Human Reproduction
Humans are made up of cells.
All Cells have DNA –
Condensed as chromatin and
later as chromosomes.
DNA is Characteristic for a
species. Therefore,
chromosomes are
characteristic for a species.
Chromosomes
Exist as a pair.
Humans have 46 chromosomes – therefore we have 23
pairs of chromosomes.
This arrangement is known as Diploid.
If a cell only has one set of chromosomes – it is known as
haploid set.
Cell Division – Growth and Reproduction
Cell has to reproduce: Growth occurs only when
cells reproduce.
Transmission of Information: Important
information to run the cell must be passed from
one cell to the next. This information is stored as
DNA
Cell division
Cell Reproduction
Cells must reproduce to sustain life.
Information must be passed to daughter cells during
reproduction.
DNA – The Genetic Information
DNA carries genetic information inside the cell.
Every cell has DNA, which is located in the nucleus.
DNA Structure and Organization
DNA is very long and must be condensed to fit inside the
cell.
DNA exists in a double-helix structure.
Cell Division for growth - MITOSIS
One Cell has to become two cells
Parent Cell à 2 daughter cells
All DNA of Parent Cell has to go to daughter cells, therefore
there must be doubling of DNA and then the cell can split
into 2.
Mitosis
Remember – (t) – Two
Cell Divides to produce two cells.
Both the daughter cells are also
Diploid – they contain all the
DNA from the parent.
Mitosis occurs for Growth in
humans.
cycles of growth and division
allow a single cell to form a
structure consisting of millions of
cells.
Mitosis
During the division of a cell, DNA replication and cell
growth also take place. All these processes, i.e., cell
division, DNA replication, and cell growth, hence, have to
take place in a coordinated way to ensure correct division
and formation of progeny cells containing intact genomes.
Time taken to divide varies in various organisms –
Yeast – 90 min
Human cells in culture – 24 hours
Mitosis
DNA will double inside a cell, from 2C it will become 4C.
In humans, some cells do not divide at all – such as heart
cells.
Animals – mitosis of diploid somatic cells.
Plants – mitosis of both haploid and diploid cells.
Mitosis is aka Equational Division.
Mitosis usually results in the production of diploid daughter
cells with identical genetic complement. The growth of
multicellular organisms is due to mitosis.
Cell Division for Reproduction - Meiosis
Meiosis
Offsprings are produced by sexual reproduction. This means
that offsprings get genetic material from both parents –
mother and father.
If in both parents, the cells that are involved in reproduction
also have Diploid (2n) configuration, then what happens to
the fused cell?
Fused cell will have (4n) type DNA, which is not needed.
The first cell of the baby, known as zygote, must have (2n)
DNA. For this, both parents must contribute only Half DNA.
Process of sexual reproduction
Gametes are produced through meiosis
Meiosis
Meiosis leads to the production of 4 haploid cells.
First, the parent cell will double its DNA to (4n) or 4C. Then,
it will split into 4 cells, each having (n) type Haploid DNA
configuration. These 4 cells are called gametes. These
gametes will then fuse to form the first cell of newborn,
called Zygote.
Therefore, the zygote will get (n) – 23 chromosomes from
mother and (n) – 23 chromosomes from the father. Zygote
will also therefore have 46 chromosomes, half from each
parent.
Crossing over during Meiosis
Lets Watch a video and understand how crossing over
happens during meiosis.
Click here to watch.
Therefore, crossing over leads to variability in gametes, this
is why all siblings do not look alike.
However, twins do look alike. (explained in class)
Gametes – sperm and ovum
Normal Feritilisation
Fertilisation - In vivo (body) or in vitro (lab)
Fertilisation at cellular level
Formation of Zygote
Try and Answer!
Components of a zygote
What if Mother has a defective mitochondria?
All cells of the future baby will arise from
the zygote.
If mother gives a defective mitochondria to
the child, all future cells of the child will
have defective mitochondria.
This will lead to various diseases in the
newborn child, one such disease is called
leigh’s disease.
What if Mother has a defective mitochondria?
Therefore, we need to solve this problem and provide a
functional mitochondria to the zygote.
We need to Replace the Mitochondria in the zygote –
Known as mitochondrial replacement therapy.
However, there are more than one mitochondria in a cell
and we do not have the technology to extract mitochondria
from the cell.
We do however, have the technology to extract Nucleus (or
pronucleus) from the cell.
Mitochondrial Replacement Therapy
Replace the mitochondria with healthy mitochondria
Mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT), aka
mitochondrial donation, is the replacement of mitochondria
in one or more cells to prevent or ameliorate disease. MRT
originated as a special form of in vitro fertilization in which
some or all of the future baby's mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)
comes from a third party. This technique is used in cases
when mothers carry genes for mitochondrial diseases.
Methods of MRT
Method 1 – Pronuclear Transfer
Pronuclear Transfer
Method 2 – Maternal Spindle Transfer
Maternal Spindle Transfer or Reconstructed egg technology
MST or RET
3 Parents’ Baby
Zygotes made from mitochondrial replacement therapy have
DNA (genetic material) coming from 3 parents – The
biological father, the biological mother and mitochondrial
DNA from the donor female.
However, Mitochondria only has 37/20000 genes known in
humans, therefore it has little impact.
Due to genetic material sourced from 3 parents, this is
known as a 3 parents’ baby. This technique has been
approved in the UK and Mexico.
3 parents’ Baby
Question 6
Q. In the context of hereditary diseases, consider the following statements:
1. Passing on mitochondrial diseases from parent to child can be prevented by
mitochondrial replacement therapy either before or after in vitro fertilization of the egg.
2. A child inherits mitochondrial diseases entirely from mother and not from father.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a. 1 only
b. 2 only
c. Both 1 and 2
d. Neither 1 nor 2
Question 7
Q. In the context of recent advances in human reproductive technology,
“Pronuclear Transfer” is used for:
a) fertilization of egg in vitro by the donor sperm
b) genetic modification of sperm producing cells
c) development of stem cells into functional embryos
d) prevention of mitochondrial diseases in offspring
Question 6
Q. In the context of hereditary diseases, consider the following statements:
1. Passing on mitochondrial diseases from parent to child can be prevented by
mitochondrial replacement therapy either before or aer in vitro fertilization of the egg.
2. A child inherits mitochondrial diseases entirely from mother and not from father.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
Question 7
Q. In the context of recent advances in human reproductive technology,
“Pronuclear Transfer” is used for:
a) fertilization of egg in vitro by the donor sperm
b) genetic modification of sperm producing cells
c) development of stem cells into functional embryos
d) prevention of mitochondrial diseases in offspring
