SENSOR & INSTRUMENTATION
(KOE-044)
IMS ENGINEERING COLLEGE GHAZIABAD
1
UNIT-02
Sensors & Transducer
Measurement of temperature using Thermistors,
Thermocouples & RTD, Concept of thermal
imaging; Measurement of position using Hall
effect sensors; Proximity sensor: Inductive &
Capacitive, Use of proximity sensor as
accelerometer and vibration sensor; Flow
Sensor: Ultrasonic & Laser; Level Sensor:
Ultrasonic & Capacitive.
2
RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector)
The RTD stands for Resistance Temperature Detector. The
RTD is defined as the resistor which is used for measuring
the temperature.
The resistance of the conductor change with temperature
and this property of conductors is used in the RTD for
measuring the temperature. RTDs have positive
temperature coefficient.
The RTD is made of pure metals like platinum, nickel,
copper etc. The change of resistance concerning with the
conductor is explained by the equation shown below.
R=
Where, Ro= resistance at temperature T=0 and α1, α2,
α3... are constants. 3
Fig.1 Industrial platinum resistance thermometer
4
The platinum is used in RTD because it can withstand high
temperature and also it has high stability. The metals have
the positive-temperature coefficient, i.e. their resistance
increases with the increases in temperature and this
property of metals are used in the RTD.
The requirements of a conductor material to be used in
these thermometers are :
1) The change in resistance of material per unit change in
temperature should be as large as possible.
2) The material should have a high value of resistivity so
that minimum volume of material is used for the
construction of RTD.
3) The resistance of the materials should have a
continuous and stable relationship with temperature.
5
6
Metals Used for Resistance Thermometers
Metal Resistance temperature co- Temperature range °C Melting
efficient °C (per cent) point °C
Min. Max.
Platinum 0.39 -260 110 1773
Copper 0.39 0 180 1083
Nickel 0.62 -220 300 1455
T ungsten 0.45 -200 1000 3370
7
The characteristics of various materials used for resistance
thermometers are plotted in Figure. The curves are nearly linear, and
for small temperature range, it is very evident.
R/R0
Fig.2 Characteristics of materials used for resistance thermometers
8
Advantages.
1) Fast response
2) High degree of accuracy
3) Wide working range of temperature
4) No necessity of temperature compensation
Disadvantages of the RTD
1) High cost
2) Possibility of self heating
3) Complex circuitry
Applications
1) In heating ovens.
2) In process industries.
9
Thermistors
The thermistor is a kind of resistor whose resistivity depends
on surrounding temperature. It is a temperature sensitive
device. The word thermistor is derived from the
word, thermally sensitive resistor. The thermistor is made of
the semiconductor material that means their resistance lies
between the conductor and the insulator.
The thermistor is used for measuring the small range of
temperature, which is nearly up to -60ºC – 15ºC. The range
of resistor in the thermistor is from 0.5 – 0.75 Ω. It is an
extremely sensitive device used for measuring the
temperature of home appliances.
10
Types of Thermistors
The thermistor is classified into types. They are the negative
temperature coefficient and the positive temperature
coefficient thermistor.
1) Negative Temperature Coefficient Thermistor – In
this type of thermistor the temperature increases with
the decrease of the resistance. The resistance of the
negative temperature coefficient thermistor is very large
due to which it detects the small variation in
temperature.
2) Positive Temperature Coefficient Thermistor – The
resistance of the thermistor increases with the increases
in temperature. 11
Construction of Thermistors
The thermistor is made with the sintered mixture of
metallic oxides like manganese, cobalt, nickel, copper,
iron, uranium, etc. It is available in the form of the bead,
rod and disc. The different types of the thermistor are
shown in the figure below.
The bead form of the thermistor is smallest in shape, and it is
enclosed inside the solid glass rod to form probes.
12
The disc shape is made by pressing material under high
pressure with diameter range from 2.5 mm to 25mm.
13
Resistance Temperature Characteristic of Thermistor
The relation between the absolute temperature and the resistance of
the thermistor is mathematically expressed by the equation shown
below.
Where,
RT1 – Resistance of the thermistor at absolute temperature T1 in Kelvin.
RT2 – Resistance of the thermistor at absolute temperature T2 in Kelvin.
β – a constant depending on the material of thermistor.
14
The graph below shows that the thermistor has a negative
temperature coefficient, i.e., the temperature is inversely proportional
to the resistance. The resistance of the thermistor changes from 105 to
10-2 at the temperature between -100C to 400C.
15
Advantages of Thermistor
The following are the advantages of the thermistor.
1) The thermistor is compact, long durable and less expensive.
2) The properly aged thermistor has good stability.
3) The response time of the thermistor changes from seconds to
minutes. Their response time depends on the detecting mass and
the thermal capacity of the thermistor.
4) The self-heating of the thermistor is avoided by minimising the
current passes through it.
5) The thermistor is installed at the distance of the measuring circuit.
Thus the reading is free from the error caused by the resistance of
the lead.
16
17
18
Thermocouple
The thermocouple is a temperature measuring device. It
uses for measuring the temperature at one particular point.
In other words, it is a type of sensor used for measuring the
temperature in the form of an electric current or the EMF.
The thermocouple consists two wires of different metals
which are welded together at the ends. The welded portion
was creating the junction where the temperature is used to
be measured. The variation in temperature of the wire
induces the voltages.
19
Working Principle of Thermocouple
The working principle of the thermocouple depends on See back
effect.
Seebeck Effect – The Seebeck effect occurs between two different
metals. When the heat provides to any one of the metal, the electrons
start flowing from hot metal to cold metal. Thus, direct current
induces in the circuit.
In short, it is a phenomenon in which the temperature difference
between the two different metals induces the potential differences
between them. The Seebeck effect produces small voltages for per
Kelvin of temperature.
20
Working of Thermocouple
The circuit consists two dissimilar metals. These metals are joined
together in such a manner that they are creating two junctions. The
metals are bounded to the junction through welding.
21
Let the P and Q are the two junctions of the thermocouples. The
T1 and T2 are the temperatures at the junctions. As the temperature of
the junctions is different from each other, the EMF generates in the
circuit.
If the temperatures of the junction become unequal, the potential
difference induces in the circuit. The magnitude of the EMF induces
in the circuit depends on the types of material used for making the
thermocouple. The total current flowing through the circuit is
measured through the measuring devices.
The EMF induces in the thermocouple circuit is given by the equation
Where,
Δθ – temperature difference between the hot thermocouple junction
and the reference thermocouple junction.
a, b – constants
22
Popular Thermocouples Types
Thermocouple
Overall range Typical accuracy* Comments
type
Suited for high temperature
Type B measurements. Unusually, type B
(Platinum / 100 to 1800 5 °C (at 1000°C)thermocouples give the same output at
0 °C and 42 °C. This makes them
Rhodium) useless below 50 °C.
Type E Type E has a high output (68 µV/°C)
which makes it well suited to low
(Chromel / -200 to 900 1.7 °C temperature (cryogenic) use. Another
Constantan) property is that it is non-magnetic.
Limited range makes type J less
Type J popular than type K. J types should not
(Iron / -40 to 760 2.2 °C be used above 760°C as an abrupt
magnetic transformation will cause
Constantan) permanent decalibration.
Type K is the ‘general purpose’
Type K thermocouple. It is low cost and
(Chromel / -200 to 1300 2.2 °C popular. Sensitivity is approx 41
µV/°C. Use type K unless you have a
Alumel) good reason not to.
23
Thermocouple Typical
Overall range Comments
type accuracy*
High stability and resistance to
high temperature oxidation makes
Type N type N suitable for high
temperature measurements without
(Nicrosil / -200 to 1300 2.2 °C the cost of platinum (B,R,S) types.
Nisil) Designed to be an 'improved' type
K, it is becoming increasingly
popular.
Suited for high temperature
Type R measurements up to 1600 °C. Low
(Platinum / -50 to 1760 1.5 °C sensitivity (10 µV/°C) and high
cost makes them unsuitable for
Rhodium) general purpose use.
Type T Best accuracy of common
thermocouples, often used for food
(Copper / -200 to 400 1 °C monitoring and environmental
Constantan) applications.
24
Advantages of Thermocouple
The following are the advantages of the
thermocouples.
1) The thermocouple is cheaper than the other
temperature measuring devices.
2) The thermocouple has the fast response time.
3) It has a wide temperature range.
Disadvantages of the Thermocouples
1) The thermocouple has low accuracy.
2) The recalibration of the thermocouple is
difficult.
25
Application of Thermocouple
➢In Industry, thermocouples are used for
measuring temperatures of industrial furnaces.
➢In Medical, extremely small size thermocouple
probes are used for measuring internal body
temperature.
➢Using extension leads and compensating cables,
long transmission distances for temperature
measurement are possible.
26
Comparison Chart
27
28
29
Types of Thermal Imaging Camera
• Un-cooled
• Cooled
30
Hall Effect Transducers
The hall effect element is a type of transducer used
for measuring the magnetic field by converting it into
an emf. The direct measurement of the magnetic field is
not possible. Thus the Hall Effect Transducer is used.
The transducer converts the magnetic field into an electric
quantity which is easily measured by
the analogue and digital meters.
31
Principle of Hall Effect Transducer
The principle of hall effect transducer is that if the current carrying
strip of the conductor is placed in a transverse magnetic field, then the
EMF develops on the edge of the conductor. The magnitude of the
develop voltage depends on the density of flux, and this property of a
conductor is called the Hall effect. The Hall effect element is mainly
used for magnetic measurement and for sensing the current.
The metal and the semiconductor has the property of hall effect which
depends on the densities and the mobility of the electrons.
Consider the hall effect element shown in the figure below. The
current supply through the lead 1 and 2 and the output is obtained
from the strip 3 and 4. The lead 3 and 4 are at same potential when no
field is applied across the strip.
32
When the magnetic field is applied to the strip, the output
voltage develops across the output leads 3 and 4. The
develops voltage is directly proportional to the strength of
the material.
33
The current and magnetic field strength both can be
measured with the help of the output voltages. The hall
effect EMF is very small in conductors because of which
it is difficult to measure. But semiconductors like
germanium produces large EMF which is easily measured
by the moving coil instrument.
34
Applications of Hall Effect Transducer
1) Magnetic to Electric Transducer – The Hall effect element is
used for converting the magnetic flux into an electric transducer.
The magnetic fields are measured by placing the semiconductor
material in the measurand magnetic field. The voltage develops at
the end of the semiconductor strips, and this voltage is directly
proportional to the magnetic field density. The Hall Effect
transducer requires small space and also gives the continuous
signal concerning the magnetic field strength. The only
disadvantage of the transducer is that it is highly sensitive to
temperature and thus calibration requires in each case.
2) Measurement of Displacement – The Hall effect element
measures the displacement of the structural [Link] example
– Consider the ferromagnetic structure which has a permanent
magnet.
35
The hall effect transducer placed between the poles of the
permanent magnet. The magnetic field strength across the hall
effect element changes by changing the position of the
ferromagnetic plate.
36
3) Measurement of Current – The hall effect transducer is also
used for measuring the current without any physical connection
between the conductor circuit and meter.
The AC or DC is applied across the conductor for developing the
magnetic field. The strength of the magnetic field is directly
proportional to the applied current. The magnetic field develops
the emf across the strips. And this EMF depends on the strength of
the conductor.
37
4) Measurement of Power – The hall effect transducer is used
for measuring the power of the conductor. The current is
applied across the conductor, which develops the magnetic
field. The intensity of the field depends on the current. The
magnetic field induces the voltage across the strip. The
output voltage of the multiplier is proportional to the power
of the transducer.
38
Proximity Sensor
A proximity sensor is an electronic sensor that can detect the presence
of objects within its vicinity without any actual physical contact. In
order to sense objects, the proximity sensor radiates or emits a beam
of electromagnetic radiation, usually in the form of infrared light, and
senses the reflection in order to determine the object's proximity or
distance from the sensor.
Proximity sensors are commonly used in industrial applications. They
are also used in vehicles for detecting the proximity of other vehicles
relative to one's own car, as well as for parking-assist functions.
some of the types of proximity sensors:
➢Inductive
➢Capacitive
➢Photoelectric
➢Magnetic Sensor
➢IR Sensor
➢Ultrasonic Sensor 39
Inductive proximity sensor
Inductive proximity sensors working principle
The inductive proximity sensor circuit is used for detecting the
metal objects and the circuit doesn’t detect any objects other
than metals. The above proximity sensor circuit diagram
represents the field produced by the coil, which is generated by
providing a power supply. Whenever, this field is disturbed by
detecting any metal object (as a metal object enters this field),
then an eddy current will be generated that circulates within the
target.
Due to this, load will be caused on the sensor that decreases the
electromagnetic field amplitude. If the metal object (called as
target, as we discussed earlier in this article) is moved towards
the proximity sensor, then the eddy current will increase
accordingly. Thus, the load on the oscillator will increase, which
decreases the field amplitude. 40
41
The trigger block in the proximity sensor circuit is used to monitor the
amplitude of the oscillator and at particular levels (predetermined
levels) the trigger circuit switches on or off the sensor (which is in its
normal condition). If the metal object or target is moved away from
the proximity sensor, then the amplitude of the oscillator will
increase.
The waveform of for the inductive proximity sensor oscillator in the
presence of the target and in the absence of the target can be
represented as shown in the above figure.
42
Proximity Sensor Circuit Operating Voltages
Nowadays, inductive proximity sensors are available with different
operating voltages. These inductive proximity sensors are available
in AC, DC, and AC/DC modes (universal modes). The operating
range of the proximity sensor circuits is from 10V to 320V DC and
20V to 265V AC.
Applications
Common applications of inductive sensors include metal detectors,
car washes, and a host of automated industrial processes. Because the
sensor does not require physical contact it is particularly useful for
applications where access presents challenges. The sensing range is
rarely greater than 6 cm, however, and it has no directionality.
43
Capacitive proximity sensors
A capacitive sensor acts like a simple capacitor. A metal plate in the
sensing face of the sensor is electrically connected to an internal
oscillator circuit and the target to be sensed acts as the second plate of
the capacitor. Unlike an inductive sensor that produces an
electromagnetic field a capacitive sensor produces an electrostatic
field.
44
As the target approaches the sensors face the oscillations increase until
they reach a threshold level and activate the output.
Capacitive sensors have the ability to adjust the sensitivity or the
threshold level of the oscillator. The sensitivity adjustment can be made
by adjusting a potentiometer, using an integral teach pushbutton or
remotely by using a teach wire. If the sensor does not have an
adjustment method then the sensor must physically be moved for sensing
the target correctly. Increasing the sensitivity causes a greater operating
distance to the target. Large increases in sensitivity can cause the sensor
to be influenced by temperature, humidity, and dirt.
45
46
There are two categories of targets that capacitive sensors can detect the
first being conductive and the second is non-conductive. Conductive
targets include metal, water, blood, acids, bases, and salt water. These
targets have a greater capacitance and a targets dielectric strength is
immaterial.
The non-conductive target category acts like an insulator to the sensors
electrode. Materials with a high dielectric constant will have a longer
sensing distance.
A typical sensing range for capacitive proximity sensors is from a few
millimeters up to about 1 inch. (or 25 mm), and some sensors have an
extended range up to 2 inch.
47
Proximity Switch NPN Type
48
Proximity Switch PNP Type
49
Photoelectric Proximity Sensors
Photoelectric sensors are so versatile that they solve the bulk of
problems put to industrial sensing. They detect targets less than 1 mm
in diameter, or from 60 m away. All photoelectric sensors consist of a
few of basic components: each has an emitter light source (Light
Emitting Diode, laser diode), a photodiode or phototransistor receiver
to detect emitted light, and supporting electronics designed to amplify
the receiver signal. The emitter, sometimes called the sender, transmits
a beam of either visible or infrared light to the detecting receiver.
Identifying their output is thus made easy; darkon and light-on
classifications refer to light reception and sensor output activity. If
output is produced when no light is received, the sensor is dark-on.
Output from light received, and it’s light-on.
50
Photoelectric Proximity Sensors
51
Through-beam
Separate emitter and receiver units are required for a thru-beam sensor.
The units are aligned in a way that the greatest possible amount of
pulsed light from the transmitter reaches the receiver. An object (target)
placed in the path of the light beam blocks the light to the receiver,
causing the receiver’s output to change state. When the target no longer
blocks the light path the receiver’s output returns to its normal state.
Thru-beam is suitable for detection of opaque objects. It cannot be used
to detect transparent objects. In addition, vibration can cause alignment
problems.
Despite its reliability, through-beam is the least popular photoelectric
setup. The purchase, installation, and alignment of the emitter and
receiver in two opposing locations, which may be quite a distance apart,
are costly and laborious. The maximum sensing range is 300 feet.
52
Retro-reflective
Reflective and retroreflective scan are two names for the same
Retroreflective Scan technique. The emitter and receiver are in one
unit. Light from the emitter is transmitted in a straight line to a
reflector and returns to the receiver. A normal or a corner-cube
reflector can be used. When a target blocks the light path the output of
the sensor changes state. When the target no longer blocks the light
path the sensor returns to its normal state. The maximum sensing
range is 35 feet.
Retroreflective scan sensors may not be able to detect shiny and
Shiny Objects objects. Shiny objects reflect light back to the sensor.
The sensor is unable to differentiate between light reflected from a
shiny object and light reflected from a reflector.
53
Diffuse
The emitter and receiver are in one unit. Light from the
emitter strikes the target and the reflected light is diffused
from the surface at all angles. If the receiver receives
enough reflected light the output will switch states. When
no light is reflected back to the receiver the output returns
to its original state. In diffuse scanning the emitter is placed
perpendicular to the target. The receiver will be at some
angle in order to receive some of the scattered (diffuse)
reflection. Only a small amount of light will reach the
receiver, therefore, this technique has an effective range of
about 40”.
54
Proximity Sensor
• Use of Proximity sensor as Vibration sensor
• Use of Proximity sensor as Accelerometer
55
Electromagnetic flow meter
Electromagnetic flow meters are particularly suitable for the
flow measurements of slurries, sludge and any electrically
conducting liquid.
Electromagnetic flow meters detect flow by using Faraday's
Law of induction.
Faraday’s law of induction:
This law state that if a conductor of length l(m) is moving
with a velocity v, perpendicular to a magnetic field of flux
density B (Tesla), then the induced voltage E, across the
end of the conductor can be expressed by
E = Blv
56
Electromagnetic flowmeter uses Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction to determine the flow of a liquid through a pipeline. The
magnetic flow meters are also known as magmeters.
Electrically conductive process fluid is passed through a magnetic
field induced by coils that are positioned around a section of pipe.
Electrode
57
The process fluid is electrically insulated from the pipe with a suitable
lining, in the case of a metal pipe, so that the generated voltage is not
dissipated through the pipeline. The electrodes are located in the pipe
and a voltage is generated across these electrodes that are directly
proportional to the average velocity of the liquid passing through the
magnetic field.
58
The coils are energised with pulsed dc voltage, so
consequently the magnetic field and resultant induced
voltage respond accordingly. The generated voltage is
protected from interference, amplified and converted into a
dc current signal by the transmitter.
The magnetic flowmeter measures volume rate at the
flowing temperature independent of the effects of viscosity,
density, pressure or turbulence.
59
Advantages:
➢ No restrictions to flow.
➢ No pressure loss.
➢ No moving parts.
➢ Good resistance to erosion.
➢ Independent of viscosity, density, pressure and
turbulence.
➢ Good accuracy.
➢ Bi-directional.
➢ Large range of flow rates and diameters
Disadvantages:
➢Expensive.
➢Most require a full pipeline.
➢Limited to conductive liquids.
60
Ultrasonic Flowmeter
The ultrasonic flow transducer has two piezoelectric crystals in the
liquid, or gas, separated by a distance. The crystals, in which one acts as
a transmitter, and the other acts as a receiver, are either pressed to the
exterior of the pipe, or immersed in the liquid/gas. This is so that the
signal from the transmitter is transmitted through the liquid, and
received at the receiver with the small time lag. The measure of this
transmit time determines the velocity of the flow.
Ultrasonic transducers such as piezo-electric crystals are used in the
flowmeter to measure average velocity along the path of ultrasound
waves. It calculates average of difference in measured transient time
between pulses propagating into and opposite to the direction of flow.
The input and output has linear relationship.
61
It uses two crystals, one as a transmitter (T), and the other as a
receiver (R), which are a distance apart. The transmitter emits an
ultrasonic pulse, which is received by the receiver after ∆t time.
62
63
64
65
Advantages of Ultrasonic Flowmeter
➢The fluid that is passing through a pipe is not required to be
conducting in comparison with an electromagnetic flow meter.
➢The flow of slurries and corrosive fluids are measured in this
method. In comparison to different flow meters, the ultrasonic flow
meters are clamped externally on the existing pipe, rather than an
integral part of the flow line.
➢Installation of ultrasonic flow meters is easy; there is no need for
cutting or breaking of the pipeline, so it is cost effective.
➢Flow measurement of hazardous liquids, such as toxic acids,
radioactive and flammable, is possible because ultrasonic methods are
suitable because of external clamping.
➢It is mainly used to measure the flow of liquid, but it is also suitable
for gases and streams.
Disadvantages of Ultrasonic Flowmeter
➢It is complex in design.
➢expensive
66
Doppler Effect
Doppler Effect refers to the change in wave frequency during the relative
motion between a wave source and its observer. It was discovered by
Christian Johann Doppler.
Doppler Effect works on both light and sound objects. For instance, when a
sound object moves towards you, the frequency of the sound waves
increases, leading to a higher pitch. Conversely, if it moves away from you,
the frequency of the sound waves decreases and the pitch comes down.
There are various applications of Doppler Effect.
➢Sirens
➢Astronomy
➢Radars
➢Medical imaging and blood flow management
➢Flow management
➢Velocity profile management
➢Satellite communication
➢Audio
➢Vibration measurement 67
Laser Doppler Velocimetry
It is also termed as Laser Velocimetry (LV) or Laser Doppler Anemometry
(LDA). It is used to measure the fluid velocities by detecting frequency
shift of laser light that has been scattered by small particles moving with
the fluid. The operating principle of LDV is based on sending a highly
coherent monochromatic light beam towards a fluid particle. The
monochromatic light beam has same wavelengths and all the waves are in
phase. The light reflected from the fluid particle wave will have different
frequencies and the change in frequency of reflected radiation due
to Doppler effect is the measure of fluid velocity. A basic configuration of
a LDV setup is shown in Fig. The laser power source is normally a
helium-neon/argon-ion laser with a power output of 10mW to 20W. The
laser beam is first split into two parallel beams of equal intensity by a
mirror and beam-splitters. Both the beams pass through a converging lens
that focuses the beams at a point in the flow. The small fluid volume
where the two beams intersect is the measurement volume where the
velocity is measured. Typically, it has a dimension of 0.1mm diameter and
0.5mm long. 68
Finally, the frequency information of scattered and unscattered laser
light collected through receiving lens and photo-detector, is converted
to voltage signal. Subsequently, flow velocity (U) is calculated.
69
70
71
Capacitive methods
Change in capacitance with change in area of plates,
distance between plates and the dielectric constant are used
in detecting the level of liquids and solids in a container.
i) Variable area method
The variable area capacitive transducer is used for
measurement of levels of both solids and liquids. The
electrical conducting container containing the materials is
used as one connection point of the transducer. The other
point is a metal rod completely covered by insulating
material inside the container. The insulating material acts as
the dielectric medium and the capacitance varies linearly
with the height of the material.
72
Capacitive methods
The relationship is given by:
Where, ɛ = Permittivity; F/m,
h = Height of material; m,
d1 = Diameter of the metal rod; m, and
d2 = External diameter of the insulator; m.
The container should be earthed to avoid any danger of
electric shock to the personnel and to prevent any errors due
to external metallic objects.
73
ii) Capacitive voltage divider method
In case, the conductivity of a liquid is high, its surface can be used as
one electrode of the capacitor. The other electrode is a fixed reference
plate parallel to the surface of the liquid. A system incorporating
these features is shown in Fig.1. This uses an auxiliary electrode
P1 placed at a fixed distance above the reference electrode P2. The
two electrodes P1 and P2 are electrically insulated from each other.
An AC voltage is applied between the liquid and the electrode P1.
Capacitance C2 is inversely proportional to the distance between the
liquid surface and P2. Thus the output voltage decreases with rise of
liquid level and therefore the relationship between them is non-
linear.
74
Fig. 1 Capacitive voltage divider liquid level gauge
75
iii) Variable dielectric constant method
If the liquid is non-conducting it can be used as a dielectric
in a capacitor. The arrangement for measurement of liquid
level for non-conducting liquids is illustrated in the Fig.2.
An insulated metal electrode firmly fixed near and parallel
to the metal wall of the tank. If the liquid is non-conductive,
the electrode and the tank wall form the plates of a parallel
plate capacitor with the liquid in between them acting as the
dielectric. If the liquid is conductive the rod and the liquid
form the plates of the capacitor, and the insulation between
them is the dielectric. Where the tank is not of metal, two
parallel insulated rods or electrodes, kept at a fixed distance
apart are used. The two rods act as two plates of a parallel
plate capacitor.
76
Fig. 2 Dielectric liquid level gauge
The capacitance of this capacitor depends, among other factors, upon
the height of the dielectric between the plates. The higher the liquid
level, the greater is the capacitance. The lesser the height, the smaller
is the capacitance. Thus, the capacitance is proportional to the height
of the liquid in the tank. The capacitance in the above cases may be
measured and this measured capacitance is an indication of liquid
levels. 77
Thank You
78
