Temperature Measurements

Temperature Standards and Definition

• Temperature can be loosely described as the property of an object
that describes its hotness or coldness, concepts that are clearly
relative.
• A temperature scale provides for three essential aspects of
temperature measurement:
• The definition of the size of the degree
• Fixed reference points for establishing known temperatures
• A means for interpolating between these fixed temperature points
Fixed Point Temperatures and Interpolation

• Fixed points are typically defined by

melting or boiling point temperatures,
or the triple point, of a pure substance.
Temperature Scales and Standards
• The modern engineering definition of the temperature scale is
provided by a standard called the International Temperature Scale of
1990 (ITS-90)
• This standard establishes fixed points for temperature and provides
standard procedures and devices for interpolating between fixed
points.
• It establishes the Kelvin (K) as the unit for the fundamental increment
in temperature.
• The unit of degrees Celsius (∘C) is a practical scale related to the
absolute Kelvin scale as ∘C = K − 273.15.
Standards for Interpolation
• Along with the fixed temperature points established by ITS-90, a
standard for interpolation between these fixed points is necessary.
• Standards for acceptable thermometers and interpolating equations
are provided in ITS-90.
• For temperatures ranging from 13.8033 to 1,234.93 K, ITS-90
establishes a platinum resistance thermometer as the standard
interpolating instrument and establishes interpolating equations that
relate temperature to resistance.
• Above 1,234.93 K, temperature is defined in terms of blackbody
radiation, without specifying an instrument for interpolation.
Thermometry Based on
Thermal Expansion
• Most materials exhibit a change in size with changes in temperature.
• Since this physical phenomenon is well-defined and repeatable, it is
useful for temperature measurement.
• The liquid in- glass thermometer and the bimetallic thermometer are
based on this phenomenon.
Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers
•A liquid-in-glass thermometer
measures temperature by virtue of
thermal expansion of a liquid.
• During calibration, such a
thermometer is subject to one of
three measuring environments:
1. A complete immersion thermometer
2. A total immersion thermometer
3. A partial immersion thermometer
Bimetallic Thermometers
• The physical phenomenon employed in a
bimetallic temperature sensor is the
differential thermal expansion of two
metals.
• Invar (low value of Thermal expansion
coefficient) and steels (relatively high
value of Thermal expansion
coefficient) are used as bimetallic strips
• The bimetallic sensor is the primary
element in most dial thermometers and
many thermostats.
• Dial thermometers using a bimetallic strip
as their sensing element typically provide
temperature measurements with
uncertainties of ±1∘C.
Bimetallic Thermometers
Electrical Resistance Thermometry
• Electrical resistance of a conductor or semiconductor varies with
temperature.
• Resistance temperature detectors RTDs (conductors)
• Thermistors (semiconductors)
• Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) may be formed from a solid metal
wire that exhibits a change in electrical resistance with temperature.
• Depending on the material selected, the resistance may increase or
decrease with temperature.
• A thermistor may have a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) or a
negative temperature coefficient (NTC).
• The PTC materials are metals or alloys and the NTC materials are
semiconductors.
Resistance Temperature Detectors
• In the case of an RTD, the sensor is
generally constructed by
• Mounting a metal wire on an insulating support
structure to eliminate mechanical strains
• Encasing the wire to prevent changes in
resistance resulting from influences from the
sensor’s environment, such as corrosion.
• Support is important to avoid strain and
ensure strain free expansion.
• The physical basis for the relationship
between resistance and temperature is the
temperature dependence of the resistivity,
ρe, of a material.
 The temperature coefficient of
resistance is generally defined as the
change in electrical resistance of a

Resistance Temperature Detectors

substance with respect to per degree
change in temperature.

• The relationship between the

resistance of a metal conductor and
its temperature may also be
expressed by the polynomial
expansion:

• For example, for platinum conductors

the linear approximation is accurate
to within an uncertainty of ±0.3%
over the range 0–200∘C and ±1.2%
over the range 200–800∘C.
α (temperature coefficient of
resistivity)
Platinum Resistance Temperature Device
(RTD)
• Platinum is the most common material chosen for the construction of
RTDs. Due to
• Linear relationship between temperature and resistance is valid over a wide
temperature range
• Platinum is highly stable.
• To be suitable for use as a secondary temperature standard, a platinum
resistance
−1 .
thermometer should have a value of α not less than 0.003925
℃
• This minimum value is an indication of the purity of the platinum.
• In general, RTDs may be used for the measurement of temperatures ranging
from cryogenic (very low temperatures) to approximately 650∘C.
• By properly constructing an RTD and correctly measuring its resistance, an
uncertainty in temperature measurement as low as ±0.005∘C is possible.
RTD Resistance Measurement

Bridge circuits. (a) Callender-Griffiths 3-wire bridge; (b) and (c)Mueller 4-wire bridge

Wheatstone Bridge
Practical Considerations
• RTD’s transient thermal response is generally quite slow. So, RTDs are
not generally chosen for transient temperature measurements.
• A notable exception is the use of very small platinum wires and films
for temperature measurements in noncorrosive flowing gases.
• However, sensors made of wires having diameter of order of 10 µm
could easily be destroyed with little impact.
Example 8.1

Coefficient of resistance for this RTD is

0.003925∘C−1
Solution
Thermistors
• Thermistors (from thermally sensitive resistors) are ceramic-like
semiconductor devices.
• The most common thermistors are NTC (Negative Temperature
coefficient)
• The resistance of these thermistors decreases rapidly with
temperature, in contrast to the small increases of resistance with
temperature for RTDs
• An accurate functional relationship between resistance and
temperature for a thermistor is generally assumed to be of the form
 Thermistors

• The parameter β ranges from

3,500 to 4,600 K, depending on
the material, temperature, and
individual construction for each
sensor, and thus must be
determined for each thermistor.
Practical Considerations
• Thermistors are generally used when high sensitivity, ruggedness, or
fast response times are required
• Thermistors are often encapsulated in glass and thus can be used in
corrosive or abrasive environments.
• The resistance characteristics of the semiconductor material may
change at elevated temperatures, and some aging of a thermistor
occurs at temperatures above 200∘C.
• The high resistance of a thermistor, compared to that of an RTD,
eliminates the problems of lead wire resistance compensation.
Source: [Link]
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Thermoelectric Temperature Measurement
• Thermocouple
• A thermocouple consists of two electrical conductors that are made
of dissimilar metals and have at least one electrical connection.
• This electrical connection is referred to as a junction.
• A thermocouple junction may be created by welding, by soldering, or
by any method that provides good electrical contact between the two
conductors.
• The output of a thermocouple circuit is a voltage, and there is a
definite relationship between this voltage and the temperatures of
the junctions that make up the thermocouple circuit.
Thermocouple

The junction labeled 1 is at a temperature T1 and the junction labeled 2 is at a

temperature T2.
This thermocouple circuit measures the difference between T1 and T2. If T1 and T2
are not equal, a finite open-circuit voltage, Vo, is measured.
The magnitude of the voltage depends on the difference in the temperatures and
the particular metals used in the thermocouple circuit.
A thermocouple junction is the source of a voltage that gives rise to the total
voltage difference in a thermocouple circuit.
It is the basis for temperature measurement using thermocouples.
Fundamental Thermocouple Laws
• The basic thermocouple circuit shown in
Figure can be used to measure the
difference between the two temperatures T1
and T2.
• For practical temperature measurements,
one of these junctions becomes a reference
junction and is maintained at some known,
constant reference temperature—say, T2.
• The other junction then becomes the
measuring junction, and the voltage existing
in the circuit provides a direct indication of
the temperature of the measuring junction
T1.
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Example 8.5
Example 8.6
Radiative Temperature Measurements
• For Radiative Temperature
Measurement, the sensor for
thermal radiation need not be
in contact with the surface to be
measured.
• Radiation refers to the emission
of electromagnetic waves from
the surface of an object.
• Radiation has characteristics of
both waves and particles
(photons)
• Two key aspects of radiative heat transfer in relation to temperature
measurements
1. First, the radiation emitted by an object is proportional to the fourth power of its
temperature.

where Eb is the flux of energy radiating from an ideal surface, or the blackbody
emissive power.
• The emissive power of a body is the energy emitted per unit area and per unit time.
• “Blackbody” implies a surface that absorbs all incident radiation and as a result emits
radiation in an “ideal” manner.
2. The emissive power is a direct measure of the total radiation emitted by an object.
Radiation Detectors
Two basic techniques
• The first technique involves a thermal detector in which absorbed
radiative energy elevates the detector temperature
Radiation Detectors
• A second basic type of detector
relies on the interaction of a
photon with an electron,
resulting in an electric current.
• In a photomultiplier tube, the
emitted electrons are
accelerated and used to create
an amplified current, which is
measured.
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