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Programming in C++

Second Edition

Ashok Namdev Kamthane

Associate Professor
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering
Shri Guru Gobind Singhji
Institute of Engineering and Technology
Nanded, Maharashtra
Copyright © 2013 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd.
Licensees of Pearson Education in South Asia

No part of this eBook may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without the publisher’s
prior written consent.

This eBook may or may not include all assets that were part of the print version. The publisher
reserves the right to remove any material in this eBook at any time.

ISBN 9788131791448
eISBN 9789332520288

Head Office: A-8(A), Sector 62, Knowledge Boulevard, 7th Floor, NOIDA 201 309, India
Registered Office: 11 Local Shopping Centre, Panchsheel Park, New Delhi 110 017, India
 Brief Contents

PrEfAcE xv
About thE Author xvii

1. iNtroductioN to c++ 1

2. bASicS of c++ 21

3. iNPut ANd outPut iN c++ 33

4. c++ dEclArAtioNS 99

5. dEciSioN StAtEmENtS 161

6. coNtrol looP StructurES 187

7. fuNctioNS iN c++ 203

8. clASSES ANd objEctS 257

9. coNStructorS ANd dEStructorS 345

10. oPErAtor ovErloAdiNg ANd tyPE coNvErSioN 395

11. iNhEritANcE 441

12. ArrAyS 511

iv Brief Contents

13. PoiNtErS 531

14. c++ ANd mEmory modElS 577

15. biNdiNg, PolymorPhiSmS, ANd virtuAl fuNctioNS 603

16. APPlicAtioNS with filES 639

17. gENEric ProgrAmmiNg with tEmPlAtES 697

18. worKiNg with StriNgS 731

19. ExcEPtioN hANdliNg 759

20. ovErviEw of StANdArd tEmPlAtE librAry 785

21. AdditioNAl iNformAtioN About ANSi ANd turbo-c++ 817

22. c++ grAPhicS 843

APPENdicES 869

iNdEx 879
 Contents

Preface xv
About the Author xvii

1. iNtroductioN to c++ 1
1.1 Differences between C and C++ 1
1.2 Evolution of C++ 2
1.3 The ANSI Standard 2
1.4 The Object Oriented Technology 2
1.5 Disadvantage of Conventional Programming 4
1.6 Programming Paradigms 5
1.7 Preface to Object Oriented Programming 6
1.8 Key Concepts of Object Oriented Programming 7
1.9 Advantages of OOP 15
1.10 Object Oriented Languages 16
1.11 Usage of OOP 17
1.12 Usage of C++ 18
Summary 18
Exercises 19

2. bASicS of c++ 21
2.1 Introduction 21
2.2 Steps to Create and Execute a C++ Program 21
2.3 Flowchart for Creating a Source File, Compiling, Linking
and Executing in C++ 22
2.4 C++ Environments 23
2.5 Typical C++ Environment (Borland C++) 24
2.6 Structure of a C++ Program 27
2.7 Illustrative Simple Program in C++ without Class 28
2.8 Header Files and Libraries 29
Summary 30
Exercises 31
vi Contents

3. iNPut ANd outPut iN c++ 33

3.1 Introduction 33
3.2 Streams in C++ and Stream Classes 34
3.3 Pre-defined Streams 34
3.4 Buffering 35
3.5 Stream Classes 36
3.6 Formatted and Unformatted Data 37
3.7 Unformatted Console I/O Operations 38
3.8 Type Casting with the cout Statement 44
3.9 Member Functions of the istream Class 56
3.10 Formatted Console I/O Operations 59
3.11 Bit Fields 67
3.12 Flags without Bit Fields 70
3.13 Manipulators 71
3.14 User-defined Manipulators 74
3.15 Manipulator with One Parameter 76
3.16 Manipulators with Multiple Parameters 77
3.17 More Programs 79
Summary 87
Exercises 88

4. c++ dEclArAtioNS 99
4.1 Introduction 99
4.2 Tokens 100
4.3 Variable Declaration and Initialization 108
4.4 Data Types in C++ 115
4.5 Operators in C and C++ 129
4.6 Scope Access Operator 133
4.7 Namespace 133
4.8 Memory Management Operators 137
4.9 Comments 141
4.10 Comma Operator 142
4.11 Comma in Place of Curly Braces 143
4.12 More Programs 145
Summary 155
Exercises 156

5. dEciSioN StAtEmENtS 161

5.1 Introduction 161
5.2 The if Statement 162
5.3 Multiple ifs 165
5.4 The if-else Statement 167
5.5 Nested if-else Statements 169
5.6 The else-if Ladder 171
5.7 Unconditional Control Transfer Statements 175
Contents vii

5.8 The switch Statement 177

5.9 Nested switch case 182
Summary 183
Exercises 184

6. coNtrol looP StructurES 187

6.1 Introduction 187
6.2 What Is a Loop? 187
6.3 The for Loop 188
6.4 Nested for Loops 191
6.5 The while Loop 192
6.6 The do-while Loop 195
6.7 The do-while Statement with while Loop 196
6.8 More Programs 197
Summary 199
Exercises 199

7. fuNctioNS iN c++ 203

7.1 Introduction 203
7.2 Parts of a Function 205
7.3 Passing Arguments 209
7.4 Lvalues and Rvalues 215
7.5 Return by Reference 216
7.6 Returning More Values by Reference 217
7.7 Default Arguments 218
7.8 const Arguments 222
7.9 Inputting Default Arguments 224
7.10 Inline Functions 225
7.11 Function Overloading 228
7.12 Principles of Function Overloading 230
7.13 Precautions with Function Overloading 234
7.14 Recursion 235
7.15 Library Functions 237
7.16 More Programs 241
Summary 252
Exercises 252

8. clASSES ANd objEctS 257

8.1 Introduction 258
8.2 Structure in C 259
8.3 Structure in C++ 261
8.4 Classes in C++ 262
8.5 Declaring Objects 263
8.6 The public Keyword 264
viii Contents

8.7 The private Keyword 265

8.8 The protected Keyword 266
8.9 Access Specifiers and Their Scope 267
8.10 Defining Member Functions 268
8.11 Characteristics of Member Functions 272
8.12 Outside Member Function as Inline 272
8.13 Rules for Inline Functions 274
8.14 Data Hiding or Encapsulation 274
8.15 Classes, Objects, and Memory 277
8.16 static Member Variables 280
8.17 static Member Functions 286
8.18 static Object 289
8.19 Array of Objects 290
8.20 Objects as Function Arguments 292
8.21 friend Functions 295
8.22 The const Member Functions 304
8.23 The Volatile Member Function 305
8.24 Recursive Member Function 306
8.25 Local Classes 307
8.26 empty, static, and const Classes 310
8.27 Member Function and Non-member Function 310
8.28 The main() Function as a Member Function 311
8.29 Overloading Member Functions 312
8.30 Overloading main() Functions 313
8.31 The main(), Member Function, and Indirect Recursion 314
8.32 Bit Fields and Classes 317
8.33 Nested Class 319
8.34 More Programs 320
Summary 339
Exercises 340

9. coNStructorS ANd dEStructorS 345

9.1 Introduction 346
9.2 Constructors and Destructors 348
9.3 Characteristics of Constructors and Destructors 349
9.4 Applications with Constructors 350
9.5 Constructors with Arguments (Parameterized Constructor) 353
9.6 Overloading Constructors (Multiple Constructors) 355
9.7 Array of Objects Using Constructors 359
9.8 Constructors with Default Arguments 360
9.9 Copy Constructors 361
9.10 The const Objects 363
9.11 Destructors 364
9.12 Calling Constructors and Destructors 367
9.13 Qualifier and Nested Classes 370
Contents ix

9.14 Anonymous Objects 372

9.15 Private Constructors and Destructors 374
9.16 Dynamic Initialization Using Constructors 375
9.17 Dynamic Operators and Constructors 377
9.18 main() as a Constructor and Destructor 379
9.19 Recursive Constructors 380
9.20 Program Execution Before main() 381
9.21 Constructor and Destructor with Static Members 383
9.22 Local Versus Global Object 384
9.23 More Programs 385
Summary 392
Exercises 392

10. oPErAtor ovErloAdiNg ANd tyPE coNvErSioN 395

10.1 Introduction 395
10.2 The Keyword Operator 398
10.3 Overloading Unary Operators 400
10.4 Operator Return Type 403
10.5 Constraint on Increment and Decrement Operators 404
10.6 Overloading Binary Operators 405
10.7 Overloading with friend Function 409
10.8 Overloading Assignment Operator (=) 412
10.9 Type Conversion 414
10.10 Rules for Overloading Operators 422
10.11 One-Argument Constructor and Operator Function 424
10.12 Overloading Stream Operators 425
10.13 More Programs 427
Summary 438
Exercises 439

11. iNhEritANcE 441

11.1 Introduction 442
11.2 Reusability 442
11.3 Access Specifiers and Simple Inheritance 442
11.4 Protected Data with Private Inheritance 449
11.5 Types of Inheritance 454
11.6 Single Inheritance 456
11.7 Multilevel Inheritance 457
11.8 Multiple Inheritance 459
11.9 Hierarchical Inheritance 460
11.10 Hybrid Inheritance 462
11.11 Multipath Inheritance 465
11.12 Virtual Base Classes 466
11.13 Constructors, Destructors, and Inheritance 468
11.14 Object as a Class Member 483
11.15 Abstract Classes 489
x Contents

11.16 Qualifier Classes and Inheritance 489

11.17 Constructors in Derived Class 490
11.18 Pointers and Inheritance 491
11.19 Overloading Member Function 492
11.20 Advantages of Inheritance 494
11.21 Disadvantages of Inheritance 494
11.22 More Programs 494
Summary 505
Exercises 506

12. ArrAyS 511

12.1 Introduction 511
12.2 One-dimensional Array Declaration and Initialization 511
12.3 Characteristics of Arrays 512
12.4 Accessing Array Elements Through Pointers 515
12.5 Arrays of Pointers 516
12.6 Passing Array Elements to a Function 517
12.7 Passing Complete Array Elements to a Function 518
12.8 Initialization of Arrays Using Functions 519
12.9 Two-dimensional Arrays 520
12.10 Pointers and Two-dimensional Arrays 523
12.11 Three- or Multi-dimensional Arrays 524
12.12 Arrays of Classes 525
Summary 528
Exercises 529

13. PoiNtErS 531

13.1 Introduction 531
13.2 Features of Pointers 532
13.3 Pointer Declaration 533
13.4 Arithmetic Operations with Pointers 536
13.5 Pointer to Pointer 538
13.6 void Pointers 539
13.7 wild Pointers 540
13.8 Pointer to Class 542
13.9 Pointer to Object 544
13.10 The this Pointer 546
13.11 Pointer to Derived Classes and Base Class 550
13.12 Pointer to Members 554
13.13 Accessing Private Members with Pointers 561
13.14 Direct Access to Private Members 562
13.15 Addresses of Objects and void Pointers 564
13.16 More Programs 565
Summary 573
Exercises 573
Contents xi

14. c++ ANd mEmory modElS 577

14.1 Introduction 577
14.2 Memory Models 577
14.3 Dynamic Memory Allocation 581
14.4 The new and delete Operators 582
14.5 Heap Consumption 586
14.6 Overloading new and delete Operators 588
14.7 Overloading new and delete in Classes 592
14.8 Execution Sequence of Constructor and Destructor 595
14.9 Specifying Address of an Object 597
14.10 Dynamic Objects 598
14.11 Calling Convention 599
Summary 600
Exercises 601

15. biNdiNg, PolymorPhiSmS, ANd virtuAl fuNctioNS 603

15.1 Introduction 603
15.2 Binding in C++ 604
15.3 Pointer to Base and Derived Class Objects 609
15.4 Virtual Functions 612
15.5 Rules for Virtual Functions 613
15.6 Array of Pointers 615
15.7 Pure Virtual Functions 618
15.8 Abstract Classes 619
15.9 Working of Virtual Functions 621
15.10 Virtual Functions in Derived Classes 627
15.11 Object Slicing 629
15.12 Constructors and Virtual Functions 631
15.13 Virtual Destructors 632
15.14 Destructors and Virtual Functions 634
Summary 635
Exercises 635

16. APPlicAtioNS with filES 639

16.1 Introduction 639
16.2 File Stream Classes 641
16.3 Steps of File Operations 643
16.4 Checking for Errors 650
16.5 Finding End of a File 653
16.6 File Opening Modes 655
16.7 File Pointers and Manipulators 657
16.8 Manipulators with Arguments 661
16.9 Sequential Access Files 664
16.10 Binary and ASCII Files 666
xii Contents

16.11 Random Access Operation 670

16.12 Error Handling Functions 674
16.13 Command-Line Arguments 679
16.14 Strstreams 680
16.15 Sending Output to Devices 682
16.16 More Programs 684
Summary 691
Exercises 692

17. gENEric ProgrAmmiNg with tEmPlAtES 697

17.1 Introduction 698
17.2 Need for Templates 698
17.3 Definition of Class Templates 698
17.4 Normal Function Templates 701
17.5 Working of Function Templates 704
17.6 Class Templates with More Parameters 704
17.7 Function Templates with More Arguments 705
17.8 Overloading of Template Functions 708
17.9 Member Function Templates 709
17.10 Recursion with Template Functions 710
17.11 Class Templates with Overloaded Operators 711
17.12 Class Templates Revisited 713
17.13 Class Templates and Inheritance 715
17.14 Bubble Sort Using Function Templates 717
17.15 Guidelines for Templates 718
17.16 Differences Between Templates and Macros 719
17.17 Linked Lists with Templates 720
17.18 More Programs 722
Summary 727
Exercises 728

18. worKiNg with StriNgS 731

18.1 Introduction 731
18.2 Moving From C String to C++ String 734
18.3 Declaring and Initializing String Objects 735
18.4 Relational Operators 738
18.5 Handling String Objects 740
18.6 String Attributes 743
18.7 Accessing Elements of Strings 747
18.8 Comparing and Exchanging 750
18.9 Miscellaneous Functions 752
18.10 More Programs 754
Summary 757
Exercises 757
Contents xiii

19. ExcEPtioN hANdliNg 759

19.1 Introduction 759
19.2 Principles of Exception Handling 760
19.3 The Keywords try, throw, and catch 760
19.4 Guidelines for Exception Handling 761
19.5 Multiple catch Statements 765
19.6 Catching Multiple Exceptions 767
19.7 Re-throwing Exception 768
19.8 Specifying Exceptions 769
19.9 Exceptions in Constructors and Destructors 771
19.10 Controlling Uncaught Exceptions 773
19.11 Exceptions and Operator Overloading 774
19.12 Exceptions and Inheritance 776
19.13 Class Templates with Exception Handling 777
19.14 Guidelines for Exception Handling 778
19.15 More Programs 779
Summary 781
Exercises 782

20. ovErviEw of StANdArd tEmPlAtE librAry 785

20.1 Introduction to STL 785
20.2 STL Programing Model 786
20.3 Containers 786
20.4 Sequence Containers 787
20.5 Associative Containers 789
20.6 Algorithms 789
20.7 Iterators 794
20.8 Vectors 795
20.9 Lists 801
20.10 Maps 808
20.11 Function Objects 811
Summary 814
Exercises 815

21. AdditioNAl iNformAtioN About ANSi ANd turbo-c++ 817

21.1 Introduction 817
21.2 Innovative Data Types 818
21.3 New Type-casting Operators 821
21.4 The Keyword explicit 826
21.5 The Keyword mutable 827
21.6 Namespace Scope 828
21.7 Nested Namespaces 829
21.8 Anonymous Namespaces 830
21.9 The Keyword using 830
xiv Contents

21.10 Namespace Alias 835

21.11 The Standard Namespace std 835
21.12 ANSI and Turbo-C++ Keywords 836
21.13 ANSI and Turbo-C++ Header Files 839
21.14 C++ Operator Keywords 840
Summary 840
Exercises 841

22. c++ grAPhicS 843

22.1 Introduction 843
22.2 Computer Display Modes 844
22.3 Video Display and Display Adapters 844
22.4 Initilisation of Graphics 844
22.5 Few Additional Graphics Functions 846
22.6 Programs Using Library Functions 848
22.7 Working with Texts 856
22.8 Filling Patterns with Different Colors and Styles 858
22.9 Mouse Programming 862
22.10 Drawing Noncommon Figures 866
Summary 867
Exercises 867

Appendices 869

Index 879
 Preface

Programming in C++ is meant for students pursuing various disciplines such as engineer-
ing, science, computer application, and diploma courses. Students who are learning object-
oriented programming (OOP) can also refer to this book. It covers the subject of C++ as per
the syllabi prescribed by various branches of Indian universities, state board of technical
educations, and the Department of Electronics and Accreditation of Computer Courses. Hence,
this book can be adopted in engineering, degree as well as other courses that deal with this sub-
ject. Written for beginners and for those who have some knowledge of C, the book will be espe-
cially useful for students who are learning object-oriented programming.
Designed to bridge the gap between theory and practice, the chapters have been presented
using a systematic and lucid approach. Each topic is explained in an easy-to-understand manner
with ample worked-out examples and programs. The book abounds with about 700 solved
programs and as many as 300 exercises for the student’s benefit. The programmer can run the
solved programs, see the output and appreciate the concepts of C++.
The programs have been fully tested and executed with Borland’s Turbo C++ compiler
version 3.00 and Visual C++ 6.0 compiler. The programs in Chapter 22 have been tested and
compiled with Java Compiler version 2.
This second edition has been thoroughly revised based on comments and responses received
for the previous edition. All programming examples have been tested, compiled and executed.
While utmost care has been taken at the time of writing this book, it is possible that errors and
omissions may have inadvertently crept in. Such incongruities, if any, may please be pointed
out. Suggestions and feedback are most welcome and may be directed to my e-mail address:
ankamthane@gmail.com.

AcKNowlEdgEmENtS
I express my gratitude to the Minister for Technical and Medical Education of Maharashtra State,
Honorable Shri D. P. Sawant, who complimented and felicitated me for writing technical books,
while he was invited to our institute recently in the month of May 2013. He also encouraged me
to write more books.
I am grateful to Prof. B. M. Naik, Former Principal of S.G.G.S. Institute of Engineering and
Technology, Nanded, who has always acted as a source of encouragement. His dynamism and
leadership led me to write this book and I will never forget his support and words of wisdom.
xvi Preface

Special thanks are due to the members of the board of governors of S.G.G.S. Institute of
Engineering and Technology, who motivated me to write this book. I thank eminent industrialist
Shri B. N. Kalyani, head of the Kalyani Group of Companies, for inspiring and complimenting
me for authoring technical books. I am also obliged to Dr L. M. Waghmare, Director of our
institute, for supporting and appreciating me while writing this book.
I am indebted to all my colleagues, friends and students who helped me at the time of
preparing the manuscript for this book. I acknowledge the support rendered by Dr S. V. Bonde,
Dr P. D. Jadhav, Dr P. Pramanik, Dr P. S. Charpe, Dr B. M. Dabde, Dr Y. V. Joshi, Dr U. V. Kulkarni,
Dr S. P. Kallurkar, Dr V. M. Nandedkar, Dr A. U. Digraskar, Dr R. S. Holambe, Dr B. M. Patre,
Prof. R. K. Chavan, Dr J. V. L. Venkatesh, Prof. P. S. Nalawade, S. S. Hatkar, Dr R. C. Thool,
Dr V. R. Thool, Dr D. D. Doye, Milind Bhalerao, Dr A. B. Gonde, Dr A. Chakraborthi,
Dr A. V. Nandedkar, Dr P. B. Londhe, Dr R. R. Manthalkar, Dr S. S. Gajre, Prof. N. G. Megde,
Dr A. S. Sontakke, Dr R. H. Chille, Dr L. M. Waikar and A. I. Tamboli of S.G.G.S. Institute of
Engineering and Technology.
I thank my friends Principal Prof. S. L. Kotgire and Prof. Balaji Bacchewar for their words
of encouragement. M. M. Jahagirdar, L. M. Buddhewar, K. M. Buddhewar, D. V. Deshpande,
S. R. Kokne, M. G. Damkondawar, Yeramwar, Pampatwar, D. R. Yerawar, S. R. Tumma, and
S. R. Mana also helped me to a great extent while writing this book.
I thank Pearson Education for publishing this book. In particular, I thank Ms V. Pavithra and
Ms Neha Goomer for their help in seeing this book through production. In addition, I also thank
Thomas Rajesh for his constant encouragement.
I appreciate the help and support provided by all the students, faculty, and non-teaching staff
of this institute as well as that of other friends who have directly or indirectly added value to this
book.
Thanks are also due to my wife, Surekha, who persistently supported me at all times. I am
indebted to my sons Amol and Amit, daughter Sangita, as also my daughter-in-law Swarupa, who
all played a key role in bringing this book to fruition. Swarupa was of immense help in drawing
the figures in several chapters. I thank all of them.

Ashok Namdev Kamthane

 About the Author

Ashok Namdev Kamthane obtained his M.E. (Electronics) degree from S.G.G.S. Institute of
Engineering and Technology, Nanded. A meritorious student throughout his career, he has bagged
a number of prizes including cash and medals for his distinct work in the academics. For his
M. E. (Electronics) dissertation, he worked at the Bhabha Atomic Research Center, Mumbai.
Associated with the teaching profession for the past 30 years, Kamthane was instrumental
in the development of hardware and software using the 8051 (8-bit microcontroller) on Acoustic
Transceiver System required in submarines. He has also worked at Melton as an executive.
Currently Associate Professor at the Department of Electronics and Telecommunication
Engineering in S.G.G.S Institute of Engineering and Technology, he has guided a number of
undergraduate and postgraduate students in their projects and published a number of technical
papers at both national and international conferences.
This page is intentionally left blank.
 Introduction to C++ 1
cHaPter

• 1.1 Differences between C and C++

• 1.2 Evolution of C++
• 1.3 The ANSI Standard
Chapter Outline

• 1.4 The Object Oriented Technology

• 1.5 Disadvantage of Conventional Programming
• 1.6 Programming Paradigms
• 1.7 Preface to Object Oriented Programming
• 1.8 Key Concept of Object Oriented Programming
• 1.9 Advantages of OOP
• 1.10 Object Oriented Languages
• 1.11 Usage of OOP
• 1.12 Usage of C++

1.1 Differences between c anD c++

Some differences between C and C++ are as follows:
(1) C is a procedure/function-oriented language and C++ language is driven by a procedure/
object.
(2) Data is not protected in C, whereas data is secured in C++. Data hiding concept is absent
in C.
(3) C uses a top down approach while C++ uses a bottom up approach. The program is
prepared step by step in C, and in C++ base elements are prepared first.
(4) In C, we cannot give the same name to two functions in a program, whereas due to the
function overloading feature, the above concept is possible in C++. One can initialize a
number of functions with the same name, but with different arguments. The polymorphism
feature is built in C++, which supports this concept.
2 Introduction to C++

(5) C uses printf() and scanf() functions to write and read the data respectively,
while C++ uses cout and cin objects for output and input operations, respectively.
Further, the cout uses << (insertion operator) and cin uses >> ( extraction operator).
(6) C uses stdio.h file for input and output functions, whereas C++ uses iostream.h
for these functions.
(7) Constructor and destructors are absent in C and the same are provided in C++.
(8) Inline functions are supported by C++, and the same are absent in C. Inline func-
tions can be used as micros. They are stated by a word ‘inline’.

1.2 evolution of c++

C SIMULA 67
C++ is an object oriented programming language and also con-
sidered as an extension of C. Bjarne Stroustrup at AT&T Bell
Laboratories in Murray Hill, New Jersey (USA) developed this
language in the early 1980s. Stroustrup, a master of Simula67
and C, wanted to combine the features of both the languages
and he developed a powerful language that supports object-ori-
ALGOL 68 C WITH CLASSES
ented programming with features of C. The outcome was C++
as per Fig. 1.1. Various features were derived from Simula67
and algol68. Stroustrup called the new language ‘C with
classes’. However, in 1983, the name was changed to C++.
The thought of C++ came from the C increment operator
C++ ++. Rick Mascitti coined the term C++ in 1983. Therefore,
C++ is an extension of C. C++ is a superset of C. All the
concepts of C are applicable to C++ also.
fig. 1.1 Evolution of C++
For developing complicated applications, object orient-
ed language such as C++ is the most convenient and easy.
Hence, a programmer must be aware of its features.

1.3 tHe ansi stanDarD

The ANSI stands for American National Standards Institute. This Institute was founded in 1918.
The main goal for establishing this Institute was to suggest, reform, recommend, and publish stan-
dards for data processing in the USA. This committee sets up the standard in the computer industry.
The recognized council working under the procedure of the American National Standards
Institute (ANSI) has made an international standard for C++. The C++ standard is also referred to
as ISO (International Standards Organization) standard. The process of standardization is gradual
and the first draft of the planned ANSI standard was made on 25 January 1994. This book will
continue to refer ANSI standard code, which is more commonly used. The ANSI standard is an
attempt to ensure that the C++ is portable.

1.4 tHe object orienteD tecHnology

Nature is composed of various objects. Living beings can be categorized into different objects.
Let us consider an example of a teaching institute which has two different working sections –
teaching and non-teaching. Further sub-grouping of teaching and non-teaching can be made for
The Object Oriented Technology 3

the coordination of management. The various departments of any organization can be thought of
as objects working for certain goals and objectives.
Usually an institute has faculty of different departments. The Director/Principal is a must for
the overall management of the institute. The Academic Dean is responsible for the academics of
the institute. The Dean for Planning should have the future plans of the institute and he/she must
see how the infrastructure is utilized effectively. The Dean R&D should see research activities
run in the institute forever.
Besides teaching staff there must be laboratory staff for assistance in conducting practical ses-
sions, and a site development section for beautification of the campus. The accounts department
is also required for handling monetary transactions and salaries of the employees. The Sports sec-
tion is entrusted the responsibility of sports activities. The Registrar for Administration and staff
for dealing with administrative matters of the institute are also required. Each department has an
in-charge who carries clear-cut given responsibilities. Every department has its own work as stat-
ed above. When an institute’s work is distributed into departments as shown in Fig. 1.1, it is com-
fortable to accomplish goals and objectives. The activities are carried on smoothly. The burden of
one particular department has to be shared among different departments with personnel. The staff
in the department is controlled properly and act according to the instructions laid down by the
management. The faculty performs activities related to teaching. If the higher authority needs to
know the details regarding the theory, practical, seminar and project loads of individuals of the de-
partment, then a person from the department furnishes the same to the higher authority. This way
some responsible person from the department accesses the data and provides the higher authority
with the requisite information. It is also good to think that no unconnected person from another
department reads the data or attempts to make any alteration that might corrupt the data.
As shown in Fig. 1.2, an institute is divided into different departments such as library,
classroom, computer laboratory, etc. Each department performs its own activities in association
with the other departments. Each department may be considered as a module and it contains
class and object in C++ language. This theory of class and object can be extended to every
walk of life and can be implemented with software. In general, objects are in terms of entities.

Computer Lab

Class Room

Library

fig. 1.2 Relationship between different sections

4 Introduction to C++

In a nutshell, in object oriented programming objects of a program interact by sending

messages to each other.

1.5 DisaDvantage of conventional Programming

Traditional programming languages such as COBOL, FORTRAN, C etc. are commonly known
as procedure oriented languages. The program written in these languages consists of a sequence
of instructions that tells the compiler or interpreter to perform a given task. Numerous functions
are initiated by the user to perform a task. When a program code is large, it becomes inconve-
nient to manage it. To overcome this problem, procedures or subroutines were adopted to make
a program more understandable to the programmers. A program is divided into many functions.

Main Function

Function-A Function-B Function-C

Function-D Function-E

Function-F Function-G Function-H

fig. 1.3 Flow of functions in non-OOP languages

Each function can call another function, as shown in Fig. 1.3. Each function has its own task. If
the program is too large the function also creates problems. In many programs, important data
variables are declared as global. In case of programs containing several functions, every function
can access the global data as per the simulation in Fig. 1.4. In huge programs it is difficult to know
what data is used by which function. Due to this the program may contain several logical errors.
Global Variables Global Variables Global variables

Function A Function B Function C Function D

Local Variable Local Variable Local Variable Local Variable

fig. 1.4 Sharing of data by functions in non-OOP languages

The following are the drawbacks observed in monolithic, procedure, and structured program-
ming languages:
Programming Paradigms 5

(1) Huge programs are divided into smaller programs known as functions. These functions
can call one another. Hence security is not provided.
(2) No importance is given to security of data and importance is laid on doing things.
(3) Data passes globally from function to function.
(4) Most function accesses global data.

1.6 Programming ParaDigms

(1) monolithic Programming:
(A) In these types of programming languages,
the program is written with a single function. GLOBAL DATA
A program is not divided into parts; hence it
is named as monolithic programming. It is 1 Statement
also called single thread execution. 2 Statement
(B) When the program size increases it leads 3 Statement
to difficulty.
goto 50
(C) In monolithic programming languages
such as basic and assembly language, the 50 Statement
data variables declared are global and the 51 Statement
52 Statement
statements are written in sequence.
(D) The program contains jump statements goto 1
such as goto that transfers control to any
99 Statement
statement as specified in it. Fig. 1.5 shows 100 Statement
a program of monolithic type. The global
data can be accessed from any portion of
the program. Due to this reason the data is fig. 1.5 Program in monolithic
not fully protected. programming
(E) The concept of sub-programs does not
exist, and hence is useful for small programs.

(2) Procedural/structured Programming

(A) Sometimes known as modular programming.
(B) Programs written are more efficient and easier to understand and modify.
(C) The procedural/structured programming languages are similar to solving a prob-
lem by human. In a nut shell, humans attempt a problem by adopting a sequence
of operations.
(D) It makes use of a top-down design model in which a program developer maps out
the overall program structure into separate subsections.
(E) Large size programs can be developed in structured programming such as Pascal
and C. Programs are divided in multiple sub-modules.
(F) Procedural/Structured programming languages such as FORTRAN, BASIC, AL-
GOL, COBOL, C, etc., are divided into a number of segments called as subpro-
grams. There is a main function and it invokes subprograms. Thus, it focuses on
functions apart from data. Figure 1.6 describes a program of procedural/structured
type. It shows different sub-programs accessing the same global data. Here also
the programmer can observe the lack of secrecy.
6 Introduction to C++

(G) The control of program can be transferred using unsafe goto statement.
(H) This type of programming language uses different control structures that are as
follows.
• Decision/selection control statements
• Iteration control statements
• Jump control statements
(I) Data are global and all the sub-programs share the same data, i.e. data are globally
accessible to all functions. Thus, any function operates on the global data and this
directs to loosing some vital information. We can conclude here that a module
represents a function.
(J) Procedural structured/programming languages permit data transfer through mes-
sages by means of functions.
(K) Least importance is given to the data in procedural/structured programming languages.
(L) These languages are used for developing medium-sized software applications.
(M) Complier and interpreter construction are easy and simple with this type of pro-
gramming language. Furthermore, these compilers and interpreters need low
memory to run on the computers.
(N) It is difficult to implement simultaneous processes/parallelization.

GLOBAL DATA

Local Data Local Data Local Data

Modules

fig. 1.6 Program in procedural/structured programming

1.7 Preface to object orienteD Programming

The prime factor in the design of object oriented programming approach is to rectify some of
the faults observed in the procedure oriented languages. OOP acts with data as a critical com-
ponent in program development. It does not allow the data to flow freely around the systems. It
ties data to the functions that operate on it and prevents it from accidental change due to external
functions. OOP permits us to analyze a problem into a number of items called objects and then
assembles data and functions around these items as per Fig. 1.7. Following are the impressive
characteristics of object-oriented programming:
Key Concepts of Object Oriented Programming 7

(1) OOP pays more importance to data rather than function.

(2) Programs are divided into classes and their member functions.
(3) OOP follows a bottom-up approach.
(4) New data items and functions can be comfortably added whenever essential.
(5) Data is private and prevented from accessing external functions.
(6) Objects communicate with each other through functions.

Object A Object B Object C

Data variables Data variables Data variables

Member function Member function Member function

Data variables Data variables Data variables

Member function Member function Member function

fig. 1.7 Relation between data and member function in OOP

1.8 Key concePts of object orienteD Programming

Object oriented programming language is a feature that allows a mode of modularizing programs by
forming ory area for data as well as functions that is used as object for making copies of modules as per
requirement.

There are several fundamental concepts in object oriented programming. They are shown in Fig. 1.8
and are discussed as follows.

Encapsulation

Data abstraction

Inheritance
C++
Polymorphism

Delegation

Genericity

fig. 1.8 Concepts/elements of object oriented paradigm

8 Introduction to C++

(1) objects

Objects are primary run-time entities in object oriented programming.

Objects are primary run-time entities in object-oriented programming. They may stand for a
thing that makes sense in a specific application. Some examples are a spot, a person, any data
item related to the program including user-defined data types. Programming issues are analyzed
in terms of object and the type of transmission between them. Program objects must be selected
like the items equivalent to actual world objects. Objects occupy space in memory. Every object
has its own properties or features that illustrate what the object can do. An object is a specimen
of a class. It can be singly recognized by its name. It declares the state that is shown by the data
values of its characteristic at a specific time. The state of the object varies according to the pro-
cedure used with it. It is called as the action of the object. The action of the object depends upon
the member function defined within its class.
Fig. 1.9 (a) shows some of the objects that we use in our daily life.


Object: City
Data:
Name_of_city
Population
Telephone Book Computer Watch Lock
Area


Functions:
Average age
Literacy_rate
Display
Home Trophy Television Bicycle Ambulance

fig. 1.9 (a) Commonly available objects fig. 1.9 (b) Representation of
an object

Objects communicate with each other by sending messages. An object can be represented by
Fig 1.9 (b).
The name of the above object is city. Its data members are name_of_city, population, and
area. The various functions associated with the city are average age, literacy_ rate, and display.

(2) classes

A class is grouping of objects that have the identical properties, common behavior, and shared relation-
ship. A class binds the data and its related functions together.

A class is the accomplishment of abstract data type. It defines the nature and methods that act
on the data structure and abstract data type, respectively. Specimens are also called as objects. In
other words, a class is a grouping of objects that have identical properties, common behavior, and
shared relationship. For example, Tata’s Swift, Maruti’s Alto etc. are the members of a class car.
The entire group of data and code of an object can be built as a user-defined data type us-
ing class. Objects are nothing but variables of type class. Once a class has been declared, the
programmer can create a number of objects associated with that class. The syntax used to create
Key Concepts of Object Oriented Programming 9

an object is similar to the syntax used to create an integer variable in C. A class is a model and
not a true specimen of the object. Every object has its own value for each of its member variables.
However, it shares the property names or operations with other instances of the class. Thus,
classes define the characteristic and action of objects.

Class: car
Properties: company, model, color, and capacity
Actions: Speed(), average() and break().

Class: computer
Properties: Brand, resolution, price and size
Action: processing(), display() and printing()

Class: floppy
Properties: company, size and capacity
Action: storing(), protection(), and retrieving()

fig. 1.10 Objects and their properties

In Fig. 1.10 commonly useful classes are described with their properties and action they per-
form. For example, a car has properties like company, model and color with which a car can be
identified among a number of cars of other properties, and the actions like speed() and aver-
age() describes its working.

Class home
{
Telephone

Book
Computer {
Watch

}
Lock 
Class vehicle

{} 
Class entertainment 
{} 
}
fig. 1.11 Classes and their members

Figure 1.11 describes the classes and related data that come under the different classes.
10 Introduction to C++

(3) method

An operation required for an object or entity when coded in a class is called a method.

An operation required for an object or entity when coded in a class is called a method. The opera-
tions that are required for an object are to be defined in the class. All objects in a class carry out
certain common actions or operations. Each action needs an object that becomes a function in the
class that defines it and is referred to as a method.
In Fig. 1.12 the class and its associated data members and functions are shown in different
styles. It is a frequent style of writing a class in the program.
The class A contains private data members and public methods or member functions.
Usually, the data members are declared private and methods or member functions are declared
as public and they are available outside the class. The data member of any class uses its member
functions or methods to perform operations.

class A
{
private
data member1;
data member2; Members
data member(n);
public
method1() { } Methods or
method2() { } Member functions
method_n() { }
};

(a)

Class A Class A

Data member 1 Data member 1

Data member 2
Data member 3 Method 1
:
Data member 2
:
Data member n Method 2

Method 1
Method 2
Method 3 Method n
:
:
Method n

(b)

fig. 1.12 (a) and (b) Representation of methods in different manners

Key Concepts of Object Oriented Programming 11

(4) Data abstraction

Abstraction refers to the procedure of representing essential features without including the background
details.

Abstraction refers to the procedure of representing essential features without including the back-
ground details. Classes use the theory of abstraction and are defined as a list of abstract properties
such as size, cost, height, and few functions to operate on these properties. Data abstraction is
the procedure of identifying properties and method related to a specific entity as applicable to
the application.
A powerful method to achieve abstraction is through the manipulation of hierarchical clas-
sifications. It permits us the breaking of semantics of multiple systems into layers by separating
them into multiple controllable parts. For example, a computer as shown in Fig. 1.13 is made of
various parts such as CPU, keyboard, and so on. We think it as a single unit, but the single unit
has several sub-units. They together do the single task. By assembling sub-parts we can build a
single system.
Hierarchical abstraction of complicated systems can also be used in computer software. The
data from conventional procedure oriented programs can be converted by abstraction mechanism
into its partial objects. A series of operation steps may develop a set of messages between these
objects. Each object shows its own attributes.
Data abstraction is used to define a data type available in the programming language, called
as abstract data type (ADT). It consists of a set of values and a set of operations.

 
(a) Computer as single unit (b) Different components of computer

fig 1.13 Computer and its parts

(5) encapsulation

The packing of data and functions into a single component is known as encapsulation.

C++ supports the features of encapsulation using classes. The packing of data and functions into
a single component is known as encapsulation. The data is not reachable by the outside functions.
Only those functions that are able to access the data are defined within the class. These functions
prepare the interface between the object’s data and the program. With encapsulation we can
accomplish data hiding. Data hiding is an important feature using which an object can be used
without the user knowing how it works internally.
In C++ the fundamental of encapsulation is class. A class defines the structure of data and
member functions. It is common to all its objects. Class is a logical structure whereas object is
12 Introduction to C++

a physical actuality. The goal of the class is to encapsulate complication. The class also has a
mechanism for hiding the data. Each member in the class may be private or public. Any non-
member function cannot access the data of the class. The public section of the class must be
mindfully coded not to expose the inner details of the class. Figure 1.14 explains sections of
encapsulation.
class C
Φ Φ Φ Φ Φ
κ Private Data
υυυ κκκκκ
Members
υ Private methods Φ υυυ κκκκκ Φ
υυυ κκκκκ
Φ Public methods Φ υυυ κκκκκ Φ
ι Public data Φ Φ Φ Φ Φ
members ιιιι

fig. 1.14 Encapsulation: Private and public sections

(6) inheritance

Inheritance is the method by which objects of one class get the properties of objects of another class.

Inheritance is the method by which objects of

Red Yellow Blue one class get the properties of objects of another
class. In object oriented programming inheritance
provides the thought of reusability. The programmer
can add new properties to the existing class without
changing it. This can be achieved by deriving a new
Orange Green Violet class from the existing one. The new class will pos-
sess features of both the classes. The actual power
of the inheritance is that it permits the programmer
to reuse a class that is nearly, but not precisely, what
Reddish Yellowish Bluish
he wants, and to tailor the class in such a manner
brown brown brown that it does not bring any unwanted incidental re-
sult into the rest of the class. Thus, inheritance is the
fig. 1.15 Inheritance feature that permits the reuse of an existing class to
make a new class. Figure 1.15 shows an example of
inheritance.
In Fig. 1.15, red, yellow and blue are the main colors. The orange is created from the combi-
nation of red and yellow, green is created from yellow and blue and violet is created from red and
blue. The orange color has attributes of both red and yellow, which produces a new effect. Thus,
many combinations are possible.

(7) Polymorphism

Polymorphism allows the same function to act in a different way in different classes.
Key Concepts of Object Oriented Programming 13

Polymorphism makes it possible for the same functions to act differently on different classes as
shown in Fig. 1.16. It is an important feature of OOP concept. It holds an ability to take more than
one form. Polymorphism accomplishes an important part in allowing objects of different classes
to share the same external interface. It is possible to code a non-specific (generi(c) interface to a
set of associated actions.

Line

Display()

Dotted Object Single Object Dash Object

Display(dotted) Display(single) Display(dash)

fig. 1.16 Polymorphism in OOP

(8) Dynamic binding

Binding means connecting one program to another program that is to be executed in reply to the call.

Binding means connecting one program to another program that is to be executed in reply to
the call. Dynamic binding is also known as late binding. The code present in the specified
program is unknown till it is executed. It is analogous polymorphism.
In Fig. 1.16 polymorphism allows the single object to invoke similar function from different
classes. The program action is different in all the classes. At execution time, the code analogous
to the object under the present reference will be executed. The reader is advised to refer polymor-
phism chapter for more details.

(9) message passing

An object oriented programming includes objects. The objects communicate with one another.
The programming with these objects should be followed with following steps.
(1) Declaring classes that define objects and their actions.
(2) Declaring objects from classes.
(3) Implementing relation between objects.
Data is transferred from one object to another object. A message for an object is the demand
for implementation of the process. Message passing consists of indicating the name of the object,
function, and required data elements (Fig. 1.17). Objects can be created, released, and interacted
with each other. An object is workable, as long as it is active. In object oriented programming
there is a panorama of independent objects that communicate with each other by swapping mes-
sages. Objects invoke member functions. They also negate if the calling object is not a member of
14 Introduction to C++

the same class. Thus a message is a solicitation to an object to call one of its member functions.
A message contains name of the member function and parameters of the function. Execution of
member function is just a response generated due to receipt of a message. It is possible when the
function and the object are of the same class.
Obj.Display (argument)

Object Data

Communication operator
Message

fig. 1.17 Message Passing

(10) reusability

Object oriented technology allows reusability of the classes by extending them to other classes using
inheritance.

Object oriented technology allows reusability of the classes by extending them to other class-
es using inheritance. Once a class is defined, the other programmer can also use it in their
programs. The programmer can also add new feature to the derived classes. The verified and
checked qualities of base classes need not to be redefined. Thus, the reusability saves the time.
In Fig. 1.18, class A is reused and class B is created. Again class B is reused and class
C is created.
CLASS A

CLASS B

CLASS C

fig. 1.18 Reusability

(11) Delegation
In OOP, two classes can be joined in two ways: (a) Inheritance, (b) Delegation. Both these ways
provide reusability of the class.
In Inheritance one class can be derived from the other class. The relationship between these
two classes is called as kind of relationship. For example if class Y is derived from class X, then
class Y is known as kind of X. Figure 1.19 (a) explains this point.
Advantages of OOP 15

CLASS A CLASS B
{ }; { };

Class X//Base class

CLASS C
{
A a; // Object of class A as data member
B b; // Object of class B as data member
Class Y//Derived class }

(a) (b)

fig. 1.19 Relationships between two classes: (a) Kind of relationship (Inheritance)
(b) has a relationship (Delegation)

The second type of relationship is has a relationship. When object of one class is used as
data member in the other class, such composition of objects is known as delegation. As shown in
Fig. 1.19 (b) class C has two data members. These two data members are objects of class A
and B, such relationship between the classes in known as has a relationship.

(12) genericity
The software components of a program have more than one version depending on the data
types of arguments. This feature allows declaration of variables without specifying exact
data type. The compiler identifies the data type at run time. The programmer can create a
function that can be used for any type of data. The template feature in C++ allows generic
programming.

1.9 aDvantages of ooP

Object oriented technology provides many advantages to the programmer and the user. This
technology solves many problems related to software development, provides improved quality
and low cost software.
(1) Object oriented programs can be comfortably upgraded.
(2) Using inheritance, we can eliminate redundant program code and continue the use of
previously defined classes.
(3) The technology of data hiding facilitates the programmer to design and develop safe
programs that do not disturb code in other parts of the program.
(4) The encapsulation feature provided by OOP languages allows programmer to define the
class with many functions and characteristics and only few functions are exposed to the
user.
(5) All object oriented programming languages allows creating extended and reusable parts
of programs.
(6) Object oriented programming changes the way of thinking of a programmer. This re-
sults in rapid development of new software in a short time.
(7) Objects communicate with each other and pass messages.
16 Introduction to C++

1.10 object orienteD languages

There are many languages which support object oriented programming. Tables 1.1 and 1.2 describe
the OOP languages and features supported by them.
table 1.1 Properties of pure OOP and object based languages

Pure object oriented languages object based

languages

Properties java simula smalltalk eiffel java ada

Encapsulation      
Inheritance      No

Multiple inheritance      No

Polymorphism      
Binding (Early and late) Both Both Late binding Early binding Both Early binding
Genericity      
Class libraries      Few

Garbage collection      
Persistence   Promised Less  Same as 3GL

Concurrency   Less Promised  Hard

table 1.2 Properties of extended traditional languages

extended traditional languages

Properties objective c c++ charm ++ objective Pascal turbo Pascal
Encapsulation     
Inheritance     
Multiple inheritance    --- ---
Polymorphism     
Binding (Early and late) Both Both Both Late Early
Genericity     
Class libraries     
Garbage collection     
Persistence     
Concurrency Poor Poor   
Usage of OOP 17

The following are the object-oriented languages, which are widely accepted by the pro-
grammer.
• C++
• Smalltalk
• Charm ++
• Java

smalltalK
Smalltalk is a pure object oriented language. C++ makes few compromises to ensure quick per-
formance and small code size. Smalltalk uses run-time binding. Smalltalk programs are con-
sidered to be faster than the C++. Smalltalk needs longer time to learn than C++. Smalltalk
programs are written using Smalltalk browser. Smalltalk uses dynamic objects and memory is
allocated from free store. It also provides automatic garbage collection and memory is released
when object is no longer in use.

cHarm++
Charm ++ is also an object oriented programming language. It is a portable. The language pro-
vides features such as inheritance, strict type checking, overloading, and reusability. It is de-
signed in order to work efficiently with different parallel systems together with shared memory
systems, and networking.

java
Java was developed by Patrick Naughton, James Gosling, Chris Warth, Mike Sheridan and Ed Frank
at Sun Microsystems. Java is an object oriented programming language and supports maximum
OOP characteristics exist. Its statement structure is like C and C++, but it easier than C++. Java
excludes few confusing and unsafe features of C and C++ like pointers.
Java allows client/server programming. Java is used for Internet programming. The Java
programs are downloaded by the client machines and executed on different types of hardware.
This portability is achieved by translation of Java program to machine code using compiler and
interpreter.
The Java compiler converts the source program to JVM (Java virtual machine). The JVM is
a dummy CPU. The compiler Java program is called as byte code. The Java interpreter translates
byte code into the object code. Compiler and interpreter do the conversion of Java program to
object code.

1.11 usage of ooP

Object oriented technology is changing the style of software engineers to think, analyze, plan,
and implement the software. The software developed using OOP technology is more efficient and
easy to update. OOP languages have standard class library. The users in their program can reuse
the standard class library. Thus, it saves lot of time and coding work.
The most popular application of object oriented programming is windows. There are sev-
18 Introduction to C++

eral windowing software based on OOP technology. Following are the areas for which OOP is
considered.
(1) Simulation
(2) Object oriented DBMS
(3) Office automation software
(4) Artificial Intelligence and expert systems
(5) CAD/CAM software
(6) Network programming & Internet applications
(7) System software

1.12 usage of c++

C++ is a flexible language. Lengthy programs can be easily controlled by the use of C++. It
permits us to create hierarchy -associated objects and libraries that can be useful to other pro-
grammers. C++ helps the programmer to write bug-free program, which are easy to maintain.

summary

(1) C++ is an object oriented programming (7) Larger programs are developed in structured
language invented by Bjarne Stroupstrup at programming such as Pascal and C. Pro-
AT&T Bell Laboratories. grams are divided in multiple sub modules
(2) The recognized council working under the and procedures.
procedure of the American National Standard (8) OOP acts with data as a critical component in
Institute (ANSI) has made an international the program development and does not let the
standard for C++. data to flow freely around the systems.
(3) The disadvantage in conventional program- (9) Object: Objects are primary run-time enti-
ming language is that the program written in ties in an object-oriented programming. They
these languages consists of a sequence of in- may stand for a thing that makes sense in a
structions that tells the compiler or interpreter specific application.
to perform a given task. When program code (10) Class: A class is grouping of objects that have
is large then it becomes inconvenient to man- the identical properties, common behavior,
age. and shared relationship. The entire group of
(4) The prime factor in the design of object ori- data and code of an object cab be built as a
ented programming approach is that to get user-defined data type using class.
back some of the faults found in the proce- (11) Method: An operation required of an object
dure oriented languages. or entity when coded in a class is called a
(5) In monolithic programming languages such method.
as basic and assembly language, the data (12) Data Abstraction: Abstraction directs to the
variables declared are global and the state- procedure of representing essential features
ments are written in sequence. without including the background details.
(6) In the procedural programming languages (13) Encapsulation: C++ supports the features of
such as FORTRAN and COBOL, programs encapsulation using classes. The packing of
are divided into number of segments called data and functions into a single component is
as subprograms. Thus it focuses on functions known as encapsulations.
apart from data. (14) Inheritance: Inheritance is the method by
Exercises 19

which objects of one class get the proper- (17) The languages C++, Smalltalk, Eiffel and
ties of objects of another class. In object ori- Java are widely used OOP languages.
ented programming inheritance provides the (18) Object oriented technology is changing the
thought of reusability. style of software engineers to think, analyze,
(15) Polymorphism: Polymorphism makes pos- plan and implements the software. The soft-
sible the same functions to act differently on ware developed using OOP technology is
different classes. It is an important feature of more efficient and easy to update.
OOP concept. (19) C++ is a flexible language. Lengthy programs
(16) Object oriented technology allows reusabil- can be easily controlled by the use of C++.
ity of the classes by extending them to other
classes using inheritance.

eXercises

(A) Answer the following questions.

(1) Compare C and C++. (15) Mention the types of relationships be-
(2) What is object oriented programming? tween two classes.
(3) Explain the key concepts of OOP. (16) What is structured oriented program-
(4) What is ANSI standard? ming? Discuss its pros and cons.
(5) What are the disadvantages of conven- (17) How is global data shared in procedural
tional programming languages? programming?
(6) Explain the characteristics of monolithic (18) Describe any two object oriented pro-
programming languages. gramming languages.
(7) Compare structured and procedural lan- (19) What are the differences between Java
guages. and C++?
(8) List the disadvantages of procedural pro- (20) Mention the advantages of OOP languages?
gramming languages. (21) What do you mean by message passing?
(9) Explain evolution of C++. (22) Distinguish between inheritance and
(10) List the names of popular OOP languages. delegation.
(11) List the unique features of an OOP paradigm. (23) Can we define member functions in
(12) What is an object and class? private section?
(13) How is data secured in OOP languages? (24) Can we declare data member in the public
(14) Compare and contrast OOP languages section?
with procedure oriented languages.

(B) Answer the following by selecting the appropriate option.

(1) Data hiding concept is supported by language (c) function names are same but differ­
(a) C ent number of arguments
(b) Basic (d) none of the above
(c) Fortran (3) C++ language was invented by
(d) C++ (a) Bjarne Stroupstrup
(2) Function overloading means (b) Dennis Ritche
(a) different functions with different (c) Ken Thompson
names (d) none of the above
(b) function names are same but same (4) The languages COBOL and BASIC are
number of arguments commonly known as
20 Introduction to C++

(a) procedure oriented languages (b) encapsulations

(b) object oriented languages (c) inheritance
(c) low level languages (d) none of the above
(d) none of the above (9) The existing class can be reused by
(5) A program with only one function is ob- (a) inheritance
served in (b) polymorphism
(a) monolithic programming langu­ (c) dynamic binding
ages. (d) abstraction
(b) object oriented languages (10) Composition of objects in a class is
(c) structured programming languages known as
(d) none of the above (a) delegation
(6) The packing of data and functions into a (b) inheritance
single component is known as (c) polymorphism
(a) encapsulation (d) none of the above
(b) polymorphism (11) A class
(c) abstraction (a) binds the data and its related func­
(d) none of the above tions together
(7) The method by which objects of one class (b) data and their addresses
get the properties of objects of another (c) contains only functions
class is known as (d) none of the above
(a) inheritance (12) The major drawback of procedural pro-
(b) encapsulations gramming languages is
(c) abstraction (a) frequently invoking functions from
(d) none of the above main()
(8) The mechanism that allows same func- (b) non security of data
tions to act differently on different classes (c) non security of methods
is known as (d) none of the above
(a) polymorphism
 Basics of C++ 2
CHAPTER

• 2.1 Introduction
CHAPTER OuTlinE

• 2.2 Steps to Create and Execute a C++ Program

• 2.3 Flowchart for Creating a Source File, Compiling, Linking and Executing in C++
• 2.4 C++ Environments
• 2.5 Typical C++ Environment (Borland C++)
• 2.6 Structure of a C++ Program
• 2.7 Illustrative Simple C++ Program without Class
• 2.8 Header Files and Libraries

2.1 inTRODuCTiOn
A programmer must know rules and steps to develop programs with C++. Programs given in this
book are developed using Borland’s C++ IDE compiler version 3.0. Let us try to follow the steps
for creating, compiling and running programs under Borland’s C++ IDE compiler.

2.2 STEPS TO CREATE AnD EXECuTE A C++ PROGRAM

For creating and executing a C++ program, one must follow various phases. The C++ program
is created with an editor and saved with extension .cpp. Following this step, compilation and
execution operations are to be performed. The following phases are essential in ‘C++’ when a
program is to be executed in MS-DOS mode.
(1) Create
(2) Save
(3) Compile
(4) Execute.
22 Basics of C++

We would now see the steps in each phase.

(1) Steps for creation of a C++ program
(a) Open the Turbo C++ editor. In this book, the path selected for opening the C++ edi-
tor is C:\TURBOC3\TC\BIN. Executable file TC is to be clicked in BIN file to open
the window of C++.
(b) In the Edit menu section with alt+f, select the New option. A new file is selected
with this procedure.
(c) The program should be written in ‘C++’ editor.
(2) Saving a C++ program
(a) Save the program using the Save option in the file menu with extension .cpp.
The reader may create his/her own folder where programs are to be stored. The
file name does not necessarily include extension “.cpp.” The default extension
is “.cpp.” The user can also specify his/her own extension. The C++ program
includes preprocessor directives.
(3) Compilation of a C++ program
(a) The source program contains statements that are to be translated into object codes.
These object codes are used for execution by the computer. So, compile the source
code with alt+c keys.
(b) If the program contains errors, the programmer should correct it using C++ editor.
(c) If there is no error in the program, compilation proceeds and the translated program
is stored in another file with the same file name and with extension “.obj.” This
object file is stored on a secondary storage device such as the disk.
(4) Linking and running/execution of a C++ program
(a) The linking is also an essential process. It puts together all the program files and
functions that are required by the program. For example, if the programmer is us-
ing pow() function, then the object code of this function should be brought from
math.h library of the system and linked to the main() program. After linking, the
program code is stored on the disk. The program code generated is called the execut-
able code.
(b) Run the executable code file with alt+r, in case of no errors. In case there are errors,
correct the program, and follow steps (1), (2), (3), and (4).

2.3 FlOWCHART FOR CREATinG A SOuRCE FilE, COMPilinG, linKinG

AnD EXECuTinG in C++
The following steps are necessary for execution of a program in C++.
• Write the code for a program and save it
• Compile the program with a compiler
• Link the program with library functions
• Run the program.
A flowchart for implementing the aforesaid steps is given in Figure 2.1
C++ Environments 23

Open any text editor

Write the code for the program

Save the file with .cpp as an

extension

Correct the code Compile the program

Yes Syntax
Error / s?

No
Link with library

Run the program

Figure 2.1 Flowchart for creating a C++ program, compiling and linking

The process of compiling, linking and running a program in C++ is elaborated in the following
section.

2.4 C++ EnViROnMEnTS

C++ programs can be implemented on different operating systems such as UNIX, Linux, Win-
dows, and DOS, etc. C++ programs executed under DOS environment can also run successfully
under Windows, because we have to follow the same programming rules on both platforms. Only
the C++ execution environments are different.
Various types of C++ compilers are described below.
(1) GNU C++: The GNU C++ is a compiler and it is available in the source code form. It is
available in different versions.
(2) NDP C++: NDP C++ is also a C++ compiler, i.e. compatible with AT&T C++ 2.0 for
DOS,UNIX , Sun OS, etc.
(3) Oregon C++: Oregon C++ is a C++ compiler compatible with AT&T C++ 2.0 for a
variety of UNIX systems.
(4) Zortech C++ Version 2.1: This compiler has been developed for MS-DOS, OS/2, and
UNIX.
(5) Borland C++: Borland C++ compiler is a combination of two compilers. They are ANSI
standard C compiler and C++ compiler. It runs on MS-DOS. Borland C++ includes Tur-
bo Assembler, Turbo Debugger, and Turbo Profiler.
In the following section, brief information for creating, compiling, and executing C++ programs
are described using Borland C++ compiler.
24 Basics of C++

2.5 TYPiCAl C++ EnViROnMEnT (BORlAnD C++)

In this section, brief information is given about the different platforms for C++ implementation,
and execution of C++ programs using Borland C++ compiler under the Windows platform is
described.

STEP 1: OPEn AnY TEXT EDiTOR

Unix/Linux platform:
Use text editors such as Gedit, Kwrite, Medit, ed, VI, etc.
Windows platform:
Use text editors such as Notepad, Wordpad, etc.
Alternately, one can use integrated Borland C++ compiler, which supports its own text editor.
Once Turbo C++ is installed, it automatically creates a directory turboc3 and subdirectory
bin. Follow the path c:\turboc3 and click the executable file tc. One can use desktop
shortcut for turboc3. Turbo C++ screen appears, which is blank initially and has a menu bar at
the top, which is shown as follows.

STEP 2: WRiTE THE CODE FOR THE PROGRAM

Write the code to fulfill the requirements of the program, if possible using the proper syntax and
indentation using an editor.
Typical C++ Environment (Borland C++) 25

Alternatively, create a source program using integrated Turbo C++ editor. Go to the File menu
and select New. The file name NONAME00.CPP appears on the screen at the centre of the window.
Check whether your source program is typed correctly. If mistakes are found, correct them.

STEP 3: SAVE THE FilE WiTH .CPP AS An EXTEnSiOn

26 Basics of C++

Now press F 2 to save your program or use Save option with .cpp extension. You can change
the file name and save it using the Save option in File menu. In the following window the file
is saved with ABC.CPP.

STEP 4: COMPilE THE PROGRAM

Unix/Linux platform:
Open the terminal window; change the working directory to the directory where the program file
is stored.
Compile the program using the command: g++ filename.cpp
It will display the errors and warnings. If there are any errors and warnings, correct them and
save the corrected file again.
After successful compilation, file a.out will be created in the same directory.
Windows platform:
Use IDE such as Turbo C++.
From the File menu, open the program file and compile it using ‘Compile’ option in Com-
pile menu or use Alt+F 9.
It will display the errors and warnings. If there are any errors or warnings, correct them and
save the corrected file again, compile again. If program is correct, then the window shows:
• Warnings: 0
• Errors: 0
After successful compilation, a file filename.obj will be created in the same directory. The fol-
lowing window shows the compilation of a program named ABC.CPP.
Another Random Scribd Document
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Stranger
in Shrewsbury
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
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Title: The Stranger in Shrewsbury

Author: Thomas J. Howell

Release date: May 29, 2020 [eBook #62274]

Most recently updated: October 18, 2024

Language: English

Credits: Transcribed from the 1824 (second) edition by David

Price

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STRANGER

IN SHREWSBURY ***
Transcribed from the 1824 (second) edition by David Price, email
ccx074@pglaf.org

THE
STRANGER
IN
SHREWSBURY:
OR,
AN HISTORICAL AND
DESCRIPTIVE
 VIEW
OF
SHREWSBURY
AND
ITS ENVIRONS.

BY THOMAS HOWELL.

SECOND EDITION.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

A lovely spot
For all that life can ask! Salubrious! mild!
Its hills are green: its woods and prospects fair!
Its meadows fertile! And to crown the whole
In one delightful word—it is our Home—
Our Native Place.
COTTLE’S ALFRED.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Shrewsbury:
PRINTED AND SOLD BY THE AUTHOR,
And by the Booksellers in the County.

1824.
THE author cannot permit a second edition of the Stranger to issue
from the press, without acknowledging the lasting obligation he is
under to his fellow-townsmen, for the friendly patronage bestowed
on its first appearance.
Shrewsbury,
May 18, 1824.
 HISTORY.

The carelessness which in many instances is evident in the

orthography of our ancestors, frequently renders it matter of
extreme difficulty to fix, with accuracy and precision, the etymology
of places which in early times were conspicuous for the parts they
bore in our national transactions.
This is in some measure the situation of Shrewsbury, which by the
ancient Welsh was called Ymwithig, or “the Delight;” by the Britons
Pengwern; and by the Saxons Scrobbesbyrig; the two latter names
signifying nearly the same, “the Head of the Alder Groves.” But it is
probable that the Normans after their conquest of the Island, either
from inability to pronounce the harsher Saxon words, or from the
spirit of innovation on the names and manners of the inhabitants,
generally possessed by conquerors, were induced to soften the term
into Shrobbesburie and Sloppesburie, from whence were derived the
modern names of Shrewsbury and Salop, in latin Salopia. Some are
inclined to think the latter name was formed from the two Saxon
words sel, signifying pleasant, and hope, the side of a hill, which
certainly accords with its situation.
Leland, the antiquary and poet, in his description of the town, thus
accounts for its name:—

Built on a hill, fair Salop greets the eye,

While Severn forms a crescent gliding by;
Two bridges cross the navigable stream,
And British Alders gave the town a name.
Although much doubt remains relative to the founder of Shrewsbury,
it is certain that “it was repaired about the year 552 by Maelgwyn,
king of North Wales;” and the most probable conjecture is, that it
was erected between the years 520 and 594 by the Britons, in order
to protect themselves from the bloody ravages and harrassing
incursions of the Saxons who had previously levelled the Roman
Uriconium (the present Wroxeter) and its fortress with the ground,
and forced them to retreat beyond the Severn, which then became
the boundary of the kingdom of Mercia.
The Britons having established themselves on the hill Pengwerne,
founded a city, which became the metropolis of that part of Wales
called Powis, one of the princes of which, Brochwell Ysithroc, had his
residence here in 617, and thence it was named Pengwerne Powis.—
The blood-thirsty spirit of their Saxon invaders still pursued them:
after several dreadful and sanguinary contests with the merciless
Offa, the British Prince was at length compelled to abandon the
patrimony of his ancestors and retire to Mathrafal, amidst the
mountains of Montgomeryshire, after witnessing the destruction of
his princely mansion, which stood on the spot lately occupied by the
church of St. Chad; and finally, in 777, to surrender that part of the
country situated between the Severn and a deep dyke and high
rampart, extending 100 miles over roads and mountains and across
deep vallies and rivers, which Offa threw up as a new boundary
between them and Mercia.
In the reign of Alfred, Shrewsbury was numbered among the British
cities, by the name of Caer Pengwerne; and during that of Edward
the elder, a mint was established here, as appears from a piece of
coin now in preservation, with this inscription, Edward Rex Angliæ,
and on the reverse Aelmaer on Scrobe.
Ethelred, with his court, kept the Christmas of 1006 at Shrewsbury,
and being unable to resist the perpetual attacks of the Danes, then
invading England under Swaine, he summoned a council here, by
whose advice he paid £30,000, to procure a temporary and
inglorious peace. About the same time Alfhelm, a prince of the
blood, was invited to a banquet here by Edric, duke of Mercia and
whilst hunting in the neighbourhood was murdered by one Godwin
Porthund, a butcher, at the instigation of Edric, and from whence it is
supposed arose the custom, recited in Doomsday Book, that
whenever the king was here, twelve of the chief citizens should
guard his person during his residence in the city, and attend him
when he enjoyed himself with the pleasures of the chase.
In the year 1016, the inhabitants having revolted to Canute,
Edmund, afterwards, when king surnamed Ironside, marched quickly
hither from the north, and having taken the city, exercised every
species of cruelty on them as a punishment for their revolt.
No material transactions appear to have occurred in the annals of
Shrewsbury for nearly half a century, from the last named date until
the conquest of England by the Normans under William. The city
was then granted, together with nearly the whole of the county and
a great proportion of land in other parts of the kingdom, to Roger de
Montgomery, a Norman chief related to William, and by whom he
was attended in his English expedition. Roger was no sooner put in
possession of his newly acquired property, than being sensible of the
advantages resulting from the situation of the town, he constituted it
the capital of his earldom, and fixed his abode in it as lord
paramount of the county; and having judiciously built a castle on the
isthmus, for the purpose of protecting his residence from the attack
of his enemies, with the assistance of inferior barons of his court,
administered various solemn and kingly acts of justice, donation, and
investiture within its walls. Earl Roger was, however, not suffered to
enjoy the immense possessions bestowed on him by the Norman
conqueror without molestation: Owen Gwynedd, a spirited Welsh
chieftain, excited either by hopes of plunder or a desire to
dispossess the invaders, of a place which was capable of being
rendered a great annoyance to his countrymen in the hands of
powerful enemies, attacked it with a considerable body of Welsh;
and so important was his attack considered by William, that he
marched with a numerous army from the north, for the purpose of
repelling the daring disturber; nor did his usual good fortune desert
him in this instance, Owen being defeated and a great portion of his
followers slain. As a suitable acknowledgment to divine providence
for his good fortune and the splendid triumphs of his arms, the Earl
founded the benedictine Abbey of St. Peter and St. Paul. A short
time previous to his death he was shorn a monk. He died July 27th,
1094, and was buried in the chapel of the Abbey; over his tomb was
placed an armed knight in stone.
Robert de Belesme, son of Roger de Montgomery, who succeeded
his brother Hugh the Red in the earldom of Shrewsbury, united with
the party who wished to seat Robert, duke of Normandy, on the
throne, in lieu of Henry the First; and on the coronation of that
monarch, openly rebelled against his authority, placing the castle
under the command of Roger de Corbet, and garrisoning it with 80
soldiers. Henry immediately marched for Shrewsbury at the head of
60,000 men, and threatening, if the town was not delivered up to
him in three days, to hang all he should find therein, Robert
surrendered, and sent the keys to the king by Ralph, abbot of Seez,
imploring his clemency: this was granted, but Robert was banished
to Normandy, his immense estates forfeited, and the splendour of
his baronial house for ever extinguished. Henry then took the
government of the town into his own hands, and granted the
inhabitants their first charter.—The restless disposition of Robert
however still incited him to fresh acts of rebellion, but being taken
prisoner, he was brought over to England, and being sentenced to
perpetual imprisonment, he at length died a miserable death in
Wareham castle.
In 1116, the nobility of the realm did homage to William, Henry’s
son, at Shrewsbury, and swore allegiance to his father.
The conquest of Wales had always been a leading object in the
politics of England, not only from the desire of more extensive
dominion, but as a means of preventing in future the devastation
and misery which the animosity of a warlike and injured people had
occasioned on the English borders. The utility likewise of employing
in foreign enterprises a martial nobility, inclined the Norman princes
to encourage, by every incitement of advantage and honour, the
dangerous designs of subduing or of making settlements in Wales.
The consequence of the attacks of the rapacious Norman barons on
the Welsh was, that Shrewsbury was continually subject to the
ravages and injuries of the contending parties. Besides this, its
natural strength and situation on the borders, or as they were then
termed the Marches of Wales, rendered it extremely eligible for the
rendezvous of the army employed in the Principality, and it was
therefore frequently honoured with the presence of those who
swayed the sceptre of Britain.
During the struggles between Stephen and the empress Maud,
William Fitz Alan, governor of the castle of Shrewsbury, espoused
the cause of the latter, and being joined by several noblemen and
gentlemen in these parts, left his castle in the care of a deputy, from
whom he exacted an oath that he would not deliver up his charge to
the king. Stephen having taken the castle, and hanged several of
the garrison for the obstinacy of their defence, Alan was forced to
fly, leaving his castle and estates in the possession of the king; but
on the accession of Henry II. he was restored to all his honours and
estates, for his faithful adherence to the fortunes of the family.
In the beginning of the reign of king John, a royal council was
assembled in Shrewsbury for the purpose of devising means to put a
stop to the continual and harrassing incursions of the Welsh.
Gwenwynwyn, prince of Powis, offered terms of reconciliation, but,
without any apparent cause, he was detained a prisoner.—The Welsh
shortly after attempted to recover their liberties; on this occasion
John assembled a large army at Oswestry, and released
Gwenwynwyn and several other Welsh chieftains, who immediately
repaired to his standard with all the forces they could muster.
Llewellin ap Jorwerth, who then governed Wales, was obliged to
retire before this powerful army of the British monarch, and
delivered hostages to answer for the rectitude of his conduct. But
Llewellin, fired with the idea of rescuing his countrymen from the
yoke of foreign government, once more broke the truce which had
been concluded.
When intelligence of this event reached John, his heart was so
steeled against the feelings of humanity that he ordered the
immediate execution of the hostages, 28 in number, and chiefly
children allied to the first families in Wales—a deed which renders
his name worthy to be recorded on the same page, in the annals of
cruelty, with that of Nero. Nottingham was the place in which this
tragical drama was acted, and from thence John marched with his
army for the purpose of chastising the Welsh; but fear and distrust
took possession of his mind, and learning that the Pope had
dissolved the allegiance of his subjects, he dismissed his army on a
sudden and returned to London. Llewellin soon after suddenly
appeared before Shrewsbury, which he now entered without
opposition; nor did a long period elapse before the Welsh took
ample vengeance for the cruelties committed on their countrymen.
An insurrection having broke out in England, in consequence of the
unpopular ministry of Peter de Roche bishop of Winchester, in the
17th of Henry III. many of the barons joined Llewellin, and having
united their forces, laid waste the Marches, and entering
Shrewsbury, after having plundered and burnt the town, in which
were considerable riches, they put many of the inhabitants to the
sword. Notwithstanding peace was established between the
contending monarchs, the national jealousies and deep rooted
hatred of the two nations were the fruitful source of perpetual
conflicts, to repress which, Henry marched with his array to
Shrewsbury, where, in 1269, peace was again restored, through the
mediation of the Pope’s legate; and the town and castle of
Shrewsbury were placed under the care of Edward, the king’s eldest
son, afterwards the celebrated Edward I.
On the death of his father, Edward succeeded to the throne, and
determined to exert every effort which his power and talents
afforded, to obtain what had long been the object of his ambition,
the entire conquest of Wales. Soon after Easter, 1277, Edward left
London to regulate the measures of the ensuing campaign; and that
the administration of justice might not be delayed, by the absence of
the king and the length of the war, he removed the Court of
Exchequer and the Court of King’s Bench to Shrewsbury.
In the general accommodation made with the vanquished followers
of Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, in 1264, Llewellin ap
Gryffydd was included; but he saw that a blow was meditating by
the English king, which though suspended for a time, would be the
more severe, and fall with greater weight on his country. Llewellin
thought it prudent to secure the support of the adherents of the
house of Montfort, of whom many yet remained in England by
solemnizing his marriage with the daughter of the late earl. He
therefore demanded the young lady from the French king, to whose
court on the demise of her father she had retired, but on her
passage to Wales she was taken by some of the English vessels and
detained at the court of Edward. Llewellin demanded the fulfilment
of a treaty made between Henry III. and himself and the release of
his bride from Edward, while the latter required Llewellin to appear
and do homage for his kingdom, which he refused to perform unless
hostages were delivered for the safety of his person. This was the
ostensible cause of the war undertaken by Edward, and the pretext
for attempting an entire conquest of the principality. Edward
cautiously avoided putting to the test the well known valour of a
nation inflamed with a just sense of their wrongs and proud of their
ancient independence.—Llewellin unable to face an enemy pressing
on by slow, cautious, and decisive operations, returned to the
mountains of Snowdon, and Edward not choosing to enter the
recesses of that difficult country, calmly awaited the result of his
policy. The prospect of a famine seconded his prudential schemes,
and Llewellin had no better alternative than to implore the clemency
of the English monarch. Little generosity or pity was to be expected
in the terms granted by Edward, and accordingly Llewellin agreed to
pay 5000 marks as a fine; to do homage for his crown; to relinquish
all the country between Chester and the river Conway; and to deliver
hostages for his future submission.
On his return to London, Edward was attended by the Welsh prince
and a numerous retinue of chieftains, for the purpose of swearing
fealty to their conqueror. During their stay they were continual
subjects of derision to the populace, who treated them as savages
and laughed at their foreign garb and unusual appearance. To a
people proud and irascible, and who, though vanquished, were still
alive to injury and insult—to a sense of their own valour, and to the
fond idea of their native independence, this treatment could not be
pleasing. They therefore, privately entered into an agreement to
revolt on the first opportunity; resolving to die in their own country
as freemen, rather than come any more as vassals into England, to
be the sport of a haughty and contemptuous nation. Accordingly
they flew to arms. Edward, surprised to find himself again attacked
by the Welsh prince, determined to crush effectually the rebellious
spirit of the Welsh, and advanced from Shrewsbury with a
considerable army. The progress of the king was at first slow, in
consequence of several advantages gained over him by Llewellin,
but the latter being at length surprised near Builth, in
Brecknockshire, he was defeated, and together with 2000 of his
soldiers, slain. Gratitude could pay no tribute to his memory so
expressive, as the tears which his country shed upon the tomb of
their prince, who, after many efforts to preserve the freedom of the
land which gave him birth, fell in the conflict, and found an
honorable grave in its ruins.
David who had previously forgotten the feuds which disturbed the
peace of his family and country, assumed, on the death of his
brother, the sovereignty of North Wales; but after various
unsuccessful struggles, he was basely betrayed into the hands of
Edward, who confined him in Rhuddlan castle, and soon after sent
him in chains to Shrewsbury.
Edward now (1283) summoned a parliament to meet at Shrewsbury,
for “consulting what course to take with David prince of Wales,”
whence, in a few days it was removed to Acton Burnell. David,
whilst at the English Court had been made a baron of the realm, and
it was in consequence determined to proceed against him as a
subject of the crown. His judges, deaf to the claims of humanity
and justice, and influenced, no doubt, by their desire to gratify the
implacable and vindictive spirit of their master, condemned him to
die as a traitor. For this act of revenge, new tortures were invented.
—He was sentenced to be drawn at a horse’s tail through the town—
to be hanged—his heart and bowels to be burnt—his head to be cut
off, and exposed at the tower of London, and his body quartered
and hung up in different parts of the kingdom. On the death of this
prince, the Welsh every where submitted to the victorious arms of
the conqueror.
The tragical and cruel death of David closed the only sovereignty
which remained of the ancient British empire: an empire which
through various changes of fortune, had opposed the disciplined
legions of imperial Rome; and for more than eight hundred years,
had valiantly withstood the most strenuous efforts of their Saxon
and Norman invaders.
The conquest of Wales by the English monarch was of great
importance to Shrewsbury, the inhabitants of which had now time
for breathing, after having been for nearly 800 years in the scene of
continual warfare.
Edward II. visited Shrewsbury in 1322, on his march to subdue the
barons who had justly banished the Spencers and was met by the
burgesses in armour, who escorted him into the town. About this
period, John, one of the sons of the famous Roger Mortimer, earl of
March, was slain in a tournament held here. In 1326, Edmund Fitz
Alan, earl of Arundel, who had been a faithful adherent of the weak
and unfortunate Edward, was apprehended in the neighbourhood of
this place by the partizans of the abandoned Queen and her
paramour Roger Mortimer.
Richard II. who appears to have been particularly attached to the
inhabitants of these marches, summoned a parliament to assemble
at Shrewsbury in 1397, and which is called by Speed the “great
parliament,” in consequence of the extraordinary number of peers
who assembled here. The king was sumptuously entertained, and
the parliament too much devoted to his interests, passed several
very oppressive acts. One of the articles of accusation on which he
was afterwards deposed, charges him with “procuring the many
oppressive acts passed in the parliament of Shrewsbury, and with
intimidating the judges and other persons whom he caused to come
before him there.”
In the following reign the Welsh made another attempt to recover
their freedom under the celebrated Owen Glyndwr. Twice were
Henry and his generals obliged to retire from their meditated attack
of Owen without bringing him to any action, and his rebellion
assumed a more serious appearance from the support which he
received from the earls of Northumberland and Worcester, and the
earl of Douglas, who were disgusted with the treatment which they
had received from Henry. At the commencement of the war,
Northumberland was suddenly taken ill at Berwick—Hotspur his son
accordingly took the command of the troops, amounting to about
12,000 chosen men, and marched towards Shrewsbury to unite his
forces with those of the Welsh chieftain. The king aware of the
importance of every moment, also hurried to Shrewsbury, and
interposed himself between Hotspur and Glyndwr. This moment
saved his crown; and the prudence of the one leader and the
impetuosity of the other induced them to hasten a general
engagement.
Previous to the engagement, Henry sent Thomas Presbury, abbot of
Shrewsbury, with offers of pardon to Percy’s army if they would
disperse, but this message being misrepresented to Percy by the earl
of Worcester, the former sent a manifesto into the royal army in
which he renounced his allegiance to Henry and enumerated at
length various grievances and indignities of which he conceived the
nation in common with his own family had to complain. This
manifesto tended to inflame the passions of both parties; and the
ability of the respective commanders, the valour of the soldiers and
their equality in point of numbers, gave reason to expect a dreadful
and doubtful contest. The battle was fought at Oldfield or Bullfield,
now Battlefield, about 3 miles north of Shrewsbury, on St.
Magdalene’s eve, July 22, 1403. The onset commenced near
Berwick with a terrible discharge of arrows from both lines. The
Scots rushed with impetuous fury upon the front of the royal army,
which began to give way, but the king arriving with reinforcements
they again rallied and recovered their ground. Henry exposed his
person in the thickest of the fight and combated with an ardour
worthy the crown he was defending. His valiant son whose military
achievements in France were afterwards so renowned and whose
wild youthful excesses are so beautifully pourtrayed by our great
dramatic bard, here performed his noviciate in arms, signalized
himself on his father’s footsteps, and regained his good opinion.
The gallant Percy supported that brilliant fame he had acquired in so
many bloody engagements, and Douglas,

Whose high deeds,

Whose hot incursions, and great name in arms
Holds from all soldiers chief majority,

the ancient enemy of Percy but now his friend, still appeared his rival
amidst the horror and confusion of the day. This nobleman
performed feats of valour which are almost incredible. He seemed
determined that the king of England should that day fall by his arm:
and as Henry either to elude the attacks of the enemy on his person,
or to encourage his own men by the belief of his presence every
where, had accoutred several captains in the royal garb; the sword
of Douglas rendered this proud distinction fatal to many. Having
dispatched sir Walter Blount, the king’s standard bearer, he assailed
Henry with such fury that it was with difficulty he escaped to
another part of the field. But while the armies were contending in
this furious manner, the death of Percy by an unknown hand,
decided the fate of the day and the royalists prevailed. On this
memorable day, which is immortalized by the genius of Shakspeare,
it is supposed that 7000 men were slain. A great number of persons
of distinction were killed on both aides, and the earls of Douglas and
Worcester, taken prisoners; the latter was after beheaded at
Shrewsbury.
This battle, which fixed the house of Lancaster on the throne during
three reigns, is among those of the first importance recorded in
ancient English history, and may be named as the first of those
conflicts between the white and red roses, which some years after
deluged the nation with some of its best blood, and filled it with
intestine ravages and divisions.
Owen Glyndwr had the mortification to be obliged to remain inactive
at the head of his troops at Oswestry, from whence he retired on
hearing of Percy’s defeat: and although he afterwards attempted, he
was unable to regain the independence of his native country.—He
died in Herefordshire in 1414. Henry returned thanks to heaven for
this brilliant victory, and founded the collegiate church at Battlefield
on the spot where it is probable most of the slain were buried.
During the fatal quarrel between the houses of York and Lancaster,
which is computed to have cost the lives of eighty princes of the
blood, and to have almost entirely annihilated the ancient nobility of
England, Shrewsbury remained steadily attached to the Yorkists, and
previous to the battle of St. Albans, Richard Plantagenet, duke of
York wrote to his “right worshipful friends the bailiffs, burgesses and
commoners of the good town of Shrewsbury,” requesting assistance
in his enterprise for the recovery of his throne. After his defeat and
death at Wakefield, his son Edward, earl of March, appeared in
Shrewsbury, entreating a supply of men to revenge his father’s
death. With an army of 23,000 men chiefly raised in this
neighbourhood, he obtained a decisive victory at Mortimer’s Cross in
Herefordshire, from whence advancing rapidly to London he was
shortly afterwards proclaimed king. Edward, duly sensible of the
strength and inviolable attachment of Shrewsbury to his cause,
committed the care of his queen to its inhabitants, and during her
residence here she twice lay in at the convent of the Black Friars,
and was delivered of Richard and George Plantagenet, the former of
whom was murdered in the Tower through the cruelty of his uncle
Richard III. and the latter died young.
In 1484, Henry Stafford, duke of Buckingham, having entered into a
conspiracy for the purpose of depriving Richard of a throne which he
had acquired by such manifold injustice, and his endeavours being
frustrated, fled to the house of one Bannister, at Shinewood, near
Wenlock, in order to concealment, but notwithstanding Bannister
was indebted to the duke for the property he enjoyed, unable to
withstand the temptation of so large a reward as £1000, basely
betrayed him to John Mitton, esq. then sheriff of the county, who
conducted him to Shrewsbury, where Richard shortly after arrived,
and feasted his eyes with the execution of his enemy.
The crimes of Richard were so horrid and so shocking to humanity
that the natural sentiments of men, without any political or public
views, were sufficient to render his government unstable; and every
person of probity and honour, earnest to prevent the sceptre from
being any longer polluted by the bloody and faithless hand which
held it, at length united in favour of the earl of Richmond. This
nobleman set sail from Harfleur, in France, on the 7th of August,
1484, and landed at Milford Haven, in Pembrokeshire, without
opposition, with about 2000 followers. He directed his course to
that part of the kingdom in hopes that the Welsh, who regarded him
as their countryman, and who had been already prepossessed in
favour of his cause by means of the late duke of Buckingham, would
join his standard. Richard, not knowing where to expect his
antagonist, took post at Nottingham, and purposed to fly on the first
alarm to the place exposed to danger. He had appointed sir Rice ap
Thomas and sir Walter Herbert to defend the coasts of Wales; but
the former joined Richmond, and the latter made scarcely any
resistance. The earl advanced towards Shrewsbury, which was the
only convenient place at which he could cross the Severn, but very
unexpectedly found the gates shut against him; and on his
demanding entrance by his herald, he was refused, “the head bailey,
Maister Myttoon, being a stoute wyse gentilman,” saying, “that he
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