CHAPTER 7: DISLOCATIONS AND

STRENGTHENING MECHANISMS

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...

• Why are dislocations observed primarily in metals

and alloys?

• How are strength and dislocation motion related?

• How do we increase strength?

• How can heating change strength and other properties?

1
 PART I: DISLOCATIONS
Introduction
• Two kinds of deformation are possible in materials:
1. ELASTIC or recoverable deformation
2. PLASTIC or permanent deformation
• On an atomic scale, plastic deformation corresponds to the net
movement of large numbers of atoms in response to an applied
stress
• During this process, inter-atomic bonds must be ruptured and
then reformed
• PLASTIC DEOFMRATION IN CRYTSLINE SOLIDS
INVOLVES MOTION OF DISLOCATIONS
• In metals motion of dislocations is easier than in ceramics
If dislocations don't move,
plastic deformation doesn't happen! 2
 Dislocations & Materials Classes
• Metals: Disl. motion easier.
+ + + + + + + +
-non-directional bonding + + + + + + + +
-close-packed directions + + + + + + + +
for slip. electron cloud ion cores

• Covalent Ceramics
(Si, diamond): Motion hard.
-directional (angular) bonding

• Ionic Ceramics (NaCl):

+ - + - + - +
Motion hard.
- + - + - + -
-need to avoid ++ and - -
neighbors. + - + - + - +

3
 History of Dislocation Theory
• Theoretical strength of perfect crystals is much larger
than the experimentally measured
• In 1930’s it was hypothesized that this discrepancy
can be explained by linear crystalline defect called
dislocations
• It was 1950’s that the existence of such dislocations
defects was established by direct observation with the
electron microscopy
• Theory of dislocations explains many physical and
mechanical phenomena in metals

4
 Dislocations and Plastic Deformation
• Produces plastic deformation,
• Depends on incrementally breaking
Plastically
and reforming of bonds
• Before and after the movement of dislocation
stretched
the atomic arrangement is perfect; only during zinc
the passing of extra half plane the lattice single
structure is disturbed crystal.

5
 Dislocations

A dislocation is a line defect

There are several types of

dislocation character
(edge, screw, mixed)
1µm
 INCREMENTAL SLIP
• Dislocations slip planes incrementally...

• The dislocation line (the moving red dot)...

...separates slipped material on the left
from unslipped material on the right.

Simulation of dislocation
motion from left to right
as a crystal is sheared.

(Courtesy P.M. Anderson)

 BOND BREAKING AND REMAKING
• Dislocation motion requires the successive bumping
of a half plane of atoms (from left to right here)
• Bonds across the slipping planes are broken and
remade in succession.

Atomic view of edge

dislocation motion from
left to right as a crystal
is sheared.

(Courtesy P.M. Anderson)

 SLIP and Slip Plane
• The process by which plastic deformation is produced by dislocation
motion is called SLIP (or glide)
• The crystallographic plane along which the dislocation line traverses (moves) is
called the SLIP PLANE, and the direction is called SLIP DIRECTION
• The direction of motion of edge dislocation in response to the applied shear
stress is parallel to the stress direction
• The direction of motion of screw dislocation in response to the applied shear
stress is perpendicular to the stress direction

However, the net plastic

deformation for the motion of
both types of dislocation is the
same

9
 Deformation Mechanisms
Slip System
– Slip plane - plane allowing easiest slippage
• Wide interplanar spacings - highest planar densities
– Slip direction - direction of movement - Highest linear
densities
Adapted from Fig.
7.6, Callister 7e.

– FCC Slip occurs on {111} planes (close-packed) in <110> directions

(close-packed)
=> total of 12 slip systems in FCC
– in BCC & HCP other slip systems occur 10
* HCP Metals are brittle due to few active slip systems 11
 REVIEW:
Yielding of Metals by Dislocation Motion

Cold-worked Brass

Slip Band

Deformation occurs by yielding.

Deformation occurs in crystal slip bands

12
 Yielding of Metals

Slip Plane
Cold-worked Brass
Yield occurs by movement of atoms
along crystal slip planes

13
 Yielding of Metals
• Yielding (plastic deformation) occurs by the gliding of crystal
planes over each other.

14
 Yielding of Metals
• Slip demonstrated in cadmium (HCP Crystal Structure)

15
 Yielding of Metals
• Glide occurs on the closest packed
planes in the closest packed
directions

• These define Slip Systems:

Slip Plane + Slip Direction

Three dimensional shape

Hexagonally Close Packed
change requires glide on
Plane and Directions
several slip systems
16
QuickTime Movie
 Yielding of Metals
• Some crystal structures have more
slip systems than others (FCC Vs.
HCP)
• Some slip systems glide more BCC
easily than others (FCC Vs. BCC)

HCP FCC

17
DISLOCATIONS & CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
• Structure: close-packed view onto two
planes & directions close-packed
planes.
are preferred.

• Comparison among crystal structures:

FCC: many close-packed planes/directions;
HCP: only one plane, 3 directions;
BCC: none

• Results of tensile Mg (HCP)

testing.
tensile direction
Al (FCC)
 Yielding of Metals.

Material Theoretical Measured

Strength Strength
(MPa) (MPa)
Copper 20000 0.5
Iron 34000 28

The measured strength is

Slip Plane much lower than
the theoretical strength
The theoretical strength can be There must another, easier
calculated from the number of all atomic
mechanism for slip
bonds that must be broken at the same
time

19
 Slugs and Caterpillars

A slug sticks very well to all surfaces,

but glides very easily

20
 Slugs and Caterpillars

Slug and Caterpillars glide by

creating dislocations.

21
 Dislocations.

The crystal planes glide in

metals by a similar mechanism
to the movement of the slug

High Voltage Transmission

Electron Microscopy of
dislocations moving in an Al-Si
alloy

Dislocations in metal glide in

response to stress

22
 Dislocations.

The movement of a
dislocation allows one
plane of atoms to
move over another

The glide of a
dislocation lets the Slip
crystal deform Plane
The stress to move a
dislocation is small

Dislocations allow
metals to yield

23
QuickTime Movies
 Dislocation Movement
• Dislocations move in three
dimensions.
• Cross-Slip can occur to allow the
dislocation to move onto a new
crystal plane

Screw dislocations can cross- Dislocation expanding as a loop and

slip more easily than edge cross-slipping to a new slip plane due to
dislocations an obstacle
24
 Dislocation Sources
• During plastic deformation the
number of dislocation increases
dramatically
• Dislocations are created during
plastic deformation by dislocation
sources (Dislocation Multiplication)
• Grain boundaries and other defects
can also be a source of dislocations

Dislocations from a source in Si Frank-Read Dislocation Source25

 Stress and Dislocation Motion
• Crystals slip due to a resolved shear stress, tR.
• Applied tension can produce such a stress.
Applied tensile Resolved shear Relation between
stress: s = F/A stress: tR =Fs /A s s and tR

A
F slip plane
tR tR = FS /AS
normal, ns
AS Fcos l A/cos f
FS
F nS f
l A
tR FS AS
F

tR = s cos l cos f
26
 Critical Resolved Shear Stress
• Condition for dislocation motion: tR  tCRSS
• Crystal orientation can make typically
it easy or hard to move dislocation
10-4 GPa to 10-2 GPa
tR = s cos l cos f
s s s

tR = 0 tR = s/2 tR = 0
l =90° l =45° f =90°
f =45°

t maximum at l = f = 45º 27
Single Crystal Slip

Adapted from Fig.

7.9, Callister 7e.

Adapted from Fig. 7.8, Callister 7e.

28
 Ex: Deformation of single crystal
a) Will the single crystal yield?
b) If not, what stress is needed?
f=60°
tcrss = 3000 psi
l=35°
t = s cos l cos f
s = 6500 psi

Adapted from
Fig. 7.7,
t = (6500 psi) (cos35 )(cos60 )
= (6500 psi) (0.41)
Callister 7e.

t = 2662 psi  tcrss = 3000 psi
s = 6500 psi
So the applied stress of 6500 psi will not cause the crystal to
yield.
29

 Ex: Deformation of single crystal
What stress is necessary (i.e., what is the
yield stress, sy)?

tcrss = 3000 psi = sy cos l cos f = sy (0.41)

tcrss 3000 psi

 sy = = = 7325 psi
cos l cos f 0.41

So for deformation to occur the applied stress must

be greater than or equal to the yield stress

s  sy = 7325 psi
30
 Slip Motion in Polycrystals
• Stronger - grain boundaries
s
pin deformations
• Slip planes & directions
(l, f) change from one
Adapted from Fig.
7.10, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.10 is
crystal to another. courtesy of C.
Brady, National
Bureau of
• tR will vary from one Standards [now the
National Institute of
crystal to another. Standards and
Technology,
Gaithersburg, MD].)
• The crystal with the
largest tR yields first.
• Other (less favorably
oriented) crystals
300 mm
yield later.
31
 Anisotropy in sy
• Can be induced by rolling a polycrystalline metal
- before rolling - after rolling
Adapted from Fig. 7.11,
Callister 7e. (Fig. 7.11 is from
W.G. Moffatt, G.W. Pearsall,
and J. Wulff, The Structure
and Properties of Materials,
Vol. I, Structure, p. 140, John
Wiley and Sons, New York,
1964.)

rolling direction
235 mm
- isotropic - anisotropic
since grains are since rolling affects grain
approx. spherical orientation and shape.
& randomly
oriented.

32
 Anisotropy in Deformation
1. Cylinder of 2. Fire cylinder 3. Deformed
Tantalum at a target. cylinder
machined
from a Photos courtesy
of G.T. Gray III,
rolled plate: side view Los Alamos
National Labs.
Used with
permission.
rolling direction

end plate
thickness
view direction
• The noncircular end view shows
anisotropic deformation of rolled material.
33
 Mechanisms of Strengthening in Metals
• One of the job of Metallurgical and Materials Engineer is to DESIGN
alloys with high strength, but with appreciable ductility and toughness
• Normally Ductility and Toughness decreases as Strength increases (E.g:
0.1 Vs. 0.8% C Steel)
• The hardness and strength (both sy & sTS) are related to ease with which
plastic deformation occurs:
The ability of a metal to plastically deform depends
on the ability of large number of dislocations to move
The mechanical strength can be enhanced by reducing the mobility
of dislocations  greater forces will be required to initiate plastic deformations

• In contrast, the more unconstrained the dislocation motion, more softer and
weaker a metal becomes
• Virtually all strengthening mechanisms are based on this principle:
“Restricting or hindering dislocation motion renders a materials harder and stronger”
34
Mechanisms of Strengthening in Metals
4 STRATEGIES FOR STRENGTHENING

1. Strengthening by Grain Size

Reduction (Grain Refinement)
2. Solid Solution Strengthening
3. Strain Hardening
4. Dispersion Strengthening

1µm

DISLOCATIONS are THE KEY TO

STRENGHTENING OF METALS
35
1. Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction
• The size of grains, or the average grain diameter, in a polycrystalline
metal influences the mechanical properties
• Adjacent grains normally have different crystallographic orientations
• The Grain Boundaries act as BARRIER to Dislocation Motion

To continue plastic deformation across a grain boundary

slip or dislocation motion must take place across a grain boundary

Since the two grains have different orientations (Slip Plane and Directions)
it is difficult or impossible for dislocation to move across grains
The atomic disorder at grain boundary region will result in discontinuity of slip
planes from one grain into the other

36
• A fine-grained material (one that has small grains) is harder and stronger
than one that is coarse-grained, since the former has a greater total grain
boundary area to impede dislocation motion
• For many materials, the yield strength sy, varies with grain size according
to the following equation termed as Hall-Petch Equation

s yield = so + k y d −1/ 2
• Where d is the average grain diameter and so and ky are constants for a
particular material
• Several techniques are available to control (decrease or increase) the grain
size
• Barrier "strength" increases with crystallographic mis-orientation across
the grain, i.e, Grain Boundary Angle
• Small-angle grain boundaries are not effective in interfering with the slip
process because of only slight misalignment across the boundary
• Boundaries between two different PHASES also provide barrier for
dislocation motion
37
 2. Solid-Solution Strengthening
• Another technique to strengthen and harden metals is alloying with
impurity atoms that go into either substitutional or interstitial site to
form a solid solution  Solid-Solution Strengthening
• Alloys are almost always stronger than pure metals
• Impurity atoms impose lattice strains on the surrounding host atoms
→ Lattice strain field interactions between dislocations and these
impurity atoms results → Consequently dislocation movement is
restricted
• Impurity atoms smaller than host atoms exert a tensile strains on
the surrounding crystal lattice, and impurity atom larger than host
atoms exert a compressive strain on the surrounding crystal lattice
• These lattice strains interact with the compressive and tensile
stresses produced above and below the dislocation line (as already
discussed)
38
 Distortions in the Lattice

Defects in the crystal lattice

cause local distortions

Dislocation

Substitutional Atoms Vacancy 39

 4 Strategies for Strengthening:
2: Solid Solutions

• Impurity atoms distort the lattice & generate stress.

• Stress can produce a barrier to dislocation motion.
• Smaller substitutional • Larger substitutional
impurity impurity

A C

B D

Impurity generates local stress at A Impurity generates local stress at C

and B that opposes dislocation and D that opposes dislocation
motion to the right. motion to the right.

40
 Strengthening by Alloying
• small impurities tend to concentrate at dislocations
• reduce mobility of dislocation  increase strength

Adapted from Fig.

7.17, Callister 7e.

41
 Strengthening by alloying
• large impurities concentrate at dislocations on low density
side

Adapted from Fig.

7.18, Callister 7e.

42
 Distortions in the Lattice
• Dislocations distort the crystal
lattice structure around the
dislocation core
• As the dislocation glides, its strain
field moves with it and interacts
with the strain fields of other
defects
• Resistance to slip is greater when
impurity atoms are present
• Thus a greater applied stress is
necessary to first initiate and then
continue plastic deformation for
solid-solution alloys as opposed to
pure metals

The lattice strain around

an edge dislocation 43
 Solid Solution Strengthening
in Copper: An Example
• Tensile strength & yield strength increase with wt% Ni
(i.e. increasing the concentration of impurity atoms)

1/ 2
• Empirical relation: s y ~ C
• Alloying increases sy and TS
• Strength increases up to the Solubility Limit 44
 3. Strain Hardening, Work Hardening,
and Cold Working
• Strain or work hardening is the phenomena whereby a ductile
metal becomes harder and stronger as it is plastically deformed
• It is also called cold working, because the temperature at which
deformation takes place is “cold” relative to the absolute melting
temperature of the metal (mostly metal strain harden at room
temperature)

Reason of Strain hardening:

• The number of dislocations increases with the amount of plastic
deformation
• Dislocations interact with each other to impede dislocation glide
Strain Hardening exponent ‘n’ in the Flow Curve Equation (st=Ktn) is a
measure of the materials ability to strain harden; the largest its magnitude, the
greater the strain hardening ability for a given amount of plastic strain
45
 Cold Working (contd.)
• Cold Working  Room temperature deformation
• Common forming operations change the cross sectional area:
-Forging force -Rolling
die
Ao blank Ad

-Drawing force -Extrusion

die Ad
Ao tensile
force
die

The degree of plastic deformation is

Ao − Ad
commonly expressed as percent cold %CW = x100
work (%CW) instead of strain Ao
46
Example: Steel, Brass and Copper
Yield and Tensile Strength Increases with Cold Work

47
As Expected the Ductility Decreases with Cold Work

48
Dislocation Based Explanation of the Strain Hardening
Phenomena
• The strain hardening phenomena is explained on the basis of
the dislocation-dislocation strain field interactions
• The dislocation density in a metal increases with plastic
deformation or cold work (due to dislocation multiplication or
the formation of new dislocations)  The average distance
between dislocations decreases
• Dislocation-dislocation strain interactions are mostly repulsive
• As the dislocation density increases the resistance to
dislocation motion by other dislocation becomes more
pronounced
• Thus, stress required to produce plastic deformation increases
with increasing cold work
• Strain hardening is often commercially used to enhance
(increase) the mechanical properties of metals
49
 DISLOCATIONS DURING COLD WORK
• Ti alloy after cold working:

• Dislocations entangle
with one another
during cold work.
• Dislocation motion
becomes more difficult.

Adapted from Fig.

4.6, Callister 6e.
(Fig. 4.6 is courtesy
of M.R. Plichta,
Michigan
Technological
University.)

50
 Result of Cold Work
total dislocation length
Dislocation density =
unit volume
– Carefully grown single crystal
→ ca. 103 mm-2
– Deforming sample increases density
→ 109-1010 mm-2
– Heat treatment reduces density
→ 105-106 mm-2
s
• Yield stress increases
sy1 large hardening
as rd increases: s y0 small hardening


51
 Effects of Stress at Dislocations

Adapted from Fig.

7.5, Callister 7e.

52
 Impact of Cold Work
As cold work is increased
• Yield strength (sy) increases.
• Tensile strength (TS) increases.
• Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.

Adapted from Fig. 7.20,

Callister 7e.

53
 Cold Work Analysis
• What is the tensile strength & Copper
ductility after cold working? Cold
Work
ro2 − rd2
%CW = x 100 = 35.6%
2
ro Do =15.2mm Dd =12.2mm
yield strength (MPa) tensile strength (MPa) ductility (%EL)
60
700 800

500 600 40

300
300MPa Cu
Cu 400 340MPa 20
Cu 7%
100
0 20 40 60 200 00
0 20 40 60 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work % Cold Work
sy = 300MPa TS = 340MPa %EL = 7%
Adapted from Fig. 7.19, Callister 7e. (Fig. 7.19 is adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection:
Iron and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th ed., B. Bardes (Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1978, p. 226; and Metals
Handbook: Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker
(Managing Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1979, p. 276 and 327.)
54
 s- Behavior vs. Temperature
800
• Results for -200C
polycrystalline iron:

Stress (MPa)
600
-100C
400

200 25C
Adapted from Fig. 6.14,
Callister 7e. 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Strain
• sy and TS decrease with increasing test temperature.
• %EL increases with increasing test temperature.
3. disl. glides past obstacle
• Why? Vacancies
2. vacancies
help dislocations replace
move past obstacles. atoms on the obstacle
disl. half
plane 1. disl. trapped
by obstacle

55
 RECOVERY, RECRYSTALLIZATION,
and GRAIN GROWTH
• As discussed earlier plastically deforming a polycrystalline
metal specimen at low temperatures (COLD WORKING)
produces the following micro-structural and property changes:
– Change in grain shape
– Strain hardening
– An increase in dislocation density
• The microstructure and properties can be resorted back to the
PRE-COLD WORKED states by heat treatment at elevated
temperatures called ANNEALING
• Annealing normally consists of three steps:
– Recovery
– Recrystallization
– Grain Growth
56
 Effect of Heating After %CW
• 1 hour treatment at Tanneal...
decreases TS and increases %EL.
• Effects of cold work are reversed!
annealing temperature (ºC)
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
tensile strength (MPa)

600 60
tensile strength

ductility (%EL)
50
500
• 3 Annealing
40
stages to
400 30 discuss...
Adapted from Fig. 7.22, Callister 7e. (Fig.
ductility 20 7.22 is adapted from G. Sachs and K.R. van
300 Horn, Practical Metallurgy, Applied Metallurgy,
and the Industrial Processing of Ferrous and
Nonferrous Metals and Alloys, American
Society for Metals, 1940, p. 139.)

57
Recrystallization is normally followed by grain growth 58
 Recovery
Annihilation reduces dislocation density.
• Scenario 1 extra half-plane
of atoms Dislocations
Results from annihilate
diffusion atoms
and form
diffuse
a perfect
to regions
atomic
of tension
plane.
extra half-plane
of atoms
• Scenario 2
3. “Climbed” disl. can now tR
move on new slip plane
2. grey atoms leave by
4. opposite dislocations
vacancy diffusion
meet and annihilate
allowing disl. to “climb”
1. dislocation blocked; Obstacle dislocation
can’t move to the right

59
 Recrystallization
• New grains are formed that:
-- have a small dislocation density
-- are small
-- consume cold-worked grains.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (a),(b),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (a),(b)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

33% cold New crystals

worked nucleate after
brass 3 sec. at 580C.

60
 Further Recrystallization
• All cold-worked grains are consumed.

0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (c),(d),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (c),(d)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

After 4 After 8
seconds seconds

61
 Grain Growth
• At longer times, larger grains consume smaller ones.
• Why? Grain boundary area (and therefore energy)
is reduced.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (d),(e),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (d),(e)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

After 8 s, After 15 min,

580ºC 580ºC
coefficient dependent
• Empirical Relation:
on material and T.
exponent typ. ~ 2
grain diam. elapsed time
at time t. d n
− don = Kt
Ostwald Ripening
62
 ANNEALING:
Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth

Annealing is a general term for

heating to high temperature

Annealing of 70:30 Brass 63

 Recrystallization Temperature, TR
TR = recrystallization temperature = point of highest rate of
property change
1. Tm => TR  0.3-0.6 Tm (K)
2. Due to diffusion → annealing time→ TR = f(t) shorter
annealing time => higher TR
3. Higher %CW => lower TR – strain hardening
4. Pure metals lower TR due to dislocation movements
• Easier to move in pure metals => lower TR

64
 Coldwork Calculations
A cylindrical rod of brass originally 0.40 in (10.2 mm) in
diameter is to be cold worked by drawing. The circular cross
section will be maintained during deformation. A cold-worked
tensile strength in excess of 55,000 psi (380 MPa) and a
ductility of at least 15 %EL are desired. Further more, the final
diameter must be 0.30 in (7.6 mm). Explain how this may be
accomplished.

65
 Coldwork Calculations Solution
If we directly draw to the final diameter what
happens?
Brass
Cold
Work

Do = 0.40 in Df = 0.30 in

 Ao − Af   Af 
%CW =   x 100 = 1 −  x 100
 Ao   Ao 
 Df2 4    0.30  2 
= 1 −  x 100 = 1 −    x 100 = 43.8%
 Do 4 
2   0.40  
 
66
 Coldwork Calc Solution: Cont.

420 540

Adapted from Fig.

• For %CW = 43.8% 7.19, Callister 7e.

– sy = 420 MPa
– TS = 540 MPa > 380 MPa
– %EL = 6 < 15
• This doesn’t satisfy criteria…… what can we do?
67
 Coldwork Calc Solution: Cont.

380 15

12 27

Adapted from Fig.

For TS > 380 MPa > 12 %CW 7.19, Callister 7e.

For %EL < 15 < 27 %CW

 our working range is limited to %CW = 12-27

68
 Coldwork Calc Soln: Recrystallization
Cold draw-anneal-cold draw again
• For objective we need a cold work of %CW  12-27
– We’ll use %CW = 20
• Diameter after first cold draw (before 2nd cold draw)?
– must be calculated as follows:
 Df 2 2  Df 2
2
%CW
%CW = 1 − 
2 
x 100  1 − 2
=
 D02  D02
100

Df 2  %CW 
0 .5 Df 2
= 1 − D02 =
   %CW 
0.5
D02  100  1 − 
 100 
0. 5
 20 
Intermediate diameter = Df 1 = D02 = 0.30 1 −  = 0.335 m
 100 
69
 Coldwork Calculations Solution
Summary:
1. Cold work D01= 0.40 in → Df1 = 0.335 m
 2
 
%CW1 = 1− 
0.335 
x 100 = 30
  0.4  
 

2. Anneal above D02 = Df1

3. Cold work D02= 0.335 in → Df 2 =0.30 m
  0.3  2  Fig 7.19 s y = 340 MPa
%CW2 = 1 −    x 100 = 20
  0.335  

  TS = 400 MPa
%EL = 24
Therefore, meets all requirements

70
 Rate of Recrystallization
E 50%
logR = −logt = logR0 − start
kT
B 1
logt = C + TR finish
T
note : R = 1 / t

log t
• Hot work → above TR
• Cold work → below TR
• Smaller grains
– stronger at low temperature
– weaker at high temperature
71
 4 Strategies for Strengthening:
4: Precipitation Strengthening
• Hard precipitates are difficult to shear.
Ex: Ceramics in metals (SiC in Iron or Aluminum).
precipitate
Large shear stress needed
Side View to move dislocation toward
precipitate and shear it.

Unslipped part of slip plane Dislocation

Top View
“advances” but
precipitates act as
S “pinning” sites with
spacing S.
Slipped part of slip plane

1
• Result: sy ~
S
72
 Application:
Precipitation Strengthening
• Internal wing structure on Boeing 767
Adapted from chapter-
opening photograph,
Chapter 11, Callister 5e.
(courtesy of G.H.
Narayanan and A.G.
Miller, Boeing Commercial
Airplane Company.)

• Aluminum is strengthened with precipitates formed

by alloying.
Adapted from Fig.
11.26, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 11.26 is courtesy
of G.H. Narayanan
and A.G. Miller,
Boeing Commercial
Airplane Company.)

1.5mm
73
 SUMMARY

• Dislocations are observed primarily in metals

and alloys.
• Here, strength is increased by making dislocation
motion difficult.
• Particular ways to increase strength are to:
--decrease grain size
--solid solution strengthening
--cold work
--precipitate strengthening

• Heating (annealing) can reduce dislocation density

and increase grain size.

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