DEAERATORS

The dissolved gases normally present in water cause many corrosion problems. For instance, oxygen in water produces pitting that is
particularly severe because of its localized nature. Carbon dioxide corrosion is frequently encountered in condensate systems and less
commonly in water distribution systems. Water containing ammonia, particularly in the presence of oxygen, readily attacks copper
and copper-bearing alloys. The resulting corrosion leads to deposits on boiler heat transfer surfaces and reduces efficiency and
reliability.

In order to meet industrial standards for both oxygen content and the allowable metal oxide levels in feedwater, nearly complete
oxygen removal is required. This can be accomplished only by efficient mechanical deaeration supplemented by an effective and
properly controlled chemical oxygen scavenger.

Several principles apply to the mechanical deaeration of feedwater:

 The solubility of any gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas at the liquid surface
 The solubility of a gas in a liquid decreases with increasing liquid temperature(see Figure 10-2)
 Efficiency of removal is increased when the liquid and gas are thoroughly mixed

The solubility of a gas in a liquid is expressed by Henry's Law:

Ctotal = kP
where:
Ctotal = total concentration of the gas in solution
P = partial pressure of the gas above solution
k = a proportionality constant known as Henry's Law Constant
For example, 8 ppm of oxygen can be dissolved in water when the partial pressure of oxygen is 0.2 atmosphere; only 4 ppm of oxygen
can be dissolved in water if the partial pressure of oxygen is reduced to 0.1 atmosphere.

As is evident from Henry's Law, a dissolved gas can be removed from water by a reduction of the partial pressure of that gas in the
atmosphere contacting the liquid. This can be accomplished in either of two ways:
1. a vacuum is applied to the system and the unwanted gas is vented
2. a new gas is introduced into the system while the unwanted gas is vented
Vacuum deaeration has been used successfully in water distribution systems. However, pressure deaeration (with steam as the purge
gas) is normally used to prepare boiler feedwater. Steam is chosen as the purge gas for several reasons:

 it is readily available
 it heats the water and reduces the solubility of oxygen
 it does not contaminate the water
 only a small quantity of steam must be vented, because most of the steam used to scrub the water is condensed and becomes a
part of the deaerated water

In order to deaerate the boiler feedwater, water is sprayed into a steam atmosphere. This heats the water to within a few degrees of the
temperature of the saturated steam. Because the solubility of oxygen in water is very low under these conditions, 97 to 98% of the
oxygen in the incoming water is released to the steam and is purged from the system by venting. Although the remaining oxygen is not
soluble under equilibrium conditions, it is not readily released to the steam. Therefore, water leaving the heating section of the
deaerator must be scrubbed vigorously with steam to maximize removal.

Equipment

The purpose of a deaerator is to reduce dissolved gases, particularly oxygen, to a low level and improve a plant's thermal efficiency by
raising the water temperature. In addition, deaerators provide feedwater storage and proper suction conditions for boiler feedwater
pumps.

Pressure deaerators, or deaerating heaters, can be classified under two major categories: tray-type and spray-type (see Figure 10-3).
Tray-type deaerators are also referred to as "spray-tray" type, because the water is initially introduced by spray valves or nozzles. The
spray type is also referred to as the "spray-scrubber" type because a separate scrubbing section is used to provide additional steam-
water contact after spraying.

The tray-type deaerating heater, shown in Figures 10-4 and 10-5, consists of a shell, spray nozzles to distribute and spray the water, a
direct-contact vent condenser, tray stacks, and protective interchamber walls. Although the shell is constructed of low carbon steel,
more corrosion-resistant stainless steels are used for the spray nozzles, vent condenser, trays, and interchamber walls.

The operation of this deaerator is illustrated in Figure 10-5. Incoming water is sprayed into a steam atmosphere, where it is heated to
within a few degrees of the saturation temperature of the steam. Most of the noncondensable gases (principally oxygen and free
carbon dioxide) are released to the steam as the water is sprayed into the unit. Seals prevent the recontamination of tray stack water by
gases from the spray section.

In the tray section, water cascades from tray to tray, breaking into fine droplets or films which intimately contact the incoming steam.
The steam heats the water to the saturation temperature of the steam and removes all but the very last traces of oxygen. Deaerated
water falls to the storage space below, where a steam blanket protects it from recontamination.

The steam, entering the deaerators through ports in the tray compartment, flows down through the tray stack parallel to the water flow.
A very small amount of steam condenses in this section as the water temperature rises to the saturation temperature of the steam. The
remainder of the steam scrubs the cascading water.

Upon leaving the tray compartment, the steam flows upward between the shell and the interchamber walls to the spray section. Most
of the steam is condensed and becomes a part of the deaerated water. A small portion of the steam, which contains the noncondensable
gases released from the water, is vented to the atmosphere. It is essential that sufficient venting is provided at all times or deaeration
will be incomplete.

As mentioned, most tray and spray-type deaerators use spring-loaded spray nozzles, which evenly distribute the inlet water (see Figure
10-6). Newer spray valves are designed to provide a uniform spray pattern under varying load conditions for efficient steam-water
contact. The valve is designed to provide atomization of the inlet water into small droplets to improve heat transfer and to provide
efficient scrubbing of the inlet water oxygen.

Steam flow through the tray stack may be cross-flow, counter-current, or co-current to the water. The deaerated water is usually stored
in a separate tank, as illustrated in Figure 10-4.

The spray-type deaerating heater consists of a shell, spring-loaded inlet spray valves, a direct-contact vent condenser, and a steam
scrubber for final deaeration. The inlet spray valves and direct contact vent condenser section are stainless steel; the shell and steam
scrubber may be low carbon steel.

The incoming water is sprayed into a steam atmosphere and heated to within a few degrees of the saturation temperature of the steam.
Most of the noncondensable gases are released to the steam, and the heated water falls to a water seal and drains to the lowest section
of the steam scrubber.

The water is scrubbed by a large volume of steam and heated to the saturation temperature prevailing at that point. The intimate
steam-water contact achieved in the scrubber efficiently strips the water of dissolved gases. As the steam-water mixture rises in the
scrubber, the deaerated water is a few degrees above the saturation temperature, due to a slight pressure loss. A small amount of
flashing results, which aids in the release of dissolved gases. The deaerated water overflows from the steam scrubber to the storage
section below.

Steam enters the deaerator through a chest on the side and flows to the steam scrubber. Because the volume of steam is large
compared to the volume of water, thorough scrubbing is achieved. The steam, after flowing through the scrubber, passes up into the
spray heater section to heat the incoming water. Most of the steam condenses in the spray section to become a part of the deaerated
water. A small portion of the steam is vented to the atmosphere to remove the noncondensable gases.

In the jet-atomizing segment of spray-type deaerators, the incoming water is sprayed into a steam atmosphere. Here, the water is
heated sufficiently to release the majority of the noncondensable gases. The water is then delivered into a high-velocity steam jet. It
impinges on a baffle and is atomized into fine droplets. The high-velocity steam heats the water to its saturation temperature and
scrubs all but the last traces of oxygen from the fine water droplets.

Other types of deaerating equipment, less common in industrial plants, include film-type and bubbling device type deaerators.

In film-type deaerators, the water flows along a surface, such as Raschig rings, in a thin film counter-current to steam flow. Oxygen is
removed along the film surface. Water is collected at evenly spaced intervals.

In a bubbling device deaerator, oxygen is removed following preheating of the water, through intimate contact of steam and water
moving over perforated plates.

Deaerating Condensers

In power generating stations, main turbine condensers have air ejectors to remove dissolved gases. Sometimes the pressure deaerator
is omitted from the feedwater cycle. However, there is a danger of air leaking into the system, both during start-up/shutdown and
while the condensers are operating at low loads. This may necessitate steam blanketing and increased chemical deaeration.

Vacuum Deaeration

Vacuum deaeration is used at temperatures below the atmospheric boiling point to reduce the corrosion rate in water distribution
systems. A vacuum is applied to the system to bring the water to its saturation temperature. Spray nozzles break the water into small
particles to facilitate gas removal and vent the exhaust gases.
Incoming water enters through spray nozzles and falls through a column packed with Raschig rings or other synthetic packings. In this
way, water is reduced to thin films and droplets, which promote the release of dissolved gases. The released gases and water vapor are
removed through the vacuum, which is maintained by steam jet eductors or vacuum pumps, depending on the size of the system.
Vacuum deaerators remove oxygen less efficiently than pressure units. A typical vacuum deaerator is shown in Figure 10-7.

Important Considerations

Inlet water to the deaerators should be largely free from suspended solids, which can clog spray valves and ports of the inlet
distributor and the deaerator trays. In addition, spray valves, ports, and deaerator trays may plug with scale which forms when the
water being deaerated has high levels of hardness and alkalinity.

Pressure deaerators reduce oxygen to very low levels. Yet even trace amounts of oxygen may cause corrosion damage to a system.
Therefore, good operating practice requires supplemental removal of oxygen by means of a chemical oxygen scavenger such as
sodium sulfite or hydrazine, or other materials, such as organic, volatile oxygen scavengers.

Although deaeration removes free carbon dioxide, it removes only small amounts of combined carbon dioxide. The majority of the
combined carbon dioxide is released with the steam in the boiler and subsequently dissolves in the condensate, frequently causing
corrosion problems. These problems can be controlled through the use of volatile neutralizing amines, filming amines, and metal
oxide conditioners.

Monitoring Performance

Monitoring Performance Pressure deaerators, used to prepare boiler feedwater, produce deaerated water which is very low in
dissolved oxygen and free carbon dioxide. Vendors usually guarantee less than 0.005 cm3/L (7 ppb) of oxygen.

Vacuum deaerators, used to protect water distribution lines, are not designed to deaerate as thoroughly as pressure deaerators. Usually,
they reduce the oxygen content to about 0.25 to 0.50 cm3`/L (330 to 650 ppb).

In order to ensure maximum oxygen removal, spot or continuous monitoring of dissolved oxygen in the effluent of the deaerator is
essential. Continuous monitoring with an on-line oxygen meter is normally recommended (see Figure 10-8). For performance testing
of the deaerator, the feed of the chemical oxygen scavenger is stopped for a brief period of time.
It is good practice to check the operation of the unit regularly. Care should be taken to ensure that the unit is not operated beyond its
capacity. The system should also be checked for water hammer and thermal stress, which can be caused by the introduction of cold
condensate. Thorough off-line inspection should be performed as often as possible and should include the following:

 inlet water regulating valves and controls for storage tank level control
 high and low alarms for storage tank levels
 overflow valve and controller for prevention of high water level
 steam pressure reducing valves to maintain required minimum deaerator pressure
 safety relief valves
 temperature and pressure gauges for proper monitoring of makeup water, deaerator, and storage tank
 steam vent for removal of gases and vent condenser for integrity
 steam inlet baffles for integrity
 inlet spray valves for deposits and operation
 trays for proper position
 weld areas for damage (particularly cracking)
What is Pitting Corrosion?
Pitting corrosion affects metals and alloys such as steel, iron, aluminium and more. It is usually constrained to specific areas. It
penetrates and attacks rapidly and is difficult to detect. It most commonly occurs where the passive coating layer is physically
damaged or chemically attacked. This creates a weak point where water or corrosive solutions attack the substrate.

Adjacent materials will often appear unaffected. If left unchecked pitting corrosion can be devastating for roof systems or any metal
structure. It occurs quickly and can easily be overlooked, which is why many consider it the most dangerous form of corrosion.

Pitting Corrosion Explained

Pitting corrosion is a cavity, hole or pit that forms in a small area or point. The pits or holes are obscured by a small amount of
corrosion product (rust) on the surface. When a cathodic reaction in a large area (coating) sustains an anodic reaction in a small area
(exposed metal), a pit, cavity or small hole will form. Oxidation occurs in the metal even when there is no supply of oxygen.

High electron demand by the large cathode is put on the small anode, the result is intense pitting corrosion. It will be subtle and
happen rapidly with very harmful effects. Only a small spot of rust is visible on the surface while damage happens deep in the metal
structure below.
Pitting corrosion diagram showing how rust forms in a small anodic area due to the high demand of electrons by the large cathodic
area forming a pit below.

What Causes Pitting Corrosion?

Pitting corrosion occurs when the cathode (damaged coating) is large and the anode (exposed metal) is small. Typically the surface
protection layer or film becomes the cathode when it is damaged and cracked. A small area of metal is then exposed and becomes the
anodic.

Pitting is vigorous when the solution on the metal surface contains chloride, hypochlorite or bromide ions. Other harmful solutions are
those that contain fluorides and iodides. Sulphides and water are also known to enhance the pitting process.

The most common pitting corrosion causes are;

 Cracks in protective coating

 Scratches, scuffs & small chips
 Non-uniform stress
 Defective metal substrate
 Turbulent fluid flow
 Non-uniform protective coating
 Chemical attack on protective coating

Metals prone to pitting corrosion are;

 Stainless steel
 Chromium
 Passive iron
 Mercury
 Cobalt
 Aluminum
 Copper
 Associated alloys

Another example of pitting corrosion occurs when a metal is poorly maintained and exposed to water droplets and dust particles. The
area below the droplet is insufficiency oxygenated while the surrounding areas are well oxygenated. This results in differential
aeration corrosion where surrounding areas are cathodic and the small area below the droplets and dust particles become anodic.
Electrons flow through the metal and are met by water and oxygen. Ions are formed and defuse together to produce rust. Pits, cracks
and crevices develop in the metal as the rust is produced.
Types of Pitting Corrosion

Pitting corrosion can appear in a variety shapes. The shape of the pit depends largely on the material affected and the direction of the
grain within that material. Passive metals and alloys are most commonly affected, these include stainless steel and aluminium.
However almost any metal or material susceptible to corrosion can be affected.

Trough Pitting Corrosion

Trough pit shapes tend to be hemispherical, cup-shaped or irregularly shaped. Trough pitting corrosion occurs when the passive film
(protective layer) is compromised and the metal wall is attacked forming narrow and deep troughs. Their flat walls expose the crystal
structure of the metal. These can quickly perforate the thickness of the material, for example a roof sheet, truss or gutter component.
Vertical grain attack trough pitting corrosion cross section diagram.
Narrow, deep trough pitting corrosion cross section diagram.
Elliptical trough pitting corrosion cross section diagram.
Shallow, wide trough pitting corrosion cross section diagram.

Sideway Pitting Corrosion

Sideway pits are covered with a semi-permeable membrane of corrosion product (rust) and appear in horizontal grain attack,
undercutting and subsurface shapes. Sideway pitting corrosion can penetrate the metal very quickly. It is very difficult to detect
because the surface of the metal will appear unaffected and free from corrosion. With only a few small spots of rust it may appear as if
damage is very minor.
Horizontal grain attack sideway pitting corrosion cross section diagram.
Subsuface sideway pitting corrosion cross section diagram.
Undercutting sideway pitting corrosion cross section diagram.

How to test for Pitting Corrosion?

A visual examination of the corroded metal surface is the first and basic method used. Count the number of pits through a microscope
eyepiece over a defined surface area such as 20cm2 to determine the approximate size and distribution of the pits. The number of pits
is not necessarily the most important factor to consider. Pit depth is by far the biggest danger. One narrow deep pit can be more
dangerous the many shallow pits. A metallographic cross section to measure the depth of the pits will reveal the intensity of the attack.

Sonics testing is where ultrasonic pulses of sound energy are transmitted through an oil or water based couplant onto the metal
surface. Waves are generated and reflect echoes that are converted in to electrical signals. These signals can be interpreted to show the
location of pits, crevices and flaws in the metal. This test has good sensitivity and provides instantaneous information about the depth,
width and location of the pits and flaws.

Electromagnetic testing is used to detect defects or irregularities in the structure of electrically conducting materials such as steel and
iron. Materials with defects will produce a magnetic field that is different from that of a reference material without defects.

Electrochemical testing to measure pitting in any metal such as cyclic polarisation and potentiostatic tests are also an option. These
are short term electrochemical tests that provide instant results.

An immersion test or weight loss method is another option. These tests take more time to run. They involve removing a metal sample
and immersing in a solution. After a few days it can be removed so the corrosion rate can be calculated. You can observe the pits and
pit depth under a microscope and make the necessary calculations.

There are several standards which provide guidance for electrochemical pitting tests of stainless steels and the most popular ones are:

 ASTM G61 Cyclic Polarization Test

 ASTM G150 Electrochemical Pitting Temperature Test

How to treat Pitting Corrosion?

It is bed to use recommended cleaning procedures to expose the pits fully and remove the corrosion products. Avoid using solutions
that attack the base metal excessively. It is advisable during cleaning to periodically probe the pits with a pointed tool. This will enable
you to determine the extent of any undercutting or subsurface corrosion. Vigorously scrubbing the pit with a wire brush will enlarge
the openings sufficiently. Removing the corrosion products and undercut metal you will help to evaluate the extent of damage.

When the metal material is clean and free from debris carry out a final inspection of the damage. If you are happy the corrosion has
been caught in time you may proceed with applying a base primer coating followed by one or two more top layers. If the damage is
severe and the component is too weak it will need to be replaced.

Zinc phosphate priming is on of the most popular coating methods to protect against pitting corrosion. Specially formulated primers
such as zinc phosphate improve corrosion resistance.

Zinc spray metallising is a technique that is very effective against corrosion. It has smooth finish which is aesthetically appealing and
popular. It doesn’t provide the same protection as hot dip galvanising but because this is a cold process there is no risk of distorting
the metal. Zinc spray metallising is ideal for use on ornate metal items such as art exhibits, metal railings and fences.

Chemical coating uses electrostatic or compressed air to apply a specially formulated powdered material to a steel surface. It is then
melted to form a smooth protective film. Steel treated in this way is not only protected against corrosion and UV damage, it is also
highly resistant to peeling, scratching and cracking.

Hot dipping is a galvanisation method of coating that can be used on steel of all shapes and sizes. It involves immersing the steel in a
bath of molten zinc at temperatures up to 450°C. Steel galvanised in this way is a particularly popular approach for pipe related
applications, because its highly protected against corrosion as well as extreme weather conditions.

How to prevent and protect against Pitting Corrosion?

Environmental factors that cause pitting corrosion should be minimised, where possible. Humidity, temperature, chloride and pH acids
and salt levels should be controlled and minimised.

For cathodic protection, metal that is at risk should be coated with a reactive metal that corrodes more easily. This can come in the
form of a galvanised zinc coating or similar. The reactive metal will act as the anode and corrode first preventing pitting in the
substrate.

For protection against chemical attack, metals resistant to corrosion such as alloys are better. Alloys that contain titanium, nitrogen,
chromium and molybdenum are very effective in environments with high levels of chloride ions.
Pitting corrosion can be controlled by:

 Use of a coating that will prevent pitting on metal surfaces

 Using more corrosion resistant materials
 Ensuring that the fluids in contact with the material is washed away regularly
 Use of cathodic protection
 Avoiding stagnant zones
 Inhibitor use / fluid chemistry control
 Maintain the protective film of the material