gas X Volume of Gas = Volume of water X Rise in
Temperature, is then used to determine the Calorific Value of the Gas (assuming the heat capacity of water
is unity).
This equipment consists of the Calorimeter with Powder Coated Stainless Steel exterior with a burner (with
a choice of two nozzles) on a tripod stand, a Gas Flow Meter, and a pressure governor. Requisite tubing &
measuring jars as well as thermometers (0.1oC graduation) for reading inlet & outlet water temperatures are
also provided along with a detailed instruction manual.
This Calorimeter covers a wide range between 120 BTU (1000 to 26000 kcal/m3). The Calorimeter is fixed
on a tripod stand having levelling screws to keep the Calorimeter in a perfectly vertical position. The
Calorimeter mainly consists of a gas combustion chamber, heat exchanger and water flow system.
A heat exchanger is designed for maximum efficiency of heat transfer and is fabricated out of a heavily
tinned copper sheet. A constant water head maintenance device provided in the feed water pipe along with
the inlet water flow regulator is fixed to the outer housing of the Calorimeter.
The outer housing is of powder-coated stainless steel. This constant water level attachment has an overflow
device through which excess water drains out. Water from this constant head device enters the bottom of the
heat exchanger through the inlet water flow regulator and is raised along the annular space, comes up to the
filtering position at the top and gets collected at the swinging funnel attachment. While going up it absorbs
the heat generated by burning the gas in the burner located at the bottom of the central chamber of the
Calorimeter. Two thermometers are provided in the water inlet and outlet ports. The temperature of the
effluent gas can be measured from the thermometer fixed at the exhaust gas outlet. Provision for fixing the
burner is provided at the Calorimeter base. An outlet for the collection of condensates is provided at the
bottom.
The standard test method is D 900-55 for Junker Gas Calorimeter.

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 VIII. Aniline Point Apparatus
Aniline Point Apparatus (Koehler Instrument comp. Ltd.) performs hands-free aniline point and mixed
aniline point determinations automatically by means of a modified thin film technique. The sample is heated
by a platinum immersion heater and the aniline point is detected photo-electrically. There is an LED digital
temperature display. The temperature range is 0°C to 150°C (32°F to 302°F). The built-in pressure regulator
and solenoid valve permit quicker cooling cycles and determination of sub-ambient aniline point
temperatures. Cabinet exterior surfaces have a chemical-resistant polyurethane enamel finish. Standard
borosilicate glass test cell is provided. A stirring motor is connected with both the hearing bath and sample
pot to ensure uniform heating. As the temperature increases, aniline starts to mix with diesel fuel and gives
us a homogenous mixture. Then we allow the temperature to decrease, which enables us to monitor exactly
at what temperature the two layers become apparent and separate once again, and that is recorded as the
aniline point.
The standard test method is ASTM D611.

IX. Automatic Viscometer

This is a capillary automatic viscometer that works by forcing a known volume of fluid through a capillary
tube of a known size and shape. The time it takes for the fluid to flow through the tube is measured and used
to calculate the viscosity of the fluid. Capillary viscometers are simple to use and are well-suited for the
measurement of low viscosity fluids, such as water or solvents. The temperature is controlled by a water-
bath. The standard test method is D445.

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 X. TAN/TBN Apparatus
The apparatus is based on potentiometric titration that is a technique like direct titration, but in this, no
indicator reagent is used; instead, an electrode is used as an indicator. In potentiometric titrations, a cell is
used with a reference electrode, salt bridge, analyte, and an indicator electrode. Generally, the electrolyte
solution is used as an analyte. Hydrogen electrodes, silver chloride electrodes and calomel electrodes are
generally used as reference electrodes. Indicator electrode is generally glass electrode and metal ion
electrode. When the pair of electrodes are placed in the sample solution or analyte, it shows the potential
difference between two electrodes by the addition of the titrant or by the change in the concentration of ions.
The reference electrode maintains its potential and remains stable when dipped into a sample solution while
the indicator electrode responds to variation in the potential of analyte solution. A salt bridge is used to
prevent interference of the analyte with the reference electrode. The electric potential of the cell is
dependent on the concentration of ions in contact with the indicator electrode. As a result, the Ecell is
measured after each titrant addition.
The standard test method for TAN analysis is D664 and for TBN it is D2896.

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2

Important Definitions

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Flash Point (ASTM D93, D92, D56):
Flashpoint is the lowest temperature at which a liquid (usually a petroleum product) will form a vapour in
the air near its surface that will “flash,” or briefly ignite, on exposure to a heat source. The flash point is a
general indication of the flammability of a liquid.

Fire Point (ASTM D93, D92, D56):

The lowest temperature at which a volatile combustible substance continues to burn in the air after its
vapours have been ignited (as when heating is continued after the flash point has been determined)

Aniline Point (ASTM D611):

Aniline point is a measure of the aromaticity of oil (mainly HSD). It is the point at which the equal volume
of oil and aniline becomes miscible with each other. Thus, lower the aniline point higher the aromatic
content.

Auto-Ignition Temperature/Kindling Point (ASTM E659):

The auto-ignition temperature is the minimum temperature at which a substance spontaneously ignites
without any heating source provided that sufficient air/oxygen air is present.

Cloud Point (ASTM D2500):

Cloud point is the highest temperature at which wax (paraffin) begins to separate (cloudy appearance) when
oil is chilled to a low temperature, and it serves as an important indicator of practical performance in
automotive applications in low temperatures.

Pour Point (ASTM D97):

The pour point of crude oil or a petroleum fraction represents the lowest temperature at which the oil is
capable of flowing or pouring under gravity without stirring or shaking.

Reid Vapour Pressure (ASTM D323):

Reid vapour pressure (RVP) is a common measure of the volatility of petroleum products especially
gasoline and LPG. It is defined as the absolute vapour pressure exerted by the liquid and any dissolved gases
or moisture at 37.8 °C (100 °F) with air to fuel volume ratio of 4:1. The sample must be chilled to 0 to 10C
prior to testing.

Research Octane Number (RON) (ASTM D8076):

Research Octane Number (RON) is a measure of the anti-knocking tendency of a fuel. It is determined by
running the fuel in a test engine with a variable compression ratio under controlled conditions, and
comparing the results with those for mixtures of iso-octane and n-heptane. The compression ratio is varied
during the test to challenge the fuel's anti-knocking tendency, as an increase in the compression ratio will
increase the chances of knocking. A fuel having the same knocking tendency as 100% iso-octane will have
RON of 100 and similarly a fuel having knocking tendency same as a 100% n-heptane will have an octane
rating of 0.

Motor Octane Number (MON) (ASTM D2700):

It is similar to RON except that it is determined at 900 rpm engine speed instead of the 600 rpm for RON.
The test engine is similar but with a preheated fuel mixture, higher engine speed, and variable ignition
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timing to further stress the fuel's knock resistance. Depending on the composition of the fuel, the MON of a
modern pump gasoline will be about 8 to 12 lower than the RON, but there is no direct link between RON
and MON.

Cetane Number (ASTM D613):

Cetane number plays a similar role for diesel as octane rating does for gasoline. It is defined by finding a
blend of cetane and isocetane with the same ignition delay. Cetane has a cetane number defined to be 100,
while isocetane's measured cetane number is 15. Once the blend is known, the cetane number is calculated
as a volume-weighted average, rounded to the nearest whole number. Cetane number works as an inverse
function of a fuel's ignition delay, the time between the start of ignition and the first identifiable pressure
increase, during combustion of the fuel. In a particular diesel engine, higher cetane fuels will have shorter
ignition delay periods than lower cetane fuels. Generally, diesel engines operate well with a CN from 48 to
50

Smoke Point (ASTM D1322):

The smoke point of an oil is the temperature at which it stops shimmering and starts smoking. The smoke
point is also called the burning point of oil and can range from relatively low 325 F to very high (520 F).

Softening Point (ASTM D3104-14a):

The softening point is defined as the temperature at which the resin flows under a given load on heating.

Penetration Test (ASTM D937-07):

The penetration test of Bitumen determines the hardness or softness of bitumen by measuring the depth in
millimetres to which a standard loaded needle will penetrate vertically in five seconds while the temperature
of the bitumen sample is maintained at 25 ⁰C.

Normal Boiling Point (NBP):

The boiling point of a liquid varies according to the applied pressure; the normal boiling point is the
temperature at which the vapour pressure is equal to the standard sea-level atmospheric pressure (760 mm
[29.92 inches] of mercury). At sea level, water boils at 100° C (212° F).

True Boiling Point (ASTM D2892):

The true boiling point (TBP) apparatus distils crude oil from the initial boiling point up to 370-400 °C.
D2892 is the ASTM test number. It is most commonly used to test crude oil and crude oil blends. It is
sometimes used to distil condensate although that is outside the scope of D2892. Its method is a fractional
distillation with 15 theoretical plates and a reflux ratio of 5:1, and it is a continuous process. It is done at 3
pressure sequences; Atmospheric, 100mm Hg, and 10mm Hg. The results are shown as a curve between
temperature and % volume distilled.

Micro-distillation (ASTM D86):

Micro distillation is the distillation of crude oils in very small quantities (approx. 10ml), it is done for the
separation of components having very close boiling points. It is a batch distillation process and is done using
one theoretical plate. The results are shown as a curve between temperature and % volume distilled.

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Kinematic Viscosity (ASTM D445, D7042, EN ISO 3104):
Kinematic viscosity is a measure of a fluid's internal resistance to flow under gravitational forces. It is
determined by measuring the time in seconds, required for a fixed volume of fluid to flow a known distance
by gravity through a capillary within a calibrated viscometer at a closely controlled temperature. Kinematic
viscosity is dynamic viscosity divided by density and is the ratio of viscous forces to inertial forces.

Dynamic Viscosity (ASTM D7483, D7042):

It is the property of a fluid which offers resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid over an adjacent
layer of the fluid. Its SI unit is N-s/m2 or Pa-s. Its C.G.S unit is Poise. Dynamic viscosity is expressed as the
ratio of shear stress to shear strain.

IBP & FBP (ASTM D86, D2887, D2892):

The boiling point of the lightest component in a petroleum mixture is called the initial boiling point (IBP)
and the boiling point of the heaviest compound is called the final boiling point (FBP). In some references,
the FBP is also called the endpoint. Strictly speaking, the IBP is the same as the bubble point. The IBP and
endpoint are determined by TBP or micro distillation apparatus.

Specific Gravity (ASTM D1298):

Relative density, or specific gravity, is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of given
reference material. Specific gravity for liquids is always measured relative to water at its densest; for gases,
the reference is air at room temperature.

API Gravity (ASTM D287):

It is a specific gravity scale developed by the American Petroleum Institute (API) for measuring the relative
density of various petroleum liquids, expressed in degrees. API gravity is gradated in degrees on a
hydrometer instrument and was designed so that most values would fall between 10° and 70° API gravity.
The API in terms of specific gravity is given as:
141.5
𝐴𝑃𝐼 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = − 131.5
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦

PONA Analysis (ASTM D6293):

PONA is a quality measure for naphtha. Specifically, it is the volumetric % of paraffins, olefins, naphthenes,
and aromatics of the naphtha. It is a good predictor of the quality of reformate that the heavy naphtha will
yield when sent through a reformer. This test is done using a 1.0 m high capillary tube in gas
chromatography.

Higher Heating Value (ASTM D5865):

The higher heating value (HHV; also known as the gross calorific value or gross energy) of a fuel is defined
as the amount of heat released by a specified quantity (initially at 25 °C) once it is combusted and the
products have returned to a temperature of 25 °C, which takes into account the latent heat of vaporization of
water in the combustion products.

Lower Heating Value (ASTM D5865):

The lower heating value (also known as net calorific value) of a fuel is defined as the amount of heat
released by combusting a specified quantity (initially at 25°C) and returning the temperature of the
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combustion products to 150°C, which assumes the latent heat of vaporization of water in the reaction
products is not recovered.

Total Acid Number (ASTM D664):

The total acid number is a measurement of acidity that is determined by the amount of potassium hydroxide
in milligrams that is needed to neutralize the acids in one gram of oil. TAN value can be determined by
potentiometric titration or color indicating titration. The acidity is mostly due to naphthenic acids or straight
chain carboxylic acids.

Total Base Number (ASTM D2896):

Total Base Number (TBN) is a measurement of basicity that is expressed in terms of the number of
milligrams of potassium hydroxide per gram of oil sample (mg KOH/g). TBN is an important measurement
in petroleum products, and the value varies depending on its application. TBN generally ranges from 6–8 mg
KOH/g in modern lubricants, 7–10 mg KOH/g for general internal combustion engine use and 10–15 mg
KOH/g for diesel engine operations. The most common method for TBN measurement is also
potentiometric titration. The basicity is mostly due to the presence of nitrogen based functional groups.

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3

List of Experiments
& CLO’s

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 Revised Laboratory CLOs:
Corresponding
CLO CLO Statement CLO Level
PLO
Follows instructions by the teacher to realize the
CLO-3 PLO 5 P-3
experiment
Demonstrate an eagerness to work in a team
CLO-4 PLO 9 A-3
during the lab activities
Complies lab instructions to ensure a safe
CLO-5 PLO 7 A-2
environment in the lab
Analyze experimental results in the view of
CLO-6 theoretical understanding developed during the PLO 1 C-4
class

Revised List of Experiments:

Experiment
Experiment Title
No.

1 To predict & analyze the cloud and pour point of a given sample of Kerosene oil.

2 To predict & analyze the cloud and pour point of a given sample of cooking oil.

3 To predict & analyze the cloud and pour point of a given sample of pyro diesel.

To predict & analyze the cloud and pour point of a given sample of high-speed
4
diesel.

5 To predict & analyze the cloud and pour point of a given sample of petrol.

To predict & compute the kinematic viscosity of diesel oil by using a Redwood
6
viscometer.
To predict & compute the kinematic viscosity of petrol using a Redwood
7
viscometer.
To predict & compute the kinematic viscosity of cooking oil by using an Engler
8
viscometer.
To predict & compute the kinematic viscosity of lube oil by using an Engler
9
viscometer.
10 To predict & compute flash point & fire point of kerosene oil.

11 To predict & compute flash point & fire point of diesel oil.

12 To predict & describe the flashpoint & fire point of a blend of ethanol with water.
To predict & describe the flashpoint & fire point of a blend of methanol with
13
water.

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4

Sample Lab Experiments

19
The following sample lab experiments are available for reference only.

Objective

To determine the kinematic viscosity of diesel oil using a Redwood

Lab no. 1
Viscometer.

To determine the kinematic viscosity of gasoline using a Redwood

Lab no. 2
Viscometer.

To determine the kinematic viscosity of brake oil using an Engler

Lab no. 3
Viscometer.

To determine the kinematic viscosity of cooking oil using an Engler

Lab no. 4
Viscometer.

To find the Flash & Fire point of High-Speed Diesel using Pensky
Lab no. 5
Martens closed cup apparatus.

To find the Flash & Fire point of Kerosene Oil using Pensky
Lab no. 6
Martens closed cup apparatus.

To find the Flash & Fire point of 10% Ethanol and Water blend
Lab no. 7
using Pensky Martens closed cup apparatus.

To find the Flash & Fire point of 50-50 % Kerosene and diesel oil
Lab no. 8
using Pensky Martens closed cup apparatus.

Lab no. 9 To find Cloud & Pour point of Kerosene Oil.

Lab no. 10 To find Cloud & Pour point of High-Speed Diesel oil.

Lab no. 11 To find Cloud & Pour point of cooking oil.

Lab no. 12 To find out the calorific value of LPG

20
 Lab No.1

Objective:
To determine the kinematic viscosity of diesel oil using a Redwood
Viscometer.

Apparatus:
• Redwood viscometer
• Stopwatch
• Thermometer

Chemicals:
• Diesel Oil

Procedure:
• Check the level of water in the water bath.
• Set the temperature of the water bath.
• Take the given sample of diesel oil, put the stopper on the orifice and pour the sample into the
sample pot.
• Note the temperature of the sample by inserting a thermometer.
• Place the receiving cylinder below the orifice, remove the stopper and let the diesel oil fall.
• Start the stopwatch and note the time for 50 ml of diesel oil to fall in the receiving cylinder.
• Again, pour the diesel into the sample pot and heat up to 5 ̊ C increase in temperature.
• Note down the temperature and again remove the stopper, drain the oil and note the time.
• Take 3-4 readings and plot a graph between temperature and kinematic viscosity.

Observations and Calculations:

𝟏.𝟏𝟕𝟒
𝑽𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟔𝒕 −
𝒕

Temperature (̊ C) Time (s) Viscosity

(𝑽𝑻 )(stokes)
37.5 359 0.93
40.5 610 1.66
51.5 764 1.98

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 T E M P V S V T (D I E SE L O I L )
2.5

2
Viscosity (stokes)

1.5

0.5

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Temperature (0C)

Results and Conclusion:

The graph shows an increasing trend between temperature and viscosity instead of a decreasing trend, this is
due to the presence of some debris or foreign particles in the viscometer’s orifice that restricted the flow of
diesel oil, giving a larger value for time than the expected value. The literature value for the viscosity of
High-Speed Diesel is 0.2 – 0.45 stokes.

22
 Lab No.2

Objective:
To determine the kinematic viscosity of gasoline using a Redwood
Viscometer.

Apparatus:
• Redwood viscometer
• Stopwatch
• Thermometer

Chemical:
• Gasoline

Procedure:
• Check the level of water in the water bath.
• Set the temperature of the water bath.
• Take the given sample of gasoline, put the stopper on the orifice and pour the sample into the sample
pot.
• Note the temperature of the sample by inserting a thermometer.
• Place the receiving cylinder below the orifice, remove the stopper and let the gasoline fall.
• Start the stopwatch and note the time for 50 ml of gasoline to fall in the receiving cylinder.
• Again, pour the gasoline into the sample pot and heat up to a 5 ̊ C rise in temperature.
• Note down the temperature and again remove the stopper, drain the oil and note the time.
• Take 3-4 readings and plot a graph between temperature and kinematic viscosity.

Observations and Calculations:

𝟏.𝟏𝟕𝟒
𝑽𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟔𝒕 −
𝒕

Temperature (̊ C) Time (s) Viscosity (𝑽𝑻 )

31.95 30.7 0.042
36.2 30.3 0.040
40.7 29.7 0.038
45.15 21.4 0.036

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 T E M P V S V T (G ASO L I NE )
0.043
0.042
0.041
0.04
Viscosity (stokes)

0.039
0.038
0.037
0.036
0.035
0.034
0.033
31.95 36.2 40.7 45.15
Temperature (0C)

Results and Conclusion:

Viscosities generally decrease with an increase in temperature which can be seen through our experimental
results. From the literature, we see that the Kinematic viscosity for gasoline is 0.04 stokes at 40⁰C, and in
our data, it is calculated as 0.038 stokes at 40.7⁰C, which is close to the actual value, hence we can conclude
that our experiment has been proven to be successful.

24
 Lab No.3

Objective:
To determine the kinematic viscosity of brake oil using an Engler
Viscometer.

Apparatus:
• Engler viscometer
• Stopwatch,
• Thermometer.

Chemical:
• Brake Oil

Procedure:
• Check the level of water in the water bath.
• Set the temperature of the water bath.
• Take the given sample of diesel oil, put the stopper on the orifice and pour the sample into the
sample pot.
• Note the temperature of the sample by inserting a thermometer.
• Place the receiving cylinder below the orifice, remove the stopper and let the diesel oil fall.
• Start the stopwatch and note the time for 100 ml of diesel oil to fall in the receiving cylinder.
• Again, pour the diesel oil into the sample pot and heat up to a 5 ̊ C rise in temperature.
• Note down the temperature and again remove the stopper, drain the oil and note the time.
• Take 3-4 readings and plot a graph between temperature and kinematic viscosity.

Observations and Calculations:

𝟏.𝟏𝟕𝟒
𝑽𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟒𝟕𝒕 −
𝒕

Temperature (̊ C) Time (s) Viscosity (𝑽𝑻 )

31 102 0.138
40 78 0.099
50 68 0.083
60 62 0.072

25
 T E M P VS V T (B R AK E O I L )
0.16

0.14

0.12
Viscosity (stokes)

0.1

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Temperature (0C)

Results and Conclusion:

In our experiment, we observed that viscosity is decreasing with an increase in temperature. From literature,
we find that brake fluid viscosities are measured at -40⁰C and 100⁰C, however, the apparatus cannot achieve
a temperature of 100⁰C so it is not possible to compare the exact value but our trend shows that the viscosity
is decreasing with an increase in temperature.

26
 Lab No.4

Objective:
To determine the kinematic viscosity of cooking oil using an Engler
Viscometer.

Apparatus:
• Engler viscometer
• Stopwatch,
• Thermometer.

Chemical:
• Cooking Oil

Procedure:
• Check the level of water in the water bath.
• Set the temperature of the water bath.
• Take the given sample of cooking oil, put the stopper on the orifice and pour the sample into the
sample pot.
• Note the temperature of the sample by inserting a thermometer.
• Place the receiving cylinder below the orifice, remove the stopper and let the cooking oil fall.
• Start the stopwatch and note the time for 100 ml of cooking oil to fall in the receiving cylinder.
• Again, pour the cooking oil into the sample pot and heat up to a 5 ̊ C rise in temperature.
• Note down the temperature and again remove the stopper, drain the oil and note the time.
• Take 3-4 readings and plot a graph between temperature and kinematic viscosity.

Observations and Calculations:

𝟏.𝟏𝟕𝟒
𝑽𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟒𝟕𝒕 −
𝒕

Temperature (̊C) Time (s) Viscosity (𝑽𝑻 )

40 273 0.350
45 220 0.318
50 205 0.295
55 185 0.265

27
 TEMP VS VT (COOKING OIL)
0.4
0.35
0.3
Viscosity (stokes)
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Temperature (0C)

Results and Conclusion:

There are some fluctuations in our experiment mainly due to human error in noting values from the
thermometer and stopwatch, however, we can see that from the literature, the kinematic viscosity of canola
oil is 0.266 stokes at 38⁰C, while our value came out to be 0.278 stokes at 39.7⁰C, which is within the
acceptable range, hence we can conclude that our results are as per expectations.

28
 Lab No.5

Objective:
To find the Flash & Fire point of High-Speed Diesel using Pensky Martens
closed cup apparatus.
Apparats
• Closed apparatus.
• Thermometer
• LPG Cylinder
• Ignitor/Lighter

Chemical:
• High-Speed Diesel

Procedure:
• Switch on the apparatus and allow the heater to preheat.
• Pour sample up to mark in sample pot and also pour water in the water bath. Regulate LPG supply
through the regulator and set it to a certain value.
• Light up the pilot and main burner. Heat at a moderate rate and monitor temperature with a
thermometer.
• Turn on the agitator from time to time for better temp distribution inside the sample. Insert the main
burner in the sample pot with the knob for every 1-degree rise in temperature.
• The flash point is observed when a momentarily flame is generated out of sample vapours for a short
period say less than 5 sec. The fire point is when the flame is sustained for a longer period than a
flash point. The fire point will always be achieved after the flash point.

Observations & Calculations:

Flash Point = 67 ± 2°C
Fire Point = 76 ± 2°C

Results & Conclusion:

The flashpoint of kerosene is 67 ± 2°C while from the literature the value is 35-60°C. The fire point is 76 ±
2°C while from the literature the value is 90± 2°C. So, we can conclude that experiment has been performed
accurately.

29
 Lab No.6

Objective:
To find the Flash & Fire point of Kerosene Oil using Pensky Martens closed
cup apparatus.

Apparatus
• Closed apparatus.
• Thermometer
• LPG Cylinder
• Ignitor/Lighter

Chemical:
• Light Weight Kerosene (LWK)

Procedure:
• Switch on the apparatus and allow the heater to preheat.
• Pour the sample up to mark into the sample pot and also pour water into the water bath. Regulate
LPG supply through the regulator and set it to a certain value.
• Light up the pilot and main burner. Heat at a moderate rate and monitor temperature with a
thermometer.
• Turn on the agitator from time to time for better temp distribution inside the sample. Insert the main
burner in the sample pot with the knob for every 1-degree rise in temperature.
• The flash point is observed when a momentarily flame is generated out of sample vapours for a short
period say less than 5 sec. The fire point is when the flame is sustained for a longer period than a
flash point. The fire point will always be achieved after the flash point.

Observations & Calculations:

Flash Point = 42 ± 2°C
Fire Point = 61 ± 2°C

Results & Conclusion:

The Flashpoint of kerosene is 42 ± 2°C while from the literature, the value is 38-50°C. The fire point is 61 ±
2°C while from the literature, the value is 52-65°C. Since our values are within the acceptable range, we can
conclude that experiment has been conducted correctly.

30
 Lab No.7

Objective:
To find the Flash & Fire point of 10% Ethanol and Water blend using
Pensky Martens closed cup apparatus.

Apparatus
• Closed apparatus.
• Thermometer
• LPG Cylinder
• Ignitor/Lighter

Chemical:
• 10% Ethanol and Water blend

Procedure:
• Prepare a 10% Ethanol and Water blend and mix it well. Switch on the apparatus and allow the
heater to preheat.
• Pour the sample up to mark into the sample pot and also pour water into the water bath. Regulate
LPG supply through the regulator and set it to a certain value.
• Light up the pilot and main burner. Heat at a moderate rate and monitor temperature with a
thermometer.
• Turn on the agitator from time to time for better temp distribution inside the sample. Insert the main
burner in the sample pot with the knob for every 1-degree rise in temperature.
• The flash point is observed when a momentarily flame is generated out of sample vapours for a short
period say less than 5 sec. The fire point is when the flame is sustained for a longer period than a
flash point. The fire point will always be achieved after the flash point.

Observations & Calculations:

Flash Point = 46 ± 2°C
Fire Point = 57 ± 2°C

Results & Conclusion:

The flashpoint of the blend is 46 ± 2°C while from the literature, the value is 49°C. The fire point is 57 ±
2°C while from the literature, the value is 59°C. Since our values are within the acceptable range, we can
conclude that experiment has been performed accurately.

31
 Lab No.8

Objective:
To find Flash & Fire point of 50-50 % Kerosene and diesel oil using Pensky
Martens closed cup apparatus.

Apparatus:
• Closed apparatus.
• Thermometer
• LPG Cylinder
• Ignitor/Lighter

Chemical:
• 50-50% Kerosene and High-Speed Diesel oil

Procedure:
• Prepare a 50-50 % blend of kerosene and diesel and mix it well. Switch on the apparatus and allow
the heater to preheat.
• Pour sample up to mark in sample pot and also pour water in the water bath. Regulate LPG supply
through the regulator and set it to a certain value.
• Light up the pilot and main burner. Heat at a moderate rate and monitor temperature with a
thermometer.
• Turn on the agitator from time to time for better temp distribution inside the sample. Insert the main
burner in the sample pot with the knob for every 1-degree rise in temperature.
• The flash point is observed when a momentarily flame is generated out of sample vapours for a short
period say less than 5 sec. The fire point is when the flame is sustained for a longer period than a
flash point. The fire point will always be achieved after the flash point.

Observations & Calculations:

Flash Point = 55 ± 2°C
Fire Point = 66 ± 2°C

Results & Conclusion:

The flashpoint of the blend is 55 ± 2°C which is between 42°C for kerosene and 67°C for diesel. The fire
point is 66 ± 2°C which is in between the fire point of 61°C for kerosene and 76°C for diesel. So, we can say
that experiment has been conducted accurately.

32
 Lab No.9

Objective:
To find Cloud & Pour point of Kerosene Oil.

Apparatus:
• Thermometer
• Sample Jar
• Cooling Bath.
• Ethanol

Chemical:
• Light Weight Kerosene (LWK)

Procedure:
• Take the kerosene oil sample up to the mark in the sample tube and fix the thermometer in the cork.
• Pour ethanol into the cooling bath around the sample for cooling and set the temperature to -40°C.
• Take the sample out and observe for every 2°C decrease in temperature.
• Note temperature when the sample starts to form a cloud (dense layer). This is could point.
• Keep decreasing temperature until a point is achieved when the sample cannot be poured and
movement of liquid is ceased. This temperature is recorded as the pour point.

Observations & Calculations:

Cloud Point = -25 ± 2°C
Pour Point = -38 ± 2°C

Results & Conclusion:

The cloud point of kerosene oil comes out to be -25 ± 2°C while the pour point comes out to be -38± 2°C.
These values are close to the values in the literature. Hence, the experiment has been performed accurately.

33
 Lab No.10

Objective:
To find Cloud & Pour point of High-Speed Diesel oil.

Apparatus:
• Thermometer
• Sample Jar
• Cooling Bath
• Ethanol

Chemical:
• High-Speed Diesel

Procedure:
• Take High Speed Diesel sample up to mark in the sample tube and fix the thermometer in the cork.
• Pour ethanol into the cooling bath around the sample for cooling and set the temperature to -40°C.
• Take the sample out and observe for every 2°C decrease in temperature.
• Note temperature when the sample starts to form a cloud (dense layer). This is cloud point.
• Keep decreasing temperature until a point is achieved when the sample cannot be poured and
movement of liquid is ceased. This temperature is recorded as the pour point.

Results & Conclusion:

Cloud Point = -7 ± 2°C
Pour Point = -13 ± 2°C
The cloud point of High-Speed Diesel oil comes out to be -7 ± 2°C while from the literature the value is -
8°C to -10°C. The pour point comes out to be -13± 2°C while from the literature the value is -15°C to -18°C.
This is within the acceptable range. Thus, the readings are correct and the experiment has been performed
correctly.

34
 Lab No.11

Objective:
To find Cloud & Pour point of cooking oil.

Apparatus:
• Thermometer
• Sample Jar
• Cooling Bath
• Ethanol

Chemical:
• Cooking Oil

Procedure:
• Take the cooking oil sample up to mark in the sample tube and fix the thermometer in the cork.
• Pour ethanol into the cooling bath around the sample for cooling and set the temperature to -40°C.
• Take the sample out and observe for every 2°C decrease in temperature.
• Note down the temperature when the sample starts to form a cloud (dense layer). This is cloud point.
• Keep decreasing temperature until a point is achieved when the sample cannot be poured and
movement of liquid is ceased. This temperature is recorded as the pour point.

Results & Conclusion:

Cloud Point = -12 ± 2°C
Pour Point = -25 ± 2°C
The cloud point of cooking oil comes out to be -12 ± 2°C which is in between the cloud point of mustard oil
(-9°C) and sunflower oil (-18°C). The pour point comes out to be -25± 2°C which is in between the pour
point of mustard oil (-19°C) and sunflower oil (-29°C). Hence, the readings are accurate and the experiment
has been performed correctly.

35
 Lab No.12

Objective:
To determine the Net Calorific Value (CV) of Liquefied Petroleum Gas
(LPG)
Apparatus:
• Junker Gas Calorimeter
• LPG Tank
• Cold Water Supply
• Thermometer
• Stopwatch
• Gas Flow Meter
• Ignitor/Lighter
• Measuring Cylinder/Bottle

Chemical:
• Liquefied Petroleum Gas

Procedure:
• Install the equipment on a flat rigid platform near an uninterrupted continuous water source and a
drain pipe.
• Connect the LPG supply to the inlet separator, pressure regulator, gas flow meter and burner
respectively in series.
• Insert the thermometer, into their respective places to measure water inlet and outlet temperatures.
• Start the water flow through the calorimeter at a steady rate and allow it to drain. Set the water flow
rate such that it does not overflow.
• Start the gas flow slowly and light the burner outside the calorimeter.
• Regulate the flow of gas at a steady rate to any designed flow (Volume)
• Insert the burner into the calorimeter and allow the outlet water temperature to attain a steady state.
• Turn the flow regulator on the outlet water to direct it towards your measuring cylinder or bottle,
measure about 2000 ml and start the stopwatch simultaneously and record the initial gas flow meter
reading at the same time.
• Note down the time taken to fill 2000ml and at the same time the final gas flow reading recorded by
the gas flow meter.
• Tabulate all the readings and calculate the calorific value of LPG.
• Repeat the experiment by varying the water flow rate or gas flow for different conditions.
• After the experiment is over stop the flow of water and gas, and drain the water from the calorimeter,
keep the equipment clean & dry.

36
Observations and Calculations:
ρw = 1000 kg / m3
ρg = 1.898 kg /m3
CPw = 1 kcal / kg

𝑉𝑤 × 𝜌𝑤 × 𝐶𝑃𝑤 × ∆𝑇
𝐶𝑉𝑔𝑎𝑠 =
𝑉𝑔 × 𝜌𝑔

where,
ρ w = Density of water
Vg = Volume of gas burnt in litres
ρg = Density of gas
CPw = Specific heat of water

Change in
Volume of C. Water C. Water
Volume of Temp of
water inlet outlet Net Cv of
gas Burnt in cooling
collected in Temperature Temperature gas kcal/kg
litres (Vg) water ∆T=
litres (Vw) T1 ⁰C T2 ⁰C
(T2-T1)

1 2.5 3.0 30.5 36.0 5.5 10142.3

2 2.0 2.5 30.5 36.0 5.5 9736.6

Results and Conclusion:

The calculated value for the CV of LPG comes out to be 10142.3 Kcal/Kg. From the literature, we find that
the actual net CV of LPG is around 10986 Kcal/Kg. Our calculated value is slightly lower than the actual
value mainly due to human error while measuring the volume of gas and water collected, however, the
relative error is 7.7 % which is still within the acceptable range and hence we can conclude that the
experiment is performed correctly.

37
 Lab No.13

Objective:
To perform TAN analysis for any lube oil of your choice and validate the
results with literature.

Apparatus:
• TBN/TAN apparatus
• Beakers (10,50,100 ml)
• Magnetic Stirrer
• Pipette
• Glass Stirrer

Chemical:
• Lube Oil

Procedure:
• Prepare reagents as follows: 0.1mol/L potassium hydroxide in 2-propanol for testing neutralization
number in oil; Titration solvent: 100 ml toluene, 99 ml of 2-propanol and 1 ml of pure water; 3mol/L
of lithium chloride in ethanol; Dissolve 12.7 g Lithium chloride in ethanol and dilute the solution to
100 ml by the ethanol.
• Set up the apparatus according to SOPs listed in ASTM.
• For blank measurement, add 125 ml of titration solvent into a 200ml beaker by a measuring cylinder.
• Titrate with 0.1 mol/L potassium hydroxide in 2-propanol titrant.
• Now, add lithium chloride in ethanol solution in electrode 1 and KOH solution in the second
electrode.
• Add 100 ml of sample in the beaker into a beaker and then add 125 ml of titration solvent into the
above beaker.
• Titrate it with 0.1mol/L potassium hydroxide in 2-propanol titrant.
• Graphs will appear on the screen which will show the trend.

38
Observations and Calculations:
(A1 − BL) 𝑀× 𝐸 ×𝑓 ×𝐹𝑊
𝑇𝐴𝑁 = 𝑆×𝑅

A1= titration volume of 0.1mol/L- KOH in 2-peopanol titrant for sample measurement= 1.7811 ml
BL= titration volume of 0.1mol/L- KOH in 2-peopanol titrant for blank measurement=100
M=Molarity of KOH in 2-propanol titrant solution = 0.1M
E= Equivalent number of 0.1M/L KOH in 2-propanol titrant =1
F= Factor of 0.1mol/L KOH in 2-propanol titrant=1
FW= formula weight of KOH =56.1
S=sample size=100 ml
R=Dilution rate=1

𝑻𝑨𝑵 = −𝟓. 𝟓𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝒈𝑲𝑶𝑯

Results and Conclusion:

Total Acid Number of lube oil from our experiment is -5.510mg KOH/g. Value of total acid number from
literature is 0.5 – 3 g KOH/g. This is because of the reason that our sample (lube oil) is not pure and has
impurities or due to the continuous usage of the sample oil. Negative sign tells the potential magnitude of
electrodes.

39
 Lab No.14

Objective:
To validate the viscosities determined by manual methods in previous
experiments using automatic kinematic viscometer.
Apparatus:
• Automatic Kinematic Viscometer
• Pipette

Chemical:
• Cooking Oil
• High Speed Diesel
• Brake Oil
• Gasoline.

Procedure:
• Check all the connections of the viscometer before beginning the experiment.
• Fill the water tank of the viscometer such that it remains only two inches empty from the top (to
allow for thermal expansion).
• Place sample tubes in their respective places and switch on the viscometer.
• Turn on the temperature control and set to desired value (40 oC) to begin heating the water.
• Load sample into the sample tube (fill the bulb/donut completely, do not overfill). Use a pipette bulb
to move the sample till the top line marking on the other side of the tube through the capillary.
• Release the suction and start the timer on the viscometer to measure the time taken by sample to
move from one line marking to the other. Make sure appropriate calibration constant is used.
• Print out the results using the print option of the viscometer.
• Similarly repeat the experiment for other samples.

Observations and Calculations:

Temperature = 40 0C Coefficient of Calibration = 0.00081

S No. Sample Time (s) Viscosity (cSt) Literature (cSt)

1 High speed diesel 35.8 0.0353 0.025-0.035
2 Gasoline 9.7 0.0055 0.0060-0.0080
3 Lube Oil 649.8 0.519840 0.50-0.58

Results and Conclusion:

We see that all the experimentally determined values of kinematic viscosity fall within the respective
literature range. Thus, the experiment is validated for all fuel samples.
40
 Lab No.15
Objective:
To determine the aniline point of high-speed diesel (HSD) fuel.
Apparatus:
• Aniline Point Apparatus
• Sample tube 10 ml
• Beaker 50 ml

Chemical:
• Aniline
• Heating Oil

Procedure:
• Follow all SOPs and startup procedure for the equipment as mentioned.
• Install the equipment on a flat rigid surface by connecting the stirrer motor and apparatus together
with a rod.
• Add transparent technical oil in the heating bath. Set the bath at a temperature of 50 o C.
• Take equal amounts (10 ml) of HSD and aniline in a beaker and mix them. Add them to the sample
pot and safely assemble the equipment.
• Turn the stirrer on.
• Raise the temperature of the mixture at a rate of 1 to 2°C until the aniline point has just been passed,
denoted by the disappearance of the two immiscible layers and a homogeneous solution is formed.
• Turn off the heater and allow the mixture to cool.

Observations and Calculations:

Temperature (0C) Observation

30 Two layers
35 Two layers
40 Two layers
45 Two layers
50 Two layers
55 Two layers
60 Two layers
65 Two layers
70 Two layers
75 Single layer

41
Results and Conclusion:
As the temperature increases, the immiscibility decreases between Aniline and HSD until the two layers
dissolve completely. Our experimental value for aniline point of HSD came out to be 75oC. After consulting
literature, we found the standard value to be 71oC. Since our value is close to the value given in the
literature, we can conclude that our experiment was successful. The deviation from the literature value could
be due to human errors such as incorrect measurement of the samples or loss of samples during transfer from
the beaker to the sample pot. It could also be due to improper attachment of the stirrer gear belt which could
have caused ineffective stirring.

42