INTRODUCTION

MEMORY

Memory is a cognitive activity that lets human beings encode, preserve and recall information.

It is dispensable to learning and makes a significant contribution to decision making. Memory

serves as a means keeping our past experiences alive in us , as well as a storehouse for our

knowledge. What we have remembered long ago will form who we are and possible determine

how we act in the future. “Memory is an active system that receives information from the

senses, puts that information into a usable form, organizes it as it stores it away, and then

retrieves the information from storage”.

PROCESS OF MEMORY –

Although there are several different models of how memory works, all of them involve the

same three processes: getting the information into the memory system, storing it there, and

getting it back out.

Encoding: The first process in the memory system is to get sensory information into a form

that the brain can use. This is called encoding . Encoding is the set of mental operations that

people perform on sensory information to convert that information into a form that is usable in

the brain's storage system.

Storage: The next step in memory is to hold on to the information for some period of time in

a process called storage. The process of time will actually be of different lengths, depending

on the system of memory being used.

Retrieval: The biggest problem many people have is retrieval, that is getting the information

they know they have out of storage. “ Getting information that is in storage into a form that can

be used”.
 • Recall: It is a type of memory retrieval in which the information to be retrieved must

be “pulled” from memory with very few external cues.

• Recognition: It is the ability to match a piece of information or a stimulus to a stored

image or fact.

TYPES OF MEMORY-

Sensory Memory: Sensory memory is the first system in the process of memory, the point at

which information enters the nervous system through the sensory systems – eyes, ears, and so

on. The information is encoded into sensory memory as neural messages in the nervous system.

As long as those neural messages are travelling through the system, it can be said that people

have a “memory” for that information that can be accessed if needed. There are two kinds of

sensory memory. They are iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) sensory systems.

• Iconic Memory: The visual sensory system is often called iconic memory, and it

only lasts for a fraction of a seconds. Icon is the Greek word for “ image.”

• Echoic Memory: Another type of memory if sensory system is echoic memory, or

the brief memory of something a person has heard. Echoic memory capacity is

limited to what can be heard at any one moment and is smaller than the capacity of

iconic memory, although it lasts longer about 2-4 seconds.

• Haptic Memory: It represent sensory memory for the tactile sense of touch.

• Gustatory Memory: It represents sensory memory type related to taste.

• Olfactory Memory: It represents sensory memory related for smell.

Short Term Memory: The incoming sensory message is important enough to enter

consciousness, that message will move from sensory memory to the next process of memory,

called short term memory (STM). Sensory memory ,short term memories may be held for up

to 30 seconds and possibly longer through maintenance rehearsal.

from among all sensory input. It is through selective attention that information enters

our STM system.

• Working Memory: Memory theorists use the term working memory as another way

of referring to short term memory- they see no difference between the two concepts.

Others feel that the two systems are quite different. Working memory is therefore

thought of as an active system that processes the information present with in short

term memory. Working memory is an important area of research and has

implications for understanding not only intelligence but also learning and attention

disorders such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and various dementia-

related memory problems.

Long Term Memory: The third stage of memory is long term memory (LTM), the system

into which all the information is placed to be kept more or less permanently. In terms of

capacity, LTM seems to be unlimited for all practical purposes.

• Duration: There is a relatively permanent physical change in the brain itself when

a memory is formed. That means that many of the memories people have stored

away for a long time – even since childhood. That does not mean that people cal

always retrieve those memories. The memories may be available but not accessible.

Information that is rehearsed long enough may actually find its way into long -term

memory.

• Elaborative Rehearsal: It is a way of increasing the number of retrieval cues for

information by connecting new information with something that is already well

known. “ A method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that

information meaningful in some way.

personal facts, and even skills that can be performed. Memory for skill is a type of

nondeclarative memory, or implicit memory, because the skills have to be demonstrated and

not reported. Memory for facts is called declarative memory, or explicit memory, because facts

are things that are known and can be declared.

Nondeclarative (Implicit) LTM: Memory for things that people know how to do, like tying

shoes and riding a bicycle, are a kind of LTM called nondeclarative memory. Nondeclarative

memories also include emotional associations, habit, and simple conditioned reflexes that may

or may not be in conscious awareness, which are often very strong memories. Nondeclarative

memories are not easily retrieved into conscious awareness.

Declarative (Explicit) LTM: Nondeclarative memory is about the things that people can do,

but declarative memory is about all the things that people can know- the fact and information

that make up knowledge. There are two types of declarative long term memories, semantic and

episodic.

• Semantic memory: One type of memory is general knowledge that anyone has the

ability to know. Most of this information is what is learned in school or by reading.

This kind of LTM is called semantic memory.

• Episodic memory: This memory is the personal knowledge that each person has of his

or her daily life and personal history, a kind of autobiographical memory and so on are

called episodic memory.

MODELS OF MEMORY

Psychologists have developed various models to explain how memory works. These models

help us understand how information is processed, stored, and retrieved. The three most

influential models of memory are:

This model processes that memory consists of three separate stores:

• Sensory Memory: Briefly holds Information from the senses.

• Short Term Memory: Holds limited Information for a short period.

• Long Term Memory: Stores Information indefinitely with potentially

unlimited capacity.

2. Baddeley and Hitch's Working Memory Model –

This model expands on short-term memory by breaking it into components that handle

different types of information:

• Central Executive: Controls attention and coordinates other systems.

• Phonological Loop: Processes verbal and auditory information.

• Visuospatial Sketchpad: Deals with visual and spatial information.

• Episodic Buffer: Integrates information from different sources into a single

episode.

3. Levels of Processing Model( Craik and Lockhart)

This model suggests that memory retention depends on the depth of processing.

• Shallow Processing: Focuses on surface features and leads to weaker memory.

• Intermediate Processing: It involves analysing the sensory input for its sound

or structural features.

• Deep Processing: Involves meaning and connections, leading to better memory

retention.

4. Information Processing Model (William James)

The Information Processing Model likens the human mind to a computer that processes

incoming information in sequential stages. This model helps explain how we perceive,

Store, and retrieve Information.

converted into a format the brain can understand.

• Storage: The encoded information is retained over time in short term or long

term memory.

• Retrieval: Stored Information is recalled when needed for thinking or decision-

making.

REFERENCE

Ciccarelli, S. K., & White, J. N. (2017).Psychology (5th ed.). Pearson Education.