This document discusses various methods and devices used to measure temperature. It describes temperature scales like Fahrenheit, Celsius, Rankine and Kelvin. It also discusses different types of thermometers like liquid-in-glass, bimetallic strip, resistance, and thermistor thermometers. The working principles and characteristics of different temperature measurement devices like thermocouples, resistance temperature detectors, and pyrometers are explained. Various factors that affect the accuracy of these devices are also covered.
This document discusses various methods and devices used to measure temperature. It describes temperature scales like Fahrenheit, Celsius, Rankine and Kelvin. It also discusses different types of thermometers like liquid-in-glass, bimetallic strip, resistance, and thermistor thermometers. The working principles and characteristics of different temperature measurement devices like thermocouples, resistance temperature detectors, and pyrometers are explained. Various factors that affect the accuracy of these devices are also covered.
This document discusses various methods and devices used to measure temperature. It describes temperature scales like Fahrenheit, Celsius, Rankine and Kelvin. It also discusses different types of thermometers like liquid-in-glass, bimetallic strip, resistance, and thermistor thermometers. The working principles and characteristics of different temperature measurement devices like thermocouples, resistance temperature detectors, and pyrometers are explained. Various factors that affect the accuracy of these devices are also covered.
This document discusses various methods and devices used to measure temperature. It describes temperature scales like Fahrenheit, Celsius, Rankine and Kelvin. It also discusses different types of thermometers like liquid-in-glass, bimetallic strip, resistance, and thermistor thermometers. The working principles and characteristics of different temperature measurement devices like thermocouples, resistance temperature detectors, and pyrometers are explained. Various factors that affect the accuracy of these devices are also covered.
Temperature Measurements What is Temperature? • A measure, proportional to the thermal energy of a given body at equilibrium, or • The property of a body or region of space that determines whether or not there will be a net flow of heat into it or out of it from a neighboring body or region and in which direction (if any) the heat will flow. Temperature Scales • Relative Scales – Fahrenheit (°F) – Celsius (°C) • Absolute Scales – Rankine (°R) – Kelvin (K)
Temperature Relationships (°F) = 9/5*(°C) +32 (°C) = 5/9*[(°F) –32] (°F) = (°R) – 459.67 (°C) = (K) – 273.15 Melting Temperatures of Some Important Metals Measurement of Temperature Principle of Operation Temperature Devices • Expansion Thermometers – Liquid in glass / metal – Bimetallic • Pyrometers – Thermocouple – Resistance – Radiation and optical pyrometers Temperature Measuring Instruments Non- electrical methods 1- Liquid in Glass & in metal Thermometers. Expansion 2- Vapour Pressure & gas Thermometers. Thermometers 3- Bimetal Strip Thermometers .
Alcohol -80 to +70 293 to 343 Toluene -80 to +100 293 to 373 Pentane -200 to +30 73 to 303 Creosote -5 to +200 268 to 573 Essential Characteristics: Inexpensive. Simple. Easily portable. Additional indication instruments are not required. Fragile. Can be used only when stem readings are visible. Relatively high heat capacity causing serious time lag between change of temperature and thermometer response. Not suitable for distant reading. Not suitable for surface temperature measurement. Expansion Thermometer • Liquid in Metal Liquid Range ( ْ◌C) Range ( ْ◌K)
Mercury -39 to +650 234 to 923
Xylene -40 to +400 233 to 673 Alcohol -46 to +150 227 to 423 Ether +20 to +90 293 to 363
• An approximately linear scale. • Wide temperature range. • Remote indication of temperature. Expansion Thermometer Bimetallic Essential characteristics: • Inexpensive. • Compact. • Robust. • Close linearity throughout the temperature range. • Range of application: low temperatures -30 ْ◌C to 200 ْ◌C ; high temperature, 0 ْ◌C to 550 ْ◌C. • Accuracy: low temperature 1% of scale range; high temperature 2% of scale range. Measuring Temperature: Resistance Type Devices (RTDs), Based on the change of the conductor resistance with temperature change. Two types of electrical resistance thermometers are used: 1- Using high purity metals, copper nickel or platinum and having positive temperature coefficient of resistance, i.e. resistance increases with temperature. 2- Manufactured from semiconductor materials (mixtures of sintered metallic oxides, carbon, germanium alloys, etc.) , which have negative coefficients of resistance, i.e. resistance decrease with increase in temperature. (Thermistors) Resistance Thermometers (RTDs) • The most accurate devices in practical use • Need for Lead Resistance Compensation • Response time relatively slow (1-40 seconds) • Usual materials: Platinum, nickel, copper… What is inside the package? How does resistance change with temperature?
R = R0 (1 + α∆T + β∆T 2 + ... ) where ∆T = T − T0
R R0 (1 + α∆T ) Linear approximation (good for platinum): = How do we measure RTD resistance? • Most sensitive method is by using the Wheatstone bridge After balancing the bridge, the unknown resistance is is determined from: R3 RRTD = R1 R2 Common Errors • Lead-wire Effects. • Stability. • Self-heating. • Sensitivity to strain. (Bonded RTD sensors resemble strain gauges). (neglected in most applications) Lead wire resistance compensation The problem: Lead resistance can be 10% to 50% (or more) of the total resistance! Solutions: Shunt method for improving the linearity of RTD sensors 50 Ω Nickel sensor Resistance (Ω)
50 Ω Nickel sensor with 150 Ω shunt resistor Temperature
Constant current Shunt
power supply resistor Ro Rs=3Ro Stability • Is assured by aging the elements during the manufacturing process. • Can be a source of error when the upper limit of the sensor is exceeded. • Whenever the upper limit of a sensor is exceeded, new temperature measurements should be repeated until stable and reproducible readings are obtained. Self Heating Care must be taken to avoid excessive current in the sensor, which may cause errors due to self heating of the sensor. This problem can be avoided by maintaining excitation voltage 0.25 V or less.
pT = i .RT 2 i= Vs 2 2 RT Vs pT = 4 RT ∆Tsh = Fsh . pT Where: Fsh is the self heating factor (provided by the manufacturer)
∆Tsh increase in temperature due to self heating
Thermistors Temperature Coefficient
R = a.e b/K where: R=Resistance (Ω). K=absolute temperature. a and b are constants over a small temperature range. Thermocouples The Thermocouple principles Thermocouples are the most common sensors in industrial use. They have a long history, the original paper on thermoelectricity by Seebeck being published in 1822. They consist of two dissimilar metallic conductors joined at the point of measurement. When the conductors are heated a voltage is generated in the circuit, and this can be used to determine the temperature .
Operation based on Seebeck effect • Which results in the thermoelectric emf if the circuit is cut in half Any two wires of different materials can be used as a thermocouple if connected together as in Figure. The AB connection is called the "junction". When the junction temperature, TJct, is different from the reference temperature, TRef, a low-level DC voltage, E , will be available at the +/- terminals. The value of E depends on the materials A and B, on the reference temperature, and on the junction temperature.
The simplest thermocouple
Thermocouple Materials The three most common thermocouple alloys for moderate temperatures are Iron-Constantan (Type J), Copper- Constantan (Type T), and Chromel-Alumel (Type K). 1.The first named element of the pair is the positive element. 2.The negative wire is color coded red (current U.S. standards).
Three grades of wire are available in each type, based on calibration
accuracy: Precision, Standard, and Lead-Wire . Ther mocouple Mater ials Thermocouple material properties Polynomial Form, Suitable For Digital Data Processing Tabular Form, Suitable For Manual Use Example: E type (Chromel Constantan) Thermocouple Temperature Table How do we measure thermoelectric emf? • Any DVM that we might use has copper (possibly tin-plated or nickel-plated) terminals!
Additional Junctions A problem arises when measuring the voltage across a dissimilar metal junction - two additional thermocouple junctions form where the wires connect to the voltmeter. If the wire leads which connect to the voltmeter are made "Cu", then there exist thermal emf's at the A-C and B-C junctions. There are two approaches to solve this problem: use a reference junction at a known temperature, or make corrections for the thermocouples formed by the connection to the voltmeter . Reference Junction Compensation
The Figure shows the use of
a "reference" or "compensating" junction. With this arrangement, there are still two additional thermocouple junctions formed where the compensated thermocouple is connected to the voltmeter.
However, the junctions are identical (they are both junctions between alloys A and C). If the junctions are at the same temperature, then the voltages across each junction will be equal and opposite, and will not affect the measurement. Typically, the reference junction is held at 0 °C (by an ice bath, for example) so that the voltmeter readings may be used to look up the temperature . Pyrometers • Radiation and Optical Radiation pyrometer: Optical Pyrometers The disappearing filament principle: An operator sights onto a hot target, adjusts the range until its image is seen in red. The lamp filament is initially cooler than the target and its image appears as a darker red or black superimposed on the target’s image. The lamp current is raised until the image of the filament becomes hotter than the target and it appears as brighter red than the target.
The lamp current is
adjusted until the lamp filament’s brightness* temperature equals that of the target. The filament’s image blends into the image of the target. The filament “disappears”. IC Temperature Sensor • IC temperature sensors are simple three-terminal devices. Connect one pin to +5 to +20 volts, and another to ground. The voltage at the output terminal will be proportional to the temperature (10 millivolts per degree).
