MEMORY NOTES
Nature of Memory
1. Definition:
o Memory involves retaining and recalling information over time, ranging
from seconds to years.
2. Stages of Memory: (a) Encoding:
o Initial recording and registration of information.
o Stimuli are processed and represented meaningfully for further use.
(b) Storage:
o Retaining encoded information over time for future use.
(c) Retrieval:
oRecovering stored information to use in tasks like problem-solving or
decision-making.
3. Memory Failure:
o Can occur at any stage (encoding, storage, or retrieval).
Information Processing Approach: The Stage Model
1. Traditional View of Memory:
o Memory was initially seen as a storehouse for all acquired information.
2. Memory as Information Processing:
o Human memory is likened to a computer, registering, storing, and
manipulating information based on tasks.
o Computers have temporary memory (RAM) and permanent memory (hard
disk), similar to human memory systems.
3. Atkinson and Shiffrin's Stage Model (1968):
o Memory involves registering, storing, and retrieving information in stages.
o Memory processes depend on the task being performed, like solving problems
by activating relevant stored knowledge.
Memory Systems: Sensory, Short-Term, and Long-Term Memory
1. Sensory Memory:
o Function: Registers sensory inputs briefly (less than a second).
o Characteristics: Large capacity but rapid decay (e.g., iconic and echoic
memories for visual and auditory inputs).
2. Short-Term Memory (STM):
o Function: Holds limited information for a short time (up to 30 seconds).
o Capacity: 7 ± 2 items; expandable via chunking.
o Encoding: Primarily acoustic, but semantic encoding can occur.
o Retention: Maintained via maintenance rehearsal.
3. Long-Term Memory (LTM):
o Function: Permanent store with vast capacity.
o Encoding: Mainly semantic; stores information indefinitely.
MEMORY NOTES
o Retrieval Failures: Perceived forgetting often arises from difficulty in
retrieving stored information.
4. Information Transfer:
o Control Processes:
Selective Attention: Moves information from sensory memory to
STM.
Maintenance Rehearsal: Retains information in STM through
repetition.
Elaborative Rehearsal: Links new information to existing knowledge
in LTM for better retention.
5. Criticism of Stage Model:
o Evidence like KF’s case (normal LTM but impaired STM) challenges the
distinctiveness of STM and LTM.
o Encoding types (acoustic/semantic) can occur in both STM and LTM,
questioning their separation.
Levels of Processing (Craik and Lockhart, 1972)
1. Concept:
o Memory retention depends on how information is perceived, analyzed, and
understood.
2. Processing Levels:
o Shallow Processing:
Focuses on physical or structural features (e.g., letter shapes, case, ink
color).
Produces fragile memory prone to decay.
o Intermediate Processing:
Focuses on phonetic sounds (e.g., sounds of letters forming a word).
Memory remains weak and temporary.
o Deep Processing:
Focuses on the meaning of information (semantic encoding).
Includes connecting meaning with experiences or visualizing (e.g.,
imagining a cat as a furry mammal).
Produces durable memory, resistant to forgetting.
3. Implications for Learning:
o Understanding and elaborating meaning leads to better retention.
o Avoid rote memorization; instead, relate information to concepts and
experiences for long-term memory.
Types of Long-Term Memory
1. Declarative Memory:
o Definition: Memory of facts, names, and dates.
o Examples: "India became independent on August 15, 1947"; "a rickshaw has
three wheels."
o Subtypes:
Episodic Memory: Personal life experiences; often emotional (e.g.,
feeling when standing first in class).
MEMORY NOTES
Semantic Memory: General knowledge and facts; affect-neutral (e.g.,
meaning of "non-violence," 2+6=8).
2. Procedural Memory:
o Definition: Memory for skills and procedures.
o Examples: Riding a bicycle, making tea, playing basketball.
o Characteristics: Difficult to verbalize compared to declarative memory.
Nature and Causes of Forgetting
1. Ebbinghaus's Forgetting Curve:
o Forgetting is rapid initially (within the first hour) and slows down over time.
2. Theories of Forgetting:
o Trace Decay Theory:
Memory traces fade over time due to disuse.
Disproved: Forgetting is less during sleep, contrary to this theory.
o Interference Theory:
Forgetting occurs due to competition between stored memories during
retrieval.
Types:
Proactive Interference: Past learning hinders recall of new
information.
Retroactive Interference: New learning disrupts recall of
older information.
o Retrieval Failure:
Forgetting occurs when retrieval cues are absent or inappropriate.
Example: Providing category names (retrieval cues) can improve
recall.
Enhancing Memory
1. Mnemonics Using Images:
o Keyword Method: Associate a familiar word with a foreign word (e.g.,
"Pato" → "Pot" → imagine a duck in a pot).
o Method of Loci: Visualize items placed in familiar locations to recall them in
sequence (e.g., bread in the kitchen, soap in the bathroom).
2. Mnemonics Using Organisation:
o Chunking: Combine smaller units into meaningful groups (e.g., remembering
"194719492004" as historical years: 1947, 1949, 2004).
o First Letter Technique: Use initials to form words/sentences (e.g.,
VIBGYOR for rainbow colors).
3. General Strategies for Memory Improvement:
o Deep Level Processing: Focus on meaning, relate new information to existing
knowledge.
o Minimise Interference: Avoid learning similar topics in sequence; distribute
study sessions with rest periods.
o Use Retrieval Cues: Link study material to easy-to-remember cues.
4. PQRST Method:
o Preview: Skim the chapter.
o Question: Formulate questions.
MEMORY NOTES
o Read: Look for answers.
o Self-Recitation: Summarize content.
o Test: Evaluate understanding.
