CHAPTER FOUR

MEMORY
&
FORGETTING
 Meaning of Memory
 Memory: is the ability to retain information
over time
- It’s the capacity to encode, store and
retrieve information

- It is the ability to remember past events or

previously learned information or skill
- - It is a complex mental system.
- That involves multiple stages of
information processing
Memory Processes
 Memory Processes
 Encoding: transforming information into a form
that can be entered and retained in the memory
system.
• Integrating information in to the memory
system.
• It could be through association or other means

E.g Associating George George Washington

 Cont …
 Storage: retaining information in memory so that
it can be used at a later time.
- Some physiological change in the brain must
take place Consolidation
- Preserving information for latter use
 Retrieval: recovering information

stored in memory so that we are consciously

aware of it.
Eg. Calling George by his name
when you meet
 Types of Memory
 Sensory Memory/ Register
 SM is the first step in the memory process.

 It has very rich and detailed information

- But information stays for only a very short time

 Function—holds information long enough to be

processed for basic physical characteristics

 Capacity— very large

 It can hold many items at once
 Duration—very brief retention of images
 Cont…
 SM divided into two types:
 Iconic memory–holds visual information for
about a quarter of a second or more

- As soon as you shift your

attention, the information disappears

 Echoic memory– is an auditory information,
- Holds auditory information from 1-2 seconds
 Short Term or Working Memory
 STM: Sometimes referred to as working memory.

- holds a limited amount of information

- On average seven items – for a limited period of
time i.e. up to 30 seconds
 Function—conscious processing of information
 where information is actively worked on.

 Capacity—limited storage (holds 7+2 items)

 Duration—brief storage (about 30 seconds)
 Characteristics of STM
 It is active: informatn stays as long as the person is
consciously examining and manipulating it.

 Rapidly accessed: informatn easily disappears unless it

is accessed in LTM

 Preserves the temporal sequence : Informatn is

memorized as it is orderly arranged

 Limited in capacity: People can hold on average 7+ 2

pieces of informatn at a time.
 Controlling Informatn in STM

 Rehearsal: repeating informatn again and again –

maintenance rehearsal
- Elaborative rehearsal is important in
transferring informatn to LTM (involves
creating meaning, associating & interpreting concepts.
 Chunking: a process of breaking down large Informatn in
to its smaller parts
Which is easier to remember?
 4 8 3 7 9 2 5 1 6
 483 792 516
 Long term memory
 A relatively permanent type of memory
 Holds huge amount of information for a long time
 Has unlimited capacity to store information
 Has a potential to retrieve or remember infn in the future
 Types of long term memory
 Explicit/declarative memory: refers to knowledge that
can be consciously brought to mind and ―declared.‖
- It is conscious memory of facts and
events
- It can be semantic or episodic
 Cont…
o Semantic Memory: refers to general world knowledge
or facts, such as:
- Three systems of memory: H2O, NaCl, H2SO4
o Episodic Memory: consists of memories of particular
episodes or events from personal experience.
 Implicit memory: is based on experience with out
consciously recollected
- It cannot be verbalized or consciously recollected
- It can be procedural memories that requires
applying skills of:
- Playing tennis,
- Riding a bicycle & typing
 Cont…
o Semantic Memory: refers to general world knowledge
or facts, such as:
- Three systems of memory: H2O, NaCl, H2SO4
o Episodic Memory: consists of memories of particular
episodes or events from personal experience.
 Implicit memory: is based on experience with out
consciously recollected
- It cannot be verbalized or consciously recollected
- It can be procedural memories that requires applying
the skills of playing tennis, riding a bicycle and
typing
 Cont…

o Semantic Memory: refers to general world knowledge

or facts, such as:
- Three systems of memory: H2O, NaCl, H2SO4
o Episodic Memory: consists of memories of particular
episodes or events from personal experience.
 Implicit memory: is based on experience with
 The serial position effect
 Ebbinghaus studied memory by using senseless
syllables. Such as:
(VEM, BOZ, FUW etc.)
 He found that items in the middle are difficult to remember
than those at the beginning and end – called serial position
effect
- Better memory of items at the
beginning of a list is called
the primacy effect. And
- Better memory for items at the end of a list is called the
recency effect.
 Factors Affecting Memory
 Ability to retain: depends upon good memory traces left
in the brain by past experiences
 Good health: A person with good health can retain the
learnt material better than a person with poor health
 Age of the learner: Youngsters can remember better
than the aged.
 Maturity: Very young children cannot retain and
remember complex material
 Will to remember: Willingness to remember
 Intelligence: More intelligent person will have better memo
 Cont …
 Interest: If a person has more interest, he will learn and
retain better
 Over learning: Experiments have proved it will lead to
better memory - repetition
 Speed of learning: Quicker learning leads to better
retention – considering the pace of learners
 Meaningfulness of the material: Meaningful materials
are better retained than for nonsense material
 Sleep or rest: Sleep or rest helps for clear memory and
makes good connections in the brain
 Meaning & Concepts of Forgetting
 Since our brain will be over exposed to
various infns daily, the tendency to
remember decreases
 Due to this we may forget the names of
individuals, places …
 Forgetting refers to the apparent loss of
infns already encoded and stored in the
long-term memory
 Theories of Forgetting

 Decay theory: memory traces fade with time if they are

not accessed now and then.

- i.e. due to simple passage of time

 Interference: forgetting occurs due to particular memory

interferes with the retrieval of other memories. Two types:

= Proactive interference: old memories interfere with new

memories. Old Interferes with New

 Cont …
= Retroactive interference: material learned later disrupts
retrieval of information learned earlier.
New Interferes with Old
 Displacement theory/ New memory for old
- States that new information entering memory can
wipe out old information
- Its mostly associated with STM – its capacity is 7+ infns
- It cannot be associated with the LTM because of its
virtually unlimited capacity
 Cont…
 Motivation theory: Freud claimed that we can forget
experiences through repression –
=> Motivated forgetting i.e. through repression
=> People block those memories from consciousness
that are too threatening or painful for them
=> Forgetting emotionally threatening experiences
from consciousness such as:
- witnessing a murder, Embarrassment, guilt and shock

 Cue - dependency theory: states that forgetting occurs

due to lack of adequate retrieval cues.
 Improving Memory
 Pay Attention:

- Be conscious and pay attention

- Then the encoded the information in the first place

 Encode information in more than one way:

- The more elaborate the encoding, the more memorable

 Add meaning:

- The more meaningful the material, the more likely it is

to store in long-term memory
 Cont …
 Take your time:
- Minimize interference by using study breaks for rest or
recreation.
- Sleep is the ultimate way to reduce interference - Rest
 Over learn:
- Rehearsal and repetition
 Monitor your learning:
- Reviewing periodically, you will have a better idea of
how you are doing