Matrix Basics for Students
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tanmay goyalMatrix Basics for Students
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tanmay goyalMatrices
DEFINITION
A rectangular arrangement of elements in rows and columns, is called a matrix. Such a rectangular arrangement
of numbers is enclosed by small ( ) or big [ ] brackets. Generally a matrix is represented by a capital latter A, B,
C......... etc. and its element are represented by small letters a, b, c, x, y etc.
Following are some examples of a matrix :
a b 1 5 3 2
A = c d , B = 4 0 2 C = 0 , D = [1, 5, 6], E = [5]
ORDER OF MATRIX
A matrix which has m rows and n columns is called a matrix of order m × n, and its represented by
Am×n or A = [aij]m×n
It is obvious to note that a matrix of order m × n contains mn elements. Every row of such a matrix contains n
elements and every column contains m elements.
TYPES OF MATRICES
Row matrix
If in a matrix, there is only one row, then it is called a Row Matrix.
Thus A = [aij]m×n is a row matrix if m = 1
Column Matrix
If in a matrix, there is only one column, then it is called a column matrix.
Thus A = [aij]m×n is a column matrix if n = 1.
Square matrix
If number of rows and number of columns in a matrix are equal, then it is called a square matrix.
Thus A = [aij]m×n is a square matrix if m = n.
Note : (a) If m n then matrix is called a rectangular matrix.
(b) The elements of a square matrix A for which i = j i.e., a11, a22, a33,......ann are called principal diagonal
elements and the line joining these elements is called the principal diagonal or leading diagonal of
matrix A.
(c) Trace of a matrix : The sum of principal diagonal elements of a square matrix A is called the trace of
matrix A which is denoted by trace A. Trace A = a11 a 22 ....a nn
Singleton matrix
If in a matrix there is only one element then it is called singleton matrix.
Thus A = [aij]m×n is a singleton matrix if m = n = 1.
Null or zero matrix
If in a matrix all the elements are zero then it is called a zero matrix and it is generally denoted by O.
Thus A = [aij]m×n is a zero matrix if aij = 0 for all i and j.
Diagonal matrix
If all elements except the principal diagonal in a square matrix are zero, it is called a diagonal matrix.
Thus a square matrix A = [aij] is a diagonal matrix if aij = 0, when i j.
[1]
[2] Matrices and Determinants
Note : (a) No element of principal diagonal in diagonal matrix is zero.
(b) Number of zero is a diagonal matrix is given by n2 – n where n is a order of the matrix.
Scalar Matrix
If all the elements of the diagonal in a diagonal matrix are equal, it is called a scalar matrix.
Thus a square matrix A [aij] is a scalar matrix is
0 i j
aij = k i j where k is a constant.
Unit matrix
If all elements of principal diagonal in a diagonal matrix are 1, then it is called unit matrix. A unit matrix of order
n is denoted by In.
Thus a square matrix
1 i j
A = [aij] is a unit matrix if aij = 0 i j
Note : Every unit matrix is a scalar matrix.
Triangular matrix
A square matrix [aij] is said to be triangular if each element above or below the principal diagonal is zero. It is of
two types -
(a) Upper triangular matrix : A square matrix [aij] is called the upper triangular matrix, if aij = 0 when i > j.
(b) Lower triangular matrix : A square matrix [aij] is called the lower triangular matrix, if
aij = 0 when i < j
n(n 1)
Note : Minimum number of zero in a triangular matrix is given by where n is order of matrix.
2
Equal matrix
Two matrices A and B are said to be equal if they are of same order and their corresponding elements are equal.
Singular matrix
Matrix A is said to be singular matrix if its determinant |A| = 0, otherwise non-singular matrix i.e.,
If det |A| = 0 singular and det |A| 0 non-singular
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF MATRICES
If A = [aij]m×n and B = [bij]m×n are two matrices of the same order then their sum A + B is a matrix whose each
element is the sum of corresponding elements.
i.e., A + B = [aij + bij ] m×n
A – B is defined as A – B = [aij – bij]m×n
Note : Matrix addition and subtraction can be possible only when matrices are of same order.
Properties of matrices addition
If A, B and C are matrices of same order, then-
(i) A + B = B + A (Commutative Law)
(ii) (A + B) + C = A + (B + C) (Associative law)
(iii) A + O = O + A = A, where O is zero matrix which is additive identity of the matrix.
(iv) A + (–A) = 0 = (–A) + A where (–A) is obtained by changing the sign of every element of A which is
additive inverse of the matrix
Matrices and Determinants [3]
A B A C
(v) B A C A B = C (Cancellation law)
(vi) Trace (A ± B) = trace (A) ± trace (B)
SCALAR MULTIPLICATION OF MATRICES
Let A = [aij]m×n be a matrix and k be a number then the matrix which is obtained by multiplying every element of
A by k is called scalar multiplication of A by k and it denoted by kA.
Thus A = [aij]m×n kA = [kaij]m×n
Properties of scalar multiplication
If A, B are matrices of the same order and m, n are any numbers, then the following results can be easily
established.
(i) m(A + B) = mA + mB (ii) (m + n)A = mA + nA (iii) m(nA) = (mn)A = n(mA)
MULTIPLICATION OF MATRICES
If A and B be any two matrices, then their product AB will be defined only when number of column in A is equal
to the number of rows in B. If A = [aij]m×n and B = [bij]n×p then their product AB = C = [cij], will be matrix of order
m × p, where
n
(AB)ij = Cij a b
r 1
ir rj
Properties of matrix multiplication
If A, B and C are three matrices such that their product is defined, then
(i) AB BA (Generally not commutative)
(ii) (AB) C = A (BC) (Associative Law)
(iii) IA = A = AI I is identity matrix for matrix multiplication
(iv) A (B + C) = AB + AC (Distributive law)
(v) If AB = AC B = C (cancellation Law is not applicable)
(vi) If AB = 0 It does not mean that A = 0 or B = 0, again product of two non-zero matrix may be zero
matrix.
(vii) trance (AB) = trance (BA)
Note : (i) The multiplication of two diagonal matrices is again a diagonal matrix.
(ii) The multiplication of two triangular matrices is again a triangular matrix.
(iii) The multiplication of two scalar matrices is also a scalar matrix.
(iv) If A and B are two matrices of the same order, then
(a) (A + B)2 = A2 + B2 + AB + BA
(b) (A – B)2 = A2 + B2 – AB – BA
(c) (A – B) (A + B) = A2 – B2 + AB – BA
(d) (A + B) (A – B) = A2 – B2 – AB + BA
(e) A (–B) = (–A) B = –(AB)
Positive Integral powers of a matrix
The positive integral powers of a matrix A are defined only when A is a square matrix.
Also then A2 = A.A A3 = A.A.A = A2A
[4] Matrices and Determinants
Also for any positive integers m, n
(i) Am An = Am+n (ii) (Am)n = Amn = (An)m
(iii) In = I, Im = I (iv) A° = In where A is a square matrices of order n.
TRANSPOSE OF MATRIX
If we interchange the rows to columns and columns to rows of a matrix A, then the matrix so obtained is called
the transpose of A and it is denoted by
AT or At or A'
From this definition it is obvious to note that
(i) Order of A is m × n order of AT is n × m
(ii) (AT)ij = (A)ji, " i, j)
Properties of Transpose
If A, B are matrices of suitable order then
(i) (AT)T = A
(ii) (A + B)T = AT + BT
(iii) (A – B)T = AT – BT
(iv) (kA)T = kAT
(v) (AB)T = BTAT
(vi) (A1A2.....An)T = AnT.....A2TA1T
(vii) (An)T = (AT)n, n N
SYMMETRIC AND SKEW-SYMMETRIC MATRIX
(a) Symmetric matrix : A square matrix A = [aij] is called symmetric matrix if aij = aji for all ˆi ˆj or AT = A.
Note : (i) Every unit matrix and square zero matrix are symmetric matrices.
n(n 1)
(ii) Maximum number of different element in a symmetric matrix is
2
(b) Skew-symmetric matrix : A square matrix A = [aij] is called skew-symmetric matrix if
aij = – aji for all i, j or AT = –A
Note : (i) All principal diagonal elements of a skew-symmetric matrix are always zero because for
any diagonal element - aii = – aii aii = 0
(ii) Trace of a skew symmetric matrix is always 0
Properties of symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices
(i) If A is a square matrix, then A + AT, AAT, ATA are symmetric matrices while A–AT is skew-symmetric
matrices.
(ii) If A, B are two symmetric matrices, then-
(a) A ± B, AB + BA are also symmetric matrices.
(b) AB – BA is a skew-symmetric matrix.
(c) AB is a symmetric matrix when AB = BA
(iii) If A, B are two skew-symmetric matrices, then-
(a) A ± B, AB – BA are skew-symmetric matrices.
(b) AB + BA is a symmetric matrix.
Matrices and Determinants [5]
(iv) If A is a skew-symmetric matrix and C is a column matrix, then CT AC is a zero matrix.
(v) Every square matrix A can be uniquely be expressed as sum of a symmetric and skew symmetric matrix i.e.,
1 T 1 T
A = 2 ( A A ) 2 ( A A )
DETERMINANT OF A MATRIX
a11 a12 a13
If A = a 21 a 22 a 23
be a square matrix, then its determinant, denoted by |A| or det. (A) is
a 31 a 32 a 33
a11 a12 a13
defined as |A| = a 21 a 22 a 23
a 31 a 32 a33
Properties of the determinant of a matrix
(i) |A| exist A is a square matrix
(ii) |AB| = |A| |B|
(iii) |AT| = |A|
(iv) |kA| = kn |A|, if A is a square matrix of order n.
(v) If A and B are square matrices of same order then |AB| = |BA|
(vi) If A is skew symmetric matrix of odd order then |A| = 0
(vii) If A = diag (a1, a2, .....an) then |A| = a1a2....an
(viii) |A|n = |An|, n N
ADJOINT OF A MATRIX
If every element of a square matrix A be replaced by its cofactor in |A|, then the transpose of the matrix so
obtained is called the adjoint of A and it is denoted by adj A
Thus if A = [aij] be a square matrix and Cij be the cofactor of aij in |A|, then
adj A = [Cij]T
(adj A)ij = Cij
T
a 11 a 12 .... a 1n C11 C12 .... C1n C11 C 21 .... C n1
a C C .... Cn 2
21 a 22 .... a 2 n 21
C 22 .... C 2n
12
C 22
Hence if A = .... .... .... .... , then adj A = .... .... .... .... .... .... .... ....
a n1 a n2 .... a nn
C n1 Cn 2 .... C nn C1n C 2n .... Cnn
Properties of Adjoint Matrix
If A, B are square matrices of order n and In is corresponding unit matrix, then
(i) A (adj A) = |A| In = (adj A) A
(Thus A (adj A) is always a scalar matrix)
(ii) |adj A| = |A|n–1
(iii) adj (adj A) = |A|n–2 A
[6] Matrices and Determinants
2
(iv) |adj (adj A)| = | A |(n1) (v) adj (AT) = (adj A)T
(vi) adj (AB) = (adj B) (adj A) (vii) adj (Am) = (adj A)m, m N
(viii) adj (kA) = kn–1 (adj A), k R (ix) adj (In) = In
(x) adj 0 = 0 (xi) A is symmetric adj A is also symmetric.
(xii) A is diagonal adj A is also diagonal. (xiii) A is triangular adj A is also triangular..
(xiv) A is singular |adj A| = 0
INVERSE MATRIX
If A and B are two matrices such that
AB = I = BA
then B is called the inverse of A and it is denoted by A–1. Thus
A–1 = B AB = I = BA
Further we may note from above property (i) of adjoint matrix that if |A| 0, then
adj ( A ) (adj A ) 1
A
|A|
|A|
A A–1 = | A | adj A
Thus A–1 exists |A| 0.
Note :
(i) Matrix A is called invertible if A–1 exists.
(ii) Inverse of a matrix is unique.
Properties of Inverse Matrix
(i) (A–1)–1 = A
(ii) (AT)–1 = (A–1)T
(iii) (AB)–1 = B–1A–1
(iv) (An)–1 = (A–1)n, n N
(v) adj (A–1) = (adj A)–1
1
(vi) |A–1| = | A | = |A|–1
(vii) A = diag (a1,a2, ...., an) A–1 = diag (a1–1 , a2–1, ....., an–1)
(viii) A is symmetric A–1 is also symmetric.
(ix) A is diagonal |A| 0 A–1 is also diagonal.
(x) A is scalar matrix A–1 is also scalar matrix.
(xi) A is triangular |A| 0 A–1 is also triangular..
SOME IMPORTANT CASES OF MATRICES
Orthogonal Matrix
A square matrix A is called orthogonal if
AAT = I = ATA ; i.e., if A–1 = AT
Idempotent matrix
A square matrix A is called an idempotent matrix if A2 = A
Matrices and Determinants [7]
Involutory Matrix
A square matrix A is called an involutory matrix if A2 = I or A–1 = A
Nilpotent matrix
A square matrix A is called a nilpotent matrix if there exist a p N such that AP = 0
Hermition matrix
A square matrix A is skew-Hermition matrix if Aq = A ; i.e., aij = – aji " i, j
Skew hermitian matrix
A square matrix A is skew-hermition is A = –Aq i.e., aij = – aji " i, j
Period of a matrix
If for any matrix A Ak+1 = A
then k is called period of matrix (where k is a least positive integer)
Differentiation of matrix
f ( x ) g( x )
If A = h( x ) l( x )
dA f ' ( x ) g' ( x )
then dx h' ( x ) l' ( x ) is a differentiation of matrix A
Submatrix
Let A be m × n matrix, then a matrix obtained by leaving some rows or columns or both of a is called a sub matrix
of A
Rank of a matrix
A number r is said to be the rank of a m × n matrix A if
(a) every square sub matrix of order (r + 1) or more is singular and
(b) there exists at least one square submatrix of order r which is non-singular.
Thus, the rank of matrix is the order of the highest order non-singular sub matrix.
5 6
We have |A| = 0 therefore r (A) is less then 3, we observe that 4 5 is a non-singular square sub matrix of
order 2 hence r (A) 2.
Note :
(i) The rank of the null matrix is zero.
(ii) The rank of matrix is same as the rank of its transpose i.e., r(A) = r(AT)
(iii) Elementary transformation of not alter the rank of matrix.
[8] Matrices and Determinants
DETERMINANTS
DEFINITION
When an algebraic or numerical expression is expressed in a square form containing some rows and columns, this
square form is named as a determinant of that expression. For example when expression a1b2 – a2 b1 is expressed
in the form
a1 b1
a2 b2
,
then it is called a determinant of order 2, Clearly a determinant of order 2 contains 2 rows and 2 columns.
Similarly
a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2
is a determinant of order 3.
a3 b3 c3
Obviously in every determinant, the number of rows and columns are equal and this number is called the order of
that determinant.
REPRESENTATION OF A DETERMINANT
Generally we use or |A| symbols to express a determinant and a determinant of order 3 is represented by
a11 a12 a13
a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
It should be noted that the ( i, j)th element ( i.e., the element of the ith row and jth column) of the determinant has
been expressed by aij , i = 1 , 2 , 3 ; j = 1,2,3 . The elements for which i = j are called diagonal elements and the
diagonal containing them is called principal diagonal or simply diagonal of the determinant. For the above determinant
a11 , a22 , a33 are diagonal elements.
A determinant is called a triangular determinant if its every element above or below the diagonal is zero. For
example
a 0 0
b c 0
d e f
is a triangular determinant. In particular when all the elements except diagonal elements are zero, then it is called
a diagonal determinant. For example
a 0 0
0 b 0
0 0 c
is a diagonal determinant.
We generally use R1, R2, R3, ........ to denote first, second, third .... row and C1, C2 , C3 ......... to denote first,
second, third ..... column of a determinant.
VALUE OF A DETERMINANT
The expression which has been expressed in a determinant form is called the value of that determinant.
To find the value of a third order determinant
Matrices and Determinants [9]
a11 a12 a13
Let a 21 a 22 a 23
a 31 a 32 a 33
be a third order determinant. To find its value we expand it by any row or column as the sum of three determinants
of order 2. If we expand it by first row then
a 22 a 23 a a 23 a a 22
( 1)11a11 ( 1)1 2 a12 21 (1)13 21
a 32 a 33 a 31 a33 a 31 a 32
a 22 a 23 a a 23 a 21 a 22
a11 a12 21
a 32 a 33 a 31 a 33 a 31 a 32
MINOR AND COFACTOR OF AN ELEMENT
MINOR OF AN ELEMENT
Minor of an element of the determinants is obtain by leaving the row and column containing that element and
retaining rest of elements.
a11 a12 a13 a22 a23 a21 a23
If a21 a22 a23 , then minor of a11 is M11 = a a33
. Similarly M12 = a a
32 31 33
a31 a32 a33
Using this concept the value of Determinant can be
= a11 M11 – a12 M12 + a13 M13
or = – a21 M21 + a22 M22 – a23 M23
or = a31 M31 – a32 M32 + a33 M33
COFACTOR OF AN ELEMENT
The cofactor of an element ai j is denoted by Ci j and is equal to (–1) i + j Mi j where Mi j is a minor of element ai j
a11 a12 a13
If a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
a22 a23
then C11 = (–1)1 + 1 M11 = M11 = a a33
32
a21 a23
C12 = (–1)1 + 2 M12 = –M12 = – a a
31 33
Note :- (i) The sum of products of the element of any row with their corresponding cofactor is equal to the value
of determinant i.e. = a11 C11 + a12 C12 + a13 C13
(ii) The sum of the product of element of any row with corresponding cofactor of another row is equal to
zero i.e. a11 C21 + a12 C22 + a13 C23 = 0
(iii) If order of a determinant ( ) is 'n' then the value of the determinant formed by replacing every
element by its cofactor is n–1
[10] Matrices and Determinants
PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS
If the elements of a determinant are complicated expressions or numbers, then it is very difficult to find its value
by expansion method. In such cases we reduce the determinant into a simple one using the following properties.
P–1 The value of a determinant is unchanged if its rows and columns are interchanged. For example
a b c a p u
p q r b q v
u v w c r w
P–2 The interchange of any two consecutive rows or columns will simply change the sign of the value of the
determinant. For example
a b c b a c p q r
p q r q p r a b c
u v w v u w u v w
P–3 If any two rows or columns of a determinant are identical then its value is zero. For example
a b c a a b
a b c 0 p p q
u v w u u v
P–4 If each element of a row or column of a determinant be multiplied by a number, then its value is also multiplied
by that number. For example
ka kb kc a b c ka b c
p q r k p q r kp q r
u v w u v w ku v w
P–5 If each entry in a row or column of a determinant is the sum of two numbers, then the determinant can be written
as the sum of two determinants. For example
a b c a b c a b c a b c b c
p q r p q r p q r p q r p q r q r
and
u v w u v w u v w u v w u v w v w
P–6 The value of a determinant does not change if the elements of a row ( column) are added to or subtracted from
the corresponding elements of another row ( column). For example
a b c a b c b c
p q r p q r q r
u v w u v w v w
P–7 If = f (x) and f(a) = 0, then (x –a) is a factor of . For example in the determinant
1 1 1 1 1 1
a b c b b c =0
= if we replace a by b then =
a2 b2 c2 b2 b2 c2
( a– b) is a factor of .
P–8 If each entry in any row (or column) of a determinant is zero, then the value of determinant is equal to zero.
Matrices and Determinants [11]
MULTIPLICATION OF TWO DETERMINANTS
Multipication of two second order determinants is defined as follows
a1 b1 l1 m1 a1l 1 b1l 2 a1m1 b1m2
a2 b2 l2 m2 a2 l 1 b2 l 2 a2m1 b 2m2
Multiplication of two third order determinants is defined as follows
a1 b1 c1 l1 m1 n1 a1l1 b1l 2 c1l 3 a1m1 b1m2 c1m3 a1n1 b1n2 c1n3
a2 b2 c 2 l 2 m 2 n2 a2 l1 b2 l 2 c 2 l 3 a2m1 b2m2 c 2m3 a2n1 b2n2 c 3 n3
a3 b3 c3 l3 m3 n3 a3 l1 b3 l 2 c 3 l 3 a3 m1 b3m2 c 3m3 a3 n1 b3 n2 c 3 n3
Note : In above case the order of Determinant is same, if the order is different then for their multiplication first
of all they should be expressed in the same order
SYMMETRIC & SKEW SYMMETRIC DETERMINANT
Symmetric determinant
A determinant is called symmetric Determinant if for its every element.
ai j = a j i i , j
Skew Symmetric determinant
A determinant is called skew Symmetric determinant if for its every element
a i j = – a j i i, j ;
Note : (i) Every diagonal element of a skew symmetric determinant is always zero
(ii) The value of a skew symmetric determinant of even order is always a perfect square and that of
odd order is always zero.
i.e. (order = 2) i.e. (order = 3)
APPLICATIONS OF DETERMINANT
CRAMMER'S RULE :
Let the system of equations be
a1 x + b1 y + c1z = d1
a2x + b2y + c2z = d2
a3x + b3y + c3z = d3
a1 b1 c1 d1 b1 c1 a1 d1 c1 a1 b1 d1
a2 b2 c2
and , 1 d2 b2 c 2 2 a2 d2 c2
, 3 a2 b2 d2
a3 b3 c3 d3 b3 c3 a3 d3 c3 a3 b3 d3
then (i) If 0 , then given system of equations is consistent i.e. has unique solution and its solution is
1
x , y 2 , z 3
This is known as Crammer's rule
(ii) If = 0 and atleast one of 1 , 2 , 3 is not zero, then the system of equations is inconsistent i.e. it
has no solution.
(iii) If = 0 and 1 = 0 = 2 = 3 , then the system has infinite solutions.
(iv) If = 0 and d1 = 0 = d2 = d3 , then the system of equations has infinite solutions ( non-zero solution) i.e.
non-trivial solutions
[12] Matrices and Determinants
(v) If 0 and d1 = 0 = d2 = d3, then the system of equations has a unique solution x = 0 , y = 0 , z = 0 i.e.,
zero solution or trivial solution.
DIFFERENTIATION OF A DETERMINANT :
f1 (x) g1 (x) h1 (x)
Let (x) f 2 (x) g 2 (x) h 2 (x) ,
f 3 (x) g3 (x) h 3 (x)
f1 '(x) g '1 (x) h '1 (x) f1 (x) g1 (x) h1 (x) f1 (x) g1 (x) h1 (x)
then '(x) f 2 (x) g 2 (x) h 2 (x) f '2 (x) g '2 (x) h '2 (x) f 2 (x) g 2 (x) h 2 (x)
f 3 (x) g 3 (x) h 3 (x) f3 (x) g3 (x) h 3 (x) f '3 (x) g '3 (x) h '3 (x)
INTEGRATION OF DETERMINATION
f (x) g(x) h(x)
Let (x) p q r , where p, q, r, l, m and n are constants.
l m n
b b b
b
a
f (x)dx
a
g(x)dx
a
h(x)dx
Then a
(x)dx p q r
l m n
USE OF SUMMATION
n n n
2 3
r r 2 3
r n
r r r
r 1 r 1 r 1
If f (r) p q
1 2 3
t , where p, q, t are constants, then f (r)
r 1
p
1
q
2
t
3
THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY
THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY
1. Coordinates of a point in Space :
Let O be a fixed point, known as origin and let OX, OY and OZ be three mutually perpendicular lines, taken as
x-axis, y-axis and z-axis respectively, in such a way that they form a right handed system.
The planes XOY, YOZ and ZOX are known as xy-plane, yz-plane and zx-plane respectively.
z
P (x, y, z)
x
0 x
z A
y
Q (x, y, 0)
y
Let P be a point in space and distances of P from y-z, z-x and x-y planes be x, y, z respectively (with proper signs)
then we say that coordinates of P are (x, y, z).
Also OA = x, OB = y, OC = z
2. Distance Formula :
The distance between two points A (x1, y1, z1) and B (x2, y2, z2) is given by
AB= (x 2 x1 ) 2 (y 2 y1 ) 2 (z 2 z1 ) 2
Distance from Origin :
Let O be the origin and P (x, y, z) be any point, then
OP = ( x 2 y 2 z 2 )
3. Section Formulae :
Let P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2) be two points and let R (x, y, z) divide PQ in the ratio m1 : m2, then R is
m x m 2 x1 m1 y 2 m2 y1 m1z 2 m 2 z1
(x, y, z) 1 2 , ,
m1 m 2 m1 m 2 m1 m 2
m1x 2 m 2 x1 m1 y 2 m2 y1 m1z 2 m2 z1
If R be the external point, then R m m , m m , m m
1 2 1 2 1 2
FG x x y1 y2 z1 z2 IJ
H 2 K
1 2
Mid-Point : Mid point of PQ is given by , ,
2 2
4. Centroid of a triangle :
Let A(x1, y1, z1), B(x2, y2, z2), C(x3, y3, z3) be the vertices of a triangle ABC. Then its centroid G is given
x x 2 x 3 y1 y 2 y3 z1 z 2 z 3
by G 1 , ,
3 3 3
5. To find the ratio in which a given point divide a given line-segment :
[1]
[2] Three Dimensional Geometry
Let P ( , , ) and A(a1, b1, c1) and B(a2, b2, c2) be three points and we have to find the ratio in which P divides
AB. Let k : 1 be the ratio. Then
ka2 a1 kb b kc c
, 2 1 , 2 1
k 1 k 1 k 1
Solving these, find k. Also if the system is inconsistent, P does not divide AB in any ratio and so P does not lie on
AB i.e. P, A, B are non-collinear.
For collinearity of three points it is the best method.
6. Direction Cosines & Direction Ratios :
Direction Cosines :
Let , , be the angles which a directed line makes with the positive directions of the axes of x, y and z
respectively then cos , cos , cos are called the direction cosines of the line.
The direction cosines are usually denoted by < l, m, n >. Then l = cos , m = cos , n = cos .
Direction ratios :
Let a, b, c be proportional to the d.c.’s l, m, n then a, b, c are called the direction ratios.
Relation between D.R.’s and D.C.’s of a line:
Let a, b, c be d.r.’s and l, m, n the d.c.’s of a line, then
a b c
r (say)
l m n
a2 + b2 + c2 = r2 (l2 + m2 + n2) = r2 r [ a 2 b 2 c 2 ]
Direction cosines l, m, n are given by
a b c
l ,m ,n where r [(a 2 b 2 c 2 )]
r r r
D.C.’s of Axes :
Since the positive x-axis makes angles 0º, 90º, 90º with axes of x, y and z respectively,
D.C.’s of x axes are 1, 0, 0.
D.C.’s of x-axis are 1, 0, 0
D.C.’s of y-axis are 0, 1, 0
D.C.’s of z-axis are 0, 0, 1
Direction ratios of the line joining two points :
Let A(x1, y1, z1) and B(x2, y2, z2) be two points, then d.r.’s of AB are x2 – x1, y2 – y1, z2 – z1 and the d.c.’s of AB
1 1 1
are (x2 – x1), (y2 – y1), (z – z ) where r [ ( x2 x1 ) 2 ]
r r r 2 1
7. Projection of a line on another line :
Let PQ be a line segment with P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2 ) and let L be a straight line whose d.c.’s are l, m, n.
Then the length of projection of PQ on the line L is = | l (x2 – x1) + m (y2 – y1) + n (z2 – z1) |
8. Angle between two lines :
Three Dimensional Geometry [3]
Let be the angle between the lines with d.c.’s l1, m1, n1 and l2, m2, n2 , then cos = l1 l2 + m1m2 + n1n2
2
Also, sin 2 l1m 2 l2 m1
9. Condition for Perpendicularity and parallelism :
Let the two lines have their d.c.’s as l1, m1, n1 and l2, m2, n2 respectively then they are perpendicular if
90º i.e. cos = 0, i.e. l1 l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 = 0.
Also the two lines are parallel if 0o or 180o and then sin = 0, i.e. l1 m1 n1
l2 m2 n2
If instead of d.c.’s, d.r.’s a 1 , b 1 , c 1 and a 2 , b 2 , c 2 are given, then the lines are perpendicular if
a1 a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0 and parallel if a1/a2 = b1/b2 = c1/c2 .
( a1a2 b1b2 c1c2 )
If is the angle between the lines then cos
( a12 b12 c12 ) (a22 b22 c22 )
10. Centroid of tetrahedron
x x 2 x 3 x 4 y1 y2 y3 y 4 z1 z 2 z 3 z 4
Centroid G 1 , ,
4 4 4
A(x1 ,y1,z1 )
B (x2,y2,z2) D (x4,y4,z4)
C (x 3,y3,z3)
THE STRAIGHT LINE
1. Straight Line
Definition :
A straight line in space is characterised by the intersection of two planes which are not parallel and, therefore, the
equation of a straight line is present as a solution of the system constituted by the equations of the two planes :
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0; a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0
This form is also known as unsymmetrical form.
Some particular straight lines :
Straight lines Equation
(i) Through the origin y = mx, z = nx
(ii) x-axis y = 0, z = 0
(iii) y-axis x = 0, z = 0
(iv) z-axis x = 0, y = 0
(v) | | to x-axis y = p, z = q
(vi) | | to y-axis x = h, z = q
(vii) | | to z-axis x = h, y = p
[4] Three Dimensional Geometry
2. Equation of a straight line in symmetrical form :
(i) One point form : Let A(x1, y1, z1) be a given point on the straight line and l, m, n the d.c’s of the line, then
its equation is
x x1 y y1 z z1
r (say)
l m n
It should be noted that P(x1 + lr, y1 + mr, z1 + nr) is a general point on this line at a distance r from the point
A(x1, y1, z1) i.e. AP = r. One should note that for AP = r, l, m, n must be d.c.’s not d.r.’s. If a, b, c are direction
ratios of the line, then equation of the line is
x x1 y y1 z z1
r but here AP r
a b c
(ii) Two point form : Equation of the line through two points A(x1, y1, z1) and B(x2, y2, z2) is
x x1 y y1 z z1
x2 x1 y2 y1 z2 z1
3. Reduction of non-symmetrical form to symmetrical form :
Let equation of the line in non-symmetrical form be
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0; a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0
To find the equation of the line in symmetrical form, we must know (i) its direction ratios (ii) coordinates of any
point on it.
(i) Direction Ratios : Let l, m, n be the direction ratios of the line. Since the line lies in both the planes,
it must be perpendicular to normals of both planes. So
a1 l + b1 m + c1 n = 0; a2 l + b2 m + c2 n = 0
From these equations, proportional values of l, m, n can be found by cross-multiplication as
l m n
b1c2 b2 c1 c1a2 c2 a1 a1b2 a2b1
(ii) Point on the line : Note that as l, m, n can not be zero simultaneously, so at least one must be non-
zero. Let a1b2 – a2b1 0. Then the line cannot be parallel to x-y plane so it intersect it. Let it intersect
x-y plane in (x1, y1, 0). Then a1 x1 + b1 y1 + d1 = 0 and a2 x1 + b2 y1 + d2 = 0
Solving these, we get a point on the line.
x x1 y y1 z0
Then its equations becomes
b1c2 b2 c1 c1a2 c2 a1 a1b2 a2b1
If l 0, take a point on y-z plane as (0, y1, z1) and if m 0, take a point on x-z plane as (x1, 0, z1).
4. Angle between a line and a plane :
x x1 y y1 z z1
Let equations of the line and plane be and ax + by + cz + d = 0 respectively and be
l m n
the angle which line makes with the plane.Then ( / 2 ) is the angle between the line and the normal to the
al bm cn
plane. So sin
( a 2 b 2 c 2 ) ( l 2 m2 n 2 )
Three Dimensional Geometry [5]
Line is parallel to plane if = 0 i.e. if al + bm + cn = 0.
a b c
Line is to the plane if line is parallel to the normal of the plane i.e. if .
l m n
5. Condition in order that the line may lie on the given plane :
x x1 y y1 z z1
The line will lie on the plane Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 if
l m n
(i) Al + Bm + Cn = 0 and (ii) Ax1 + By1 + Cz1 + D = 0
6. Foot, length and equation of perpendicular from a point to a line :
Let equation of the line be
xa yb zc
r (say) .......... (1)
l m n
and A ( , , ) be the point. Let l, m, n denote the actual d.c.’s of the line. Any point on the line (1) is
P(lr + a, mr + b, nr + c) .......... (2)
If it is the foot of the perpendicular, from A on the line, then AP is to the line, so
l (lr + a – ) + m (mr + b – ) + n (nr + c – ) = 0
i.e. r = ( – a) l + ( – b) m + ( – c) n
[since l2 + m2 + n2 = 1]
Putting this value of r in (2), we get the foot of perpendicular from point A to the line.
Length : Since foot of perpendicular P is known, length of perpendicular,
AP [(lr a ) 2 (mr b ) 2 (nr c ) 2 ]
Equation of perpendicular is given by
x y z
lr a mr b nr c
7. Equation of any plane through a given line :
x x1 y y1 z z1
Equation of any plane through the line is A(x – x1) + B(y – y1) + C(z – z1) = 0, where
l m n
Al + Bm + Cn = 0.
There can be infinitely many planes through a given line. Particular plane can be found if extra condition is given.
8. Condition that two given lines should intersect i.e. to be coplanar i.e. testing of skewness or coplanarity of two
given lines. Equation of plane containing two intersecting lines :
Let the two lines be
[6] Three Dimensional Geometry
x 1 y 1 z 1
.......... (1)
l1 m1 n1
x 2 y 2 z 2
and .......... (2)
l2 m2 n2
These lines will be coplanar if
2 1 2 1 2 1
l1 m1 n1 0
l2 m2 n2
the plane containing the two lines is
x 1 y 1 z 1 x 2 y 2 z 2
l1 m1 n1 0 or l1 m1 n1 0
l2 m2 n2 l2 m2 n2
Condition of coplanarity if both lines are in general from :
Let the lines be ax + by + cz + d = 0 = a' x + b' y + c' z + d'
and x y z 0 x y z
These are coplanar if
a b c d
a b c d
0
Skew lines :
The straight lines which are not parallel and non-coplanar i.e. non-intersecting are called skew lines.
9. Shortest distance between two skew straight lines :
Shortest distance between two skew lines is perpendicular to both.
(i) If the equations are in cartesian form :
Suppose the equation of the lines are
x y z
.......... (1)
l m n
x y z
and .......... (2)
l m n
Then shortest distance between them is given by
S.D. l m n { ( mn m n) 2 }
l m n
(ii) If the lines intersect, then S.D.between them is zero. Therefore
l m n 0
l m n
Three Dimensional Geometry [7]
(iii) The equations of shortest distance between lines (1) and (2)
x 1 y 1 z 1 x 2 y 2 z 2
l1 m1 n1 0 l1 m1 n1 0
and
l2 m2 n2 l2 m2 n2
(iv) If the equations are in vector form :
Suppose the equation of the lines are
r r r r r r
r a1 b1 and r a2 b2
Then shortest distance between them is given by
r r r r
(a2 a1 ) (b1 b2 )
S.D. r r
| b1 b2 |
10. Vector equation of a straight line passing through a fixed point with position vector ar and parallel to a given
r r
vector b is rr ar b , where is a scalar..
r r r r r
11. The vector equation of a line passing through two given points with position vectors ar and b is r a b a .
12. Angle between lines
r r r r r r
r a1 b1 and r a 2 b 2 is
r r
b1.b2
cos r r
b1 b2
13.Angle between lines
x x1 y y1 z z1 x x 2 y y2 z z2
and
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c 2 is
a1a 2 b1b2 c1c 2
cos
a b12 c12 a 22 b 22 c 22
2
1
If the lines are perpendicular, then
a1a 2 b1b2 c1c 2 0
If the lines are parallel, then
a1 b1 c1
a 2 b2 c2
14. Reflection or Image of a point in a straight line
x x1 y y1 z z1
Let P , , be the given point and let is the given line. Lete L be the foot of the
a b c
perpendicular from P in the given line and let P be the image of P in the given line. Let the coordinates of L be
x1 a, y1 b, z1 c , then direction ratios of PL are
[8] Three Dimensional Geometry
A L B
image of P due line AB
x 1 a , y1 b , z1 c
Since PL is perpendicular to the given line, whose direction ratios are a, b, c
x1 a a y1 b b z1 c c 0
a x1 b y1 c z1
a 2 b 2 c2
Substituting the value of in x1 a, y1 b, z1 c , we obtain coordinates of L.
Let Q ,b,
Since L is the mid point of PQ
x1 a , y1 b , z1 c
2 2 2
2 x1 a , 2 y1 b , 2 z1 c
THE PLANE
1. Plane
Definition :
A geometrical locus is a plane if it is such that if P and Q are any two points on the locus, then every point on the
line PQ is also a point on the locus.
2. Equations of a Plane :
The equation of every plane is of the first degree i.e. of the form ax + by + cz + d = 0, in which a, b, c are
constants, where a2 + b2 + c2 0 (i.e. a, b, c 0 simultaneously). Here a,b,c are direction ratios of the normal
to the plane.
Plane Parallel to the Coordinate Planes :
(i) Equation of y-z plane is x = 0.
(ii) Equation of z-x plane is y = 0.
(iii) Equation of x-y plane is z = 0.
(iv) Equation of the plane parallel to x-y plane at a distance c (if c > 0, towards positive z-axis) is z = c. Similarly,
planes parallel to y-z plane and z-x plane are respectively x = c and y = c.
3. Equations of Planes Parallel to the Axes :
If a = 0, the plane is parallel to x-axis i.e. equation of the plane parallel to x-axis is by + cz + d = 0
Vectors
1. SCALAR QUANTITY & VECTOR QUANTITY
Scalar Quantity :
A quantity which has only magnitude and not related to any direction is called a scalar quantity.
For example, Mass, Length, Time, Temperature, Area, Volume, Speed, Density, Work, current etc
Vector Quantity :
A quantity which has magnitude and also a direction in space and which obeys triangle law of addition of
vectors, is called a vector quantity.
For example, Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration, Force, Torque, etc.
2. REPRESENTATION OF VECTORS :
r
Vectors are represented by directed line segments. A vector a is represented by the directed line segment AB .
r r
The magnitude of vector a is equal is equal to AB and the direction of vector a is along the line form A to B.
3. TYPE OF VECTORS :
(i) Null vector or zero vector : If the initial and terminal points of a vector coincide, then it is called a zero
r
vector. It is denoted by 0 . Its magnitude is zero and direction is indeterminate.
r
(ii) Unit vector : A vector whose magnitude is of unit length along any vector a is called a unit vector in the
r
r a
direction of a and is denoted by a$ , where â r
|a|
Note : (a) | a$ | = 1.
(b) Two unit vectors may not be equal unless they have the same direction.
(c) Unit vectors parallel to x-axis, y-axis and z-axis are denoted by i$ , $j and k$
respectively.
r
(iii) Reciprocal vector : A vector whose direction is same as that of a given vector a but its magnitude is the
r r
reciprocal of the magnitude of the given vector a is called the reciprocal of a and is denoted by a–1.
(iv) Equal vector : Two non-zero vectors are said to be equal vectors if their magnitudes are equal and
directions are same i.e. they act parallel to each other in the same direction.
(v) Negative vector : The negative of a vector is defined as the vector having the same magnitude but
opposite direction.
r r
r
For example, if a PQ , then the negative of a is the vector QP and is denoted as – a .
(vi) Collinear vector : Two or more non-zero vectors are said to be collinear vectors if these are parallel to the
same line.
(vii) Like and unlike vector : Collinear vectors having the same direction are known as like vectors while
[1]
[2] Vectors
those having opposite direction are known as unlike vectors.
For example, the vectors given by figure (a) are like and given by figure (b) are unlike vectors.
(viii)Coplanar vector : Two or more non-zero vectors are said to be coplanar vectors if these are parallel to the
same plane.
(ix) Localised vector and free vector : A vector drawn parallel to a given vector through a specified point as
the initial point, is known as a localised vector. If the initial point of a vector is not specified it is said to be a
free vector.
r
(x) Position vector : Let O be the origin and let A be a point such that OA = a then, we say that the position
r
vector of A is a .
4. ADDITION OF VECTORS :
r r r r
Let a and b be any two vectors. From the terminal point of a , vector b is drawn. Then, the vector from the
r r r r
initial point O of a to the terminal point B of b is called the sum of vectors a and b and is denoted by
r r
a + b . This is called the triangle law of addition of vectors.
r r
The vectors are also added by using the following method. Let a and b be any two vectors. From the initial point
r r r
of a , vector b is drawn. let O be their common initial point. If A and B be respectively the terminal points of a
r
and b , then parallelogram OACB is completed with OA and OB as adjacent sides. The vector OC is defined as
r r
the sum of a and b . This is called the parallelogram law of addition of vectors.
B C
b a +b
b
O a A
(a) Properties of Vector Addition :
r r r r
(i) Vector addition is commutative, i.e. a +b = b + a .
r r r r r r
(ii) Vector addition is associative, i.e. a + (b c ) = (a b ) + c
r r r r r r
(iii) O + a = a O = a .So, the a is additive identity..
r r r r r r r
(iv) a ( a ) O = ( a ) a . So, the additive inverse of a is – a .
(b) Polygon Law of Addition of Vectors
To find the sum of any number of vectors we represent the vectors by directed line segment with the terminal
point of the previous vector as the initial point of the next vector. Then the line segment joining the initial point of
the first vector to the terminal point of the last vector will represent the sum of the vectors :
Vectors [3]
r r r r r
r
Thus if, OA a , AB b , BC c , CD d , DE e and EF f then
r r r r r r
a b c d e f OA AB BC CD DE EF OF
If the terminal point F of the last vector coincide with initial point of the first vector then
r r r r r r r
a b c d e f OA AB BC CD DE EO O , i.e. the sum of vectors is zero or null vector in
this case.
5. DIFFERENCE OF VECTORS :
r r r r r r
If a and b be any two vectors, then their difference a – b is defined as a + (– b ).
6. MULTIPLICATION OF A VECTOR BY A SCALAR :
r r
If a be any vector and m any scalar, then the multiplication of a by m is defined as a vector having magnitude
r r r
| m | | a | and direction same as of a , if m is positive and reversed if m is negative. The product of a and m is
r r
denoted by m a . If m = 0, then m a is the zero vector..
r r r r r
For example, if a AB then | 2a | | 2 | | a | 2 | a | and direction same as that of a .
r r r
The magnitude of the vectors 3 a | 3 | a | and direction opposite as that of a .
7. IMPORTANT PROPERTIES AND FORMULAE :
1. (a) Triangle law of vector addition AB BC AC
(b) Parallelogram law of vector addition : If ABCD is a parallelogram, then AB AD AC
r r
(c) If r1 x1i$ y1 $j z1 k$ and r2 x2 i$ y2 $j z2 k$ then
r r r r
r1 r2 ( x1 x2 )i$ ( y1 y2 ) $j ( z1 z2 ) k$ and r1 r2 x1 x2 , y1 y2 , z1 z2
[4] Vectors
r r r r
2. (a) a and b are parallel if and only if a = m b for same non-zero scalar m.
r
a r r
(b) a r or a | a | a$
$
|a |
r r r
(c) Associative law : m (na ) (mn) a n (ma )
r r r r r r r
(d) Distributive laws : (m n) a ma na and n ( a b ) na nb
r r
(e) If r xi$ yj$ zk$ then mr mxi$ myj$ mzk$ .
r r r r r r
(f) r , a , b are coplaner if and only r xa yb for some scalars x and y.
r r
3. (a) If the position vectors of the points A and B be a and b then,
(i) The position vectors of the points dividing the line AB in the ratio m : n internally and
r r r r
mb na mb na
externally are and .
mn mn
1 r r
(ii) Position vector of the middle point of AB is given by (a b ) .
2
r
(iii) AB b ar
r r
(b) If r xi$ yj$ zk$ then | r | x y z .
2 2 2
(c) The points A, B, C will be collinear if and only if AB m AC , for some non-zero scalar m.
r r r r r r r r r r r r
(d) Given vectors x1a y1b z1c , x2 a y2 b z2 c , x3a y3b z3c , where a , b , c are non-coplanar vectors,
x1 y1 z1
will be coplanar if and only if x2 y2 z2 0
x3 y3 z3
(e) Method to prove four points to be coplanar : To prove that the four points A, B, C and D are coplanar.
Find the vector AB , AC and AD and then prove them to be coplanar by the method of coplanarity i.e. one
of them is a linear combination of the other two.
r r r r r r
(f) | a | | b | | a b | | a | | b |
r r r r
| a b | | a | |b |
r r r r
4. If ar and b are non-zero and non - collinear vectors such that xa yb 0 x 0, y 0
r r r r r r r
5. If a,b,c are non-zero and non coplanar vectors such that xa yb zc 0
x 0, y 0, z 0 B
14. SCALAR PRODUCT OR DOT PRODUCT : b
r r
(a) a. b = ab cos , where 0
r r r r
(b) a . b = a (Projection of b along a ) O A
a
Vectors [5]
r r
r r b.a
(c) Projection of b along a r
|a |
r r r r r r
(d) If a . b = 0 Þ a = 0 or b = 0 or a1 b
r r r F rrr.ar I ar and r RS r r
UV
(r . a ) r
(e) Component of a vector r in the direction of a and perpendicular to a are GH | a | JK
2 r
T r
| a |2 W
a
respectively.
rr
a.b
(f) cos r r
|a| |b|
(g) i$.i$ $j. j$ k$. k$ 1
i$. j$ j$.i$ $j . k$ k$. $j k$.i$ i$. k$ 0
r r r r
(h) If a ( a1 , a2 , a3 ) and b (b1 , b2 , b3 ) i.e. if a a1i$ a2 $j a3 k$ and b b1i$ b2 $j b3 k$ then
r r
(i) a .b a1b1 a2 b2 a3b3
a1b1 a2 b2 a3b3
(ii) cos
a12 a22 a32 b12 b22 b32
r r
(iii) a and b will be perpendicular if and only if a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 = 0
r r a a a
(iv) a and b will be parallel if and only if 1 2 3
b1 b2 b3
9. LINEARLY DEPENDENT VECTORS :
r r r
A set of vectors a1 ,a 2 ..... a n is said t be linearly dependent if there exists n scalers x1, x2, x3, ..... xn (not all zero)
r r r r r
such that x1a1 x 2 a 2 x 3 a 3 ..... x n a n 0
10. LINEARLY INDEPENDENT VECTORS :
r r r r
A set of n vectors a1 , a 2 ,a 3 .....,a n is said to be linearly independent if
r r r
x1a1 x 2 a 2 ...... x n a n 0 x1 x 2 .......x n 0
Note :
1. Two vectors are linearly depend if they are parallel.
2. Two vectors are linearly independent if they are non-parallel.
x y z
,
r 2
11. Direction cosines of r x ˆi y ˆj 2kˆ are x 2
x 2 , x 2 where x = x2 + y2 + z2
A
12.
B D C
r r r
If D be the mid-point of BC, then AB AC 2AD
[6] Vectors
13. A triad of unit vectors
Z
900
X
i
j
Y
14. Linear combination of vectors
r r r r
If x1, x2, ......, xn be scalers and a1 , a 2 ,a 3 ,.....,a n be vectors such that
r r r r r
r x1a1 , x 2 a 2 , x 3a 3 ,..... x n a n , then
r is called the linear combination of vectors ar , ar ,ar ,.....,ar .
r 1 2 3 n
15. VECTOR OR CROSS PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS :
r r r r
(a) The product of vectors a and b is denoted by a × b .
B
n b
O A
a
r r r r r r
a b (| a | | b | sin ) n$ , where n̂ is a vector r to a and b both and 0
r r r r
(b) a × b =– b × a
r r r r r r
(c) If a = b or if a is parallel to b , then sin q = 0 and so a × b = 0
r r r r r r r r r r r r r r
(d) Distributive laws : a (b c ) a b a c and (b c ) a b a c a
r r r r
(e) The vector product of a vector a with itself is a null vector, i.e. a a 0
r r
(f) If a a1i$ a2 $j a3 k$ and b b1i$ b2 $j b3 k$ then
r r
(i) a b (a2 b3 a3b2 ) i$ (a3b1 a1b3 ) $j (a1b2 a2b1 ) k$
r r i$ $j k$
i.e a b a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
( a2b3 a3b2 ) 2 ( a3b1 a1b3 ) 2 ( a1b2 a2 b1 ) 2
(ii) sin 2
(a12 a22 a32 ) (b12 b22 b32 )
r r
(g) If two vectors a and b are parallel, then q = 0 or p i.e. sin q = 0 in both cases.
Q (a1b2 a2 b1 ) 2 (a2 b3 a3b2 ) 2 (a3b1 a1b3 ) 2 0
a1b2 a 2 b1 0, a 2 b3 a 3b2 0, a 3b1 a1b3 0
a1 a2 a2 a3 a3 a1 a1 a2 a3
, ,
b1 b2 b2 b3 b3 b1 b1 b2 b3
Vectors [7]
r r
Thus, two vectors a and b are parallel if their corresponding components are proportional.
1
(h) Area of the parallelogram ABCD | AB AD | or | AC BD |
2
D C
1
(i) Area of the triangle ABC = | AB AC |
2 A B
r r
(j) ar b is a vector perpendicular to both ar and b
r
(k) The unit vector perpendicular to both ar and b is given by
r r
(a b)
n̂ r r
|ab|
r
(l) ˆi ˆi ˆj ˆj kˆ kˆ 0
ˆi ˆj k,
ˆ ˆj kˆ ˆi
kˆ ˆi ˆj but j
i
ˆi kˆ ˆj
kˆ ˆj i k
ˆj ˆi kˆ
16. SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT :
r r r
(a) If a a1i$ a2 $j a3 k$ , b b1i$ b2 $j b3 k$ and c c1i$ c2 $j c3 k$ , then
a1 a2 a3
r r r r r r
(a b ). c [ a b c ] b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
r r r
(b) [a b c] = volume of the parallelopiped whose coterminous edges are formed by a , b , c .
(c) [a b c] = [b c a] = [c a b] but [a b c] = – [a c b] etc.
i.e. change of any two vector in scalar triple product changes the sign of the scalar triple product.
r r r
(d) If any two of the vectors a , b , c are equal, then [a b c] = 0
r r r r r r
(e) The position of dots and cross in a scalar triple product can be interchanged. Hence (a b ) . c a .(b c )
(f) The value of a scalar triple product is zero, if two of its vectors are parallel.
r r r r r r
(g) Vectors a , b , c are coplanar if and only if [a b c ] 0
r r r r
(h) Four points A, B, C, D with position vectors a , b , c , d respectively are coplanar if and only if
r r r r r r
[ AB AC AD ] 0 i.e. if and only if [b a, c a , d a] 0
r r r 1 r r r
(i) Volume of a tetrahedron with three coterminous edges a , b , c [a b c ]
6
[8] Vectors
17. VECTOR TRIPLE PRODUCT :
r r r r r r r r r
If a , b , c be any three vectors, then ( a b ) c and a (b c ) are known as vector triple product.
r r r rr r r r r
(a) a (b c ) (a . c ) b (a .b ).c
r r r rr r rr r
( a b ) c (a . c ) b (b . c ). a
r r r r r
(b) a (b c ) is a vector in the plane of vectors b and c
(c) The vector triple product is not commutative i.e
r r r r r r
a (b c ) ( a b ) c
18. SCALAR PRODUCT OF FOUR VECTORS
r r r r r r r r
The vectors a,b,c, d combined is the form of (a b).(c d) is called the scalar product of four vectors.
r r r r rr r r rr r r r r rr
(a b ) ( c d ) r. cr ar. dr ( a . c ) (b . d ) ( a .d ) (b .c )
a
b . c b .d
19. VECTOR PRODUCT OF FOUR VECTORS :
r r r r r r r r
If four vectors a,b,c, d are combined in the form (a b) (c d) is called the vector product of four
r r r r rrr r rrr r rrr r rrr r
vectors. Here (a b) (c d) = [a b d] c [a b c]d [a c d]b [b c d]a
20. RECIPROCAL SYSTEM OF VECTORS :
r r r r r r r r r
(a) If a , b , c be any three non-coplanar vectors such that [a b c ] 0 , then the three vectors a , b , c
r r r r r r
r b c r c a r a b
defined by the equations a r r r , b r r r , c r r r are called the reciprocal system of vectors
[a b c ] [a b c ] [a b c ]
r r r
to the given vectors a , b , c .
(b) Properties :
r r
(i) ar. ar b .b cr. cr 1
(ii) The scalar product of any vector of one system with a vector of the other system which
r r r r r r r r r r r r
does not correspond to it, is zero, i.e. a .b a . c b . a b . c c . a c .b 0
r r r r r r
(iii) [ a b c ] [ a b c ] 1
r r r r r r
(iv) i i , j j , k k
r r r r r r r
(v) If {a , b , c } is reciprocal system of {a , b , c } and r is any vector, then
r r r r r r r rr r
r ( r . a ) a ( r .b ) b ( r . c ) c
r r r r r r r rr r
r ( r . a ) a ( r .b ) b ( r . c ) c
21. APPLICATION OF VECTOR IN MECHANICS
r r r r
(a) Work done by a force F = F . d where d is displacement.
Vectors [9]
(b) Moment of a force F about a point O OP F , where P is any point on the line of action of the
force F .
r
(c) Moment of the couple r F
22. APPLICATION OF VECTOR IN GEOMETRY :
r r r r r
(a) Vector equation of a straight line passing through a point a and parallel to b is r a t b where t is an
arbitrary constant.
r r r r r r
(b) Vector equation of a straight line passing through two points a and b is r a t (b a ) .
r r r
(c) Vector equation of a plane passing through a point a and parallel to two given vectors b and c is
r r r r
r a sb t c , where t and s are arbitrary constants.
r r r r r r
or [ r b c ] [a b c ]
r r r r r r r
(d) Vector equation of a plane passing through the points a , b , c is r (1 s t ) a s b t c .
r r r r r r r r r r
or r .(b c c a a b ) [ a b c ]
r r r r r r
(e) Vector equation of a plane passing through the point a and perpendicular to n is r . n a . n .
r r
a.n
Note : Perpendicular distance of the plane from the origin r
|n |
r r r
(f) Perpendicular distance of a point P(r) from a line passing through a and parallel to b is given by
r r r
| (r a ) b | LM r r 2 RSr r r
(r a ).b UV OP
2 1/ 2
r r
PM
|b | MN
(r a )
T |b | W PQ
r r r r
(g) Perpendicular distance of a point P(r) from a plane passing through a and parallel to b and c is given by
r r r r
(r a ) (b c )
PM r r
|b c |
r r r r
(h) Perpendicular distance of a point P(r) from a plane passing through the points a , b and c is given by
r r r r r r r r
( r a ) (b c c a a b )
PM r r r r r r
|b c c a a b |
PROGRESSIONS
SEQUENCE
A succession of numbers a1, a2 , a3 , ..., an formed according to some definite rule is called a sequence.
ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION (A.P.)
A sequence of number {a n} is called an arithmetical progression, if there is a number d, such that
d = an – an–1 for all n; and d is called as common difference (c.d).
Useful Formulae
If a = first term, d = common difference and n is the number of terms, then
(a) nth term is denoted by tn and is given by
tn = a + (n – 1)d.
(b) Sum of first n terms is denoted by Sn and is given by
n
Sn = [2a + (n – 1)d]
2
n
or Sn = (a + l ), where l = last term in the series i.e. l = tn = a + (n – 1)d.
2
(c) Arithmetic mean A of any two numbers a and b is given by
ab
A=
2
1
Also A = (a1 + a2 + ... + an) is arithmetic mean of n numbers a1, a2, ..., an
n
(d) Sum of first n natural numbers ( n)
n(n 1)
n where, n N.
2
(e) Sum of first n odd natural numbers 2n 1
2n 1 1 3 5 ... 2n 1 n2
(f) Sum of first n even natural numbers 2n
2n 2 4 6 ..... 2n n n 1
(g) Sum of squares of first n natural numbers ( n2)
n(n 1)(2n 1)
n2
6
(h) Sum of cubes of first n natural numbers ( n3)
2
n(n 1)
n 3
2
(i) Sum of fourth powers of first n natural numbers n4
4 4 4
n 1 2 .... n 4
n n 1 2n 1 3n2 3n 1
30
[1]
[2] Progressions
(j) If terms are given in A.P., and their sum and product are known, then the terms must be picked up in
following way in solving certain problem.
· For three terms (a – d), a, (a + d)
· For four terms (a – 3d), (a – d), (a + d), (a + 3d)
· For five terms (a – 2d), (a – d), a (a + d), (a + 2d)
USEFUL PROPERTIES
(a) If tn = an + b, then the series so formed is an A.P.
(b) If Sn = an2 + bn + c, then series so formed is an A.P.
(c) If every term of an A.P. is increased or decreased by the same quantity, the resulting terms will also be in
A.P.
(d) If every term of an A.P. is multiplied or divided by the same non-zero quantity, the resulting terms will also
be in A.P.
(e) If terms a 1 , a 2,....., a n, a n + 1,....., a 2n + 1 are in A.P. Then sum of these terms will be equal to
(2n + 1)an+1. Here total number of terms in the series is (2n + 1) and middle term is an+1.
(f) In an A.P. the sum of terms equidistant from the beginning and end is constant and equal to sum of
first and last terms.
(g) Sum and difference of corresponding terms of two A.P.’s will form a series in A.P.
an an 1
(h) If terms a1, a2, ..., a2n – 1, a2n are in A.P. The sum of these terms will be equal to (2n) 2 ,
an an 1
where = A.M. of middle terms.
2
(i) nth term of a series is an = Sn – Sn – 1 (n 2)
GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION (G.P.)
The sequence {an} in which a1 0 is termed a geometric progression if there is a number r 0 such that
an
= r for all n, then r is called common ratio.
an 1
Useful Formulae
If a = first term, r = common ratio and n is the number of term, then
(a) nth term denoted by tn is given by
tn = arn–1
(b) Sum of first n terms denoted by Sn is given by
a(1 r n ) a(r n 1) a rl
Sn = or corresponding to r < 1 (or) r > 1, (or) Sn =
1 r r 1 1 r
where l is the last term in the series.
(c) Sum of infinite terms S
a
Sn = (For |r| <1)
1 r
(d) Geometric mean (G)
(i) G= ab where a, b are two positive numbers.
(ii) G = (a1 a2 ...... an)1/n is geometric mean of n positive numbers a1, a2, a3,...... an.
Progressions [3]
(e) If terms are given in G.P. and their product is known, then the terms must be picked up in following
way.
a
· For three terms , a, ar
r
a a
· For four terms , , ar, ar3
r3 r
a a
· For five terms 2 , , a, ar, ar2
r r
USEFUL PROPERTIES
(a) The product of the terms equidistant from the beginning and end is constant. And it is equal to the product of
first and last terms.
(b) If every term of G.P. is increased or decreased by the same non–zero quantity, the resulting series may not
be in G.P.
(c) If every term of G.P. is multiplied or divided by the same non–zero quantity, the resulting series is in G.P.
(d) If a 1, a 2, a 3 ..... and b 1, b 2, b3 ..... be two G.P.’s of common ratio r 1 and r 2 respectively, then
r
a1b1, a2b2,....... and a1 , a2 , a3 ........ will also form G.P. common ratio will be r1r2 and 1 respectively..
b1 b 2 b3 r2
(e) If a1, a2, a3, ........ be a G.P. of positive terms, then loga1, loga2, loga3, ..... will be in A.P. and conversely.
Let b ar,c ar 2 and d ar 3 . Then, a, b, c, d are in G.P..
HARMONIC PROGRESSION (H.P.)
A sequence is said to be a harmonic progression, if and only if the reciprocal of its terms form an arithmetic
progression.
SOME USEFUL FORMULAE & PROPERTIES
1
(a) n th term of H.P. = n th termof AP
(b) Harmonic mean H of any two numbers a and b is given by
2 2ab
H= 1 1 = where a, b are two non–zero numbers.
ab
a b
n n
Also H = 1 n
1 1 1
a1 a2
...
an aj1 j
for the harmonic mean of n non–zero numbers a1, a2, a3,....., an.
(c) If terms are given in H.P. then the terms could be picked up in the following way
· For three terms
1 1 1
, ,
ad a ad
· For four terms
1 1 1 1
, , ,
a 3d a d a d a 3d
[4] Progressions
· For five terms
1 1 1 1 1
, , , ,
a 2d a d a a d a 2d
INSERTION OF MEANS BETWEEN TWO NUMBERS
If a and b are two given numbers.
ARITHMETIC MEANS
Let a, A1, A2, .... An, b be in A.P. then A1, A2, .... An are n A.M. ‘s between a and b. If d is common difference,
then
ba
b = a + (n + 2 – 1) d d =
n 1
ba an b
A1 = a + d = a + =
n 1 n 1
ba a n 1 2b
A2 = a + 2d = a + 2 =
n 1 n 1
ba a n 2 3b
A3 = a + 3d = a + 3 =
n 1 n1
: : : :
: : : :
(b a) a nb
An = a + nd = a + n =
n1 n 1
n
Note : The sum of n A.M’s, A1 + A2 + ... + An = (a + b).
2
GEOMETRIC MEANS
Let a, G1, G2...... Gn, b be in G.P., then G1, G2 .......Gn are n G.M.s between a and b. If r is a common ratio, then
1
n +1 b (n 1)
b = ar r =
a
1
n 1
b n 1
G1 = ar = a a n 1 b n1
a
2
n 1 2
2 b n 1
G2 = ar = a a n1 b n 1
a
3
n2 3
b n 1
G3 = ar3 = a a n 1 b n 1
a
: : : :
: : : :
n
1 n
n b n 1
Gn = ar = a a n 1 b n 1
a
n
Note : The product of n G.M’s G1 G2 ........ Gn = ab
Progressions [5]
HARMONIC MEANS
If a, H1, H2 ......... Hn, are in H.P., then H1, H2............Hn are the n H.M.’s between a and b. If d is the common
difference of the corresponding A.P. then
1 1 ab
+ (n + 2 – 1) d d =
b a ab(n 1)
1 1 1 ab bn a
+ d = =
H1 a a ab(n 1) ab(n 1)
1 1 1 2(a b) b(n 1) 2a
+ 2d = =
H2 a a ab(n 1) ab(n 1)
1 1 1 3(a b) b(n 2) 3a
+ 3d = =
H3 a a ab(n 1) ab(n 1)
: : : :
: : : :
1 1 1 n(a b) b(1) na
+ nd = =
Hn a a ab(n 1) ab(n 1)
RELATION BETWEEN A, G AND H
If A, G and H are A. M., G.M. and H.M. of two positive numbers a and b, then
(i) G2 = AH, (ii) A G H
Note :
(1) For given n positive numbers a1, a2, a3,.......... an, A.M. G.M. H.M. . The equality holds when the
numbers are equal.
(2) If sum of the given n positive numbers is constant then their product will be maximum if numbers are equal.
ARITHMETICO–GEOMETRIC SERIES
The series whose each term is formed by multiplying corresponding terms of an A.P. and G.P. is called the
Arithmetico–geometric series.
For Examples
· 1 + 2x + 4x2 + 6x3 + .......................
· a + (a + d)r + (a + 2d)r2 + ...............
SUMMATION OF n TERMS OF ARITHMETICO–GEOMETRIC SERIES
Let S = a + (a + d)r + (a + 2d)r2 + .............
(i) tn = [a + (n - 1)d].rn –1
(ii) Sn = a + (a + d)r + (a + 2d)r2 + ............. + [a + (n – 1)d]rn – 1
Multiply by ‘r’ and rewrite the series in following way.
rSn = ar + (a + d)r2 + (a + 2d)r3 + ..............+ [a + (n – 2)d]rn – 1 + [a + (n – 1)d]rn
On subtraction,
Sn(1 – r) = a + d (r + r2 + ................. + rn – 1) – [a + (n – 1)d]rn
[6] Progressions
dr(1 r n 1 )
or, Sn(1 – r) = a + – [a + (n – 1)d].rn
1 r
a dr(1 r n-1 ) [a + (n 1)d] n
S =
or, n 1- r + - .r
(1 r)2 1 r
SUMMATION OF INFINITE TERMS SERIES :
S = a + (a + d)r + (a + 2d)r2 + ......................
rS = a r + (a + d) r2 + .............................to
----------------------------------------------------------
On subtraction
S (1 – r) = a + d (r + r2 + r3 + .................. )
a dr
S= +
1 r (1 r)2
DIFFERENCE METHOD
Let T1, T2, T3 ...... Tn are the terms of sequence, then
(i) If (T2 – T1), (T3 – T2)............... (Tn – Tn – 1) are in A.P. then, the sum of the such series may be
obtained by using summation formulae in nth term,
(ii) If (T2 – T1), (T3 – T2) ................ (Tn – Tn – 1) are found in G.P. then the sum of the such series may
be obtained by using summation formulae of a G.P.
Continuity
1. DEFINITION
If the graph of a function has no break or jump, then it is said to be continuous function. A function which is not
continuous is called a discontinuous function.
2. CONTINUITY OF A FUNCTION AT A POINT
A Function f x is said to be continuous at some point x=a of its domain if
lim f x f a
x a
lim f x lim f x f a
i.e., If x a0 x a0
i.e., If f a 0 f a 0 f a
i.e., If {LHL at x=a } = {RHL at x = a} = { value of the function at x = a } .
3. CONTINUITY FROM LEFT AND RIGHT
Function f(x) is said to be
(i) Left Continuous at x=a if lim f x f a i.e . f(a – 0) = f(a)
x a0
lim f x f a
(ii) Right Continuous at x=a if x i.e. f (a + 0) = f (a)
a0
Thus a function f(x) is continuous at a point x= a if it is left continuous as well as right continuous at x=a.
4. CONTINUITY IN AN INTERVAL
(1) A function f(x) is continuous in an open interval (a, b) if it is continuous at every point of the interval.
(2) A function f(x) is continuous in a closed interval [a, b] if it is
(i) continuous in (a, b)
(ii) right continuous at x=a
(iii) left continuous at x=b
5. CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS
A function is said to be continuous function if it is continuous at every point in its domain. Following are
examples of some continuous functions:
(i) f x x (Identify function)
(ii) f x c (Constant function)
(iii) f x a0 xn a1xn1 ..... an (Polynomial function)
(iv) f x sin x,cos x (Trigonometric function)
(v) f x ax , ex , e–x (Expoential function)
(vi) f x log x (Logarithmic function)
[1]
[2] Continuity
(vii) f x sinh x,cosh x,tanh x (Hyperbolic function)
(viii) f x | x | ,x | x | , x | x | ,x | x | (Absolute value functions)
6. DISCONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS
A function is said to be a discontinuous function if it is discontinuous at atleast one point in its domain.
Following are examples of some discontinuous functions:
No. Functions Points of discontinuity
(i) x Every Integers
(ii) x x Every Integers
1
(iii) x0
x
3
(iv) tan x , sec x x , , .....
2 2
(v) cot x , cosecx x 0 , , 2 ,.....
1 1
(vi) sin , cos x0
x x
(vii) e1/ x x0
(viii) coth x , cosechx x0
7. PROPERTIES OF CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS
The sum, difference, product, quotient (if Dr 0 ) and composite of two continuous functions are always continuous
functions. Thus if f(x) and g(x) are continuous functions then following are also continuous functions:
(i) f x g x (ii) f x g x
(iii) f x .g x (iv) f x , where is a constant
f x
,
g x if
(v) g x 0 (vi) f g x
8. IMPORTANT POINT
The discontinuity of a function f(x) at x = a can arise in two ways
(i) If xlim
a
f(x) exist but
f(a) or
lim f(x) exist but
x a f(a) , then the function f(x) is said to have a
removable discontinuty.
(ii) The function f(x) is said to have an unremovable discontinuity when xlim
a
f(x) does not exist.
i.e. lim f(x) lim f(x)
x a x a
Differentiability at a point
Let f(x) be a ral valued function defined on an open interval (a, b) and let c (a, b). Then f(x) is said to be
Continuity [3]
f (x) f (c)
differentiable or derivable at x = c, iff lim exists finitely..
xc xc
This limit is called the derivative or differential coefficient of the function f(x) at x = c, and is denoted by f '(c) or
d
Df(c) or f (x)
dx x c
f (x) f (c) f (c h) f (c)
lim lim
x c h h 0 h
is called the left hand derivative of f(x) at x = c and is denoted by f '(c ) or Lf '(c) while.
f (x) f (c) f (c h) f (c)
lim or lim
x c xc h 0 h
is called the right hand derivative off (x) at x = c and is denoted by f '(c ) or Rf '(c) .
Thus, f(x) is differentiable at x = c Lf ' (c) = Rf ' (c).
If Lf '(c) Rf '(c) we say that f(x) is not differentiable at x = c.
Differentiability in a set
A fuction f(x) defined on an open interval (a, b) is said tobe differentiable or derivable inopen interval (a, b) if it is
differentiable at each point of (a, b)
Differentiation
Derivative
(i) The rate of change of one quantity with respect to some other quantity has a great importance. For example the
rate of change of displacement of a particle with respect to time is called its velocity and rate of change of
velocity is called its acceleration. The rate of change of a quantity ‘y’ with respect to another quantity ‘x’ is called
the derivative or differential coefficient of y with respect to x .
(ii) Let y = f(x) be a continuous function of an independent variable x. Let dx be an arbitrary small change in the
y
value of x and dy be the corresponding change in that of y. Then limit of the ratio x
as x 0 , if exists, is named
as the derivative or differential coefficient of x with respect to y and it is denoted by dy / dx
dy y
So lim
dx x 0 x
dy f x x f(x)
i.e. lim f ' (x)
dx x 0 x
Derivative of y with respect to x is also denoted by the following symbols : y ¢ , y1 , Dy
The process of finding derivative of a function is called differentiation.
Derivatives of some standard functions
Some Differentiation Formulae
d d
(i) (constant) = 0 (ii) (xn) = nxn–1
dx dx
d d
(iii) (ex) = ex (iv) (ax) = ax loge a
dx dx
d 1 d 1
(v) (logex) = (vi) (loga x) = x log a
dx x dx e
d d
(vii) (sin x) = cos x (viii) (cos x) = –sin x
dx dx
d d
(ix) (tan x) = sec2 x (x) (cot x) = –cosec2 x
dx dx
d d
(xi) (sec x) = sec x tan x (xii) (cosec x) = –cosec x cot x
dx dx
d 1 d 1
(xiii) (sin–1x) = 2 ; – 1< x < 1 (xiv) (cos–1x) = – ; – 1< x < 1
dx 1 x dx 1 x2
d 1 d 1
(xv) (tan–1x) = ; x R (xvi) (cot–1x) = – , x R
dx 1 x2 dx 1 x2
d 1 d 1
(xvii) (sec–1x) = x x2 1
,|x|> 1 (xviii) (cosec–1x) = ;|x|>1
dx dx x x2 1
[1]
[2] Differentiation
d b
(xix) (eax sin bx) = eax (a sin bx + b cos bx) = ax
a 2 b 2 e sin (bx + tan
–1
)
dx a
d b
(xx) (eax cos bx) = eax (a cos bx – b sin bx) = ax
a 2 b 2 e cos (bx + tan
–1
)
dx a
d x d 1
(xxi) |x| = | x | ( x 0) (xxii) log |x| = (x 0)
dx dx x
Some theorems of differentiation
d d d
(i) (f(x) g(x)) ( f(x)) ( g(x))
dx dx dx
d d
(ii) (k f(x)) k (f(x)) , where k is any constant
dx dx
d d d
(iii) d x (f1(x).f2 (x)) (f1(x)) d x (f2 (x)) (f2 (x)) d x (f1(x))
d d
f2 (x) (f1(x)) f1 (x) (f2 (x))
d f1(x) dx dx
(iv)
d x f2 (x) (f2 (x))2
(v) Derivative of the function of the function .
If ‘y’ is a function of ‘t’ and ‘t’ is a function of ‘x’, then
dy dy dt
.
dx dt d x
d dgf(x) d
Thus g[f(x) ] . f x = g' { f(x) } . f ' (x)
dx df(x) dx
(vi) Derivative of parametric equation
If x = (t) , y = (t) then '
dy dy dx
/
dx dt dt
(vii) Derivative of a function w.r..t another function
If f(x) and g(x) are two function of a variable x, then
d ( f(x) ) d d
d ( g(x) )
dx
( f (x) ) / dx ( g (x) )
Differentiation of Implicit Functions
If in an implicit function f(x, y) = 0, y cannot be expressed in terms of x, then we differentiate both sides of the
dy
given equation w.r.t. x and collect all terms containing on L.H.S.
dx
NOTE : In the above process we obtain dy/dx in terms of both x and y. If we want dy/dx in terms of x only, then
let us first express y in terms of x .
Short method of differentiation for implicit functions
If f(x,y) = constant, then
Differentiation [3]
dy f f
/
dx x y
f f
where x and y are partial derivatives of f ( x ,y ) with respect to x and y respectively..
[By partial derivative of f(x , y) with respect to x, we mean the derivative of f(x, y) with respect to x when y is
treated as a constant.]
Logarithmic differentiation
If differentiation of an expression or an equation is done after taking log on both sides, then it is called logarithmic
differentiation. Generally we apply this method when given expression is in one of the following forms
(i) [f (x)]g(x)
(ii) product of three or more function
Some Suitable substitutions
(i) If the function involve the term a 2 x 2 , then substitute x = a sin or x = a cos
(ii) If the function involve the term x2 a2 , then substitute x = a tan or x = a cot
(iii) If the function involve the term x 2 a2 , then substitute x = a sec or x = a cosec
ax
(iv) If the function involve the term a x , then substitute x = a cos or x = a cos 2
Differentiation of a Determinant Function
f g h
l m n
If F(x) =
u v w
Where f, g, h, , m, n, u, v, w are functions of x and differentiable , then
f ' g' h' f g h f g h
l m n l' m' n' l m n
F'(x) =
u v w u v w u' v' w '
f' g h f g' h f g h'
or F'(x) = l ' m n l m' n l m n'
u' v w u v' w u v w'
INCREASING & DECREASING
FUNCTIONS AND MAXIMA &
MINIMA
STRICTLY INCREASING FUNCTION :
A function f(x) is said to be a strictly increasing function on (a, b) if
x1 x 2 f (x1 ) f (x 2 ) for all x1 , x 2 (a, b)
Stricly Decreasing Function : A function f(x) is said to be a strictly decreasing function on (a, b) if
x1 x 2 f (x1 ) f (x 2 ) for all x1 , x 2 (a, b)
By an increasing or a decreasing function we shall mean a strictly increasing or a strictly decreasing function.
Monotonic Function : A function f(x) is said to be monotic on an interval (a, b). it is either increasing or
decreasing on (a, b)
Definiton : A function f(x) is said to be increasing on [a, b] if it is increasing on (a, b) and it is also increasing
at x = a and x = b.
Necessary Condition : We observe that if f(x) is an increasing function on(a, b) then tangent at every point
on the curve y = f(x) makes an acute angle with the positive direction of x-axis.
y
p(x,y)
y=f(x)
x’
a b x
0
y’
dy
tan 0 0 or f '(x) 0 for all a (a,b)
dx
If f(x) is a decreasing function on (a, b), then tangent at every point on the curve y = f(x) makes an obtuse
angle with the positive direction of x-axis.
dy
tan 0 0 or f '(x) 0 for all x (a,b)
dx
y
P(x,y)
y=f(x)
x’
a x
0 b
y’
SUFFICIENT CONDITION
THEOREM : Let f be a differentiable real function defined on an open interval (a,b)
[1]
[2] Increasing and Decreasing Functons, Maxima and Minia
(i) If f '(x) 0 for all x (a,b) then f(x) is increasing on (a, b)
(ii) If f '(x) 0 for all x (a,b) , then f(x) is decreasing on (a,b).
Properties of Monotonic Function :
(i) If f(x) is strictly increasing function on an interval [a, b], then f–1 exists and it is also a strictly increasing
function.
(ii) If f(x) is strictly increasing function on an interval [a, b] such that it is continuous, then f–1 is continuous on
[f(a), f(b)].
(iii) If f(x) is continuus on [a,b] such that f '(c) 0 (f '(c) 0) for each c (a, b), then f(x) is monotonically
(strictly) increasing function on [a,b]
(iv) If f(x) and g(x) are monotonically (or stricly) increasing (or decreasing) functions on [a, b], then gof (x) is a
monotonically (or strictly) increasing function on [a,b]
(v) If one of the two functions f(x) and g(x) is strictly (or monotonically) increasing and other a strictly
(monotonically) increasing and other a strictly (monotonically) decreasing, then gof(x) is strictly (monotonically)
decreasing on [a, b].
MAXIMA AND MINIMA
Let f(x) be a function with domain D R . Then f(x) is said to attain the maximum value at a point a D if
f (x) f (a) for all x D
In such a case, a is called the point of maximum and f(a) is known as the maximum value or the greatest value.
Local Maximum : A function f(x) is said to attain a local maximum at x = a if there exists a neighbourhood .
(a ,a ) of a such that
f(x) < f(a) for all x (a ,a ), x a
or f(x) – f(a) < 0 for all x (a ,a ) , x a
In such a case f(a) is called the local maximum value of f(x) at x = a.
Local Minimum : A function f(x) is said to attain a local minimum at x = a if there exists a neighbourhood
(a ,a ) of a such that f(x) > f(a) for all x (a ,a ), x a
or f(x) – f(a) > 0 for all x (a ,a ), x a
The value of the function at x = a i.e. f(a) is called the local minimum value of f(x) at x = a
Theorem : A necessary condition for f(a) to be an extreme value of a function f(x) is that f '(a) = 0 in case it
exists. A function may however attain an extreme value at a point without being derivable thereat. For
example, the function f(x) = |x| attains the minimum value at the origin even though it isnot derivable at
x = 0.
Remark : Above condition is only a necessary condition for the point. x = a to be an extreme point. It is not
sufficient i.e. f '(a) does not necessarily imply that x = a is an extreme point. For example for the
function f(x) = x3, f '(0) = 0 but at x = 0 the function does not attain an extreme value.
Remark : The value of x for which f '(x) = 0 are called stationary values or critical values of x and the
corresponding values of f(x) are called stationary or turning values of f(x).
Increasing and Decreasing Functons, Maxima and Minia [3]
Theorem : (First derivative test for local maximum and minima) Let f(x) be a function differentiable at x = a.
Then,
(A) x = a is a point of local maximum of f(x), if
(i) f '(a) 0 and
(ii) f '(x) changes sign from positive to negative as x passes through a i.e. f '(x) 0 at every point in the
left nbd (a ,a) and f '(x) 0 at every point in the right nbd (a,a ) of a.
(B) x = a is a point of local minimum of f(x), if
(i) f '(a) 0 and
(ii) f '(x) changes sign from negative to positive as x passes through a i.e. f '(x) 0 at every point in the
left nbd (a ,a) of a and f '(x) 0 at every point in the right nbd (a,a ) of a.
(C) If f '(a) 0 but f '(x) does not change sign, that is f '(a) has the same sign in the complete nbd of a , then
a is neither a point of local maximum nor a point of local minimum.
Theorem : (Higher order derivative test). Let f be a differentiable function on an interval I and let c be an
interior point of I such that
(i) f '(c) f ''(c) f '''(c) ... f n 1 (c) 0 and
(ii) f n (c) exists and is non-zero
Then,
(a) If n is even and f n (c) 0 x c is a point of local maximum.
(b) If n is even and f n (c) 0 x c is a point of local minimum
(c) If n is odd x = c is neither a point of local maximum nor a point of local minimum.
Point of inflection : An arc of a curve y = f(x) is called concave upward if, at each of its points, the arc lies
above the tangent at the point. An arc of a curve y = f(x) is called concave downward if, at
each of its points, the arc lies below the tangent at the point.
y y
x x
0 0
y y
x x
0 0
Definition : A point of inflection is a point at which a curve is changing concave upward to concave
downward, or vice-versa.
[4] Increasing and Decreasing Functons, Maxima and Minia
y = f(x)
f(c)
x
0 C
A curve y = f(x) has one of its points x = c as an inflection point
If f ''(c) 0 or is not defined and
If f ''(x) changes sign as x increases through x = c.
The later condition may be replaced by f '''(c) 0 when f '''(c) exists.
Thus, x = c is a point of inflection if f ''(c) 0 and f '''(c) 0 .
Critical point : A point x is a critical point of a function f(x) if
f '( ) 0 or f '( ) does not exist.
Statistics
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY, DISPERSION
One of the most important objectives of statistical analysis is to get one single value that describes the characteristic
of the entire data. Such a value is called the central value or an average.
The following are the important types of averages:
1. Arithmetic Mean
2. Geometric Mean
3. Harmonic mean
4. Median
5. Mode
We consider these measures in three cases (i) Individual series (i.e. each individual observation is given) (ii)
discrete series (i.e the observations along with number of times a particular observation called the frequency is
given) (iii) continuous series (i.e. the class intervals along with their frequencies are given)
ARITHMETIC MEAN
(i) Individual Series : If x1 , x 2 .........xn are the values of the variable x , then the arithmetic mean usually
denoted by x is given by
x1 x2 ..... xn 1 n
x xi
n n i 1
(ii) Discrete Series : If a variable takes values x1 , x 2 .........xn with corresponding frequencies
f1, f2 ….. fn then the arithmetic mean x is given by
n n
f1 x1 f 2 x2 ..... f n xn 1
x
f1 f 2 .... f n
N
i 1
fi xi , where N fi
i 1
(iii) Continuous Series : In case of a set of data with class intervals, we cannot find the exact value of the mean
because we do not know the exact values of the variables. We, therefore, try to obtain an approximate
value of the mean. The method of approximate is to replace all the observed values belonging to a class by
mid-value of the class. If x1, x2 … xn are the mid values of the class intervals having corresponding
frequencies f1, f2 … fn then we apply the same formula as in discrete series.
n n
1
x
N
i 1
fi xi , N fi
i 1
PROPERTIES OF ARITHMETIC MEAN
(i) Sum of all the deviations from arithmetic mean is zero i.e.,
n
x x 0 (in case of individual series)
i 1
i
f x x 0
i 1
i i (in case of discrete or continuous series)
(ii) If each observation is increased or decreased by a given constant K, the mean is also increased or decreased
by K
[1]
[2] Statistics
The property is also known as effect of change of origin. K can be taken to be any number. However, to
simplify the calculations, K should be taken as a value which is in the middle of the table.
(iii) Step Deviation Method or change of scale
If x1 , x2 .............xn are mid values of class intervals with corresponding frequencies f1, f2,…., fn then we
xi A
may change the scale by taking di , in this case.
h
1
x A h
N
f d i i
A and h can be any numbers but if the lengths of class intervals are equal then h may be taken as width of
the class interval.
In particular if each observation is multiplied or divided by a constant, the mean is also multiplied or divided
by the same constant.
(iv) The sum of the squared deviation of the variate from their mean is minimum i.e., the quantity
2 2
x A
i or fi xi A is minimum when A x
(v) If x i and x 2 be the means of two related groups having n1 and n2 items respectively then the combined
n1 x1 n2 x 2
mean x of both the groups is given by x
n1 n2
WEIGHTED ARITHMETIC MEAN
If x1, x2, ....., xn are n vlaues of a variable X and w1 , w 2 ,....., w n denote respectively their weights, then their
weighted mean X w is given by
n
w1 x1 w 2 x 2 .... w n x n w x
i 1
i i
Xw n
w1 w 2 ...... w n
w
i 1
i
GEOMETRIC MEAN
In case of individual series x1 , x2 .............xn
G.M. = ( x1 , x2 .............xn )1/n
In case of discrete or continuous series
n
1/ N
G.M. x x ....x f1 f 2
1 2 n
fn
, where N fi
i 1
HARMONIC MEAN
The harmonic mean is based on the reciprocals of the value of the variable
1 1 1 n 1
H.M. = (Incase of Individual series)
1 1 1 1 or H n i 1 xi
....
n xi x2 xn
Statistics [3]
1 1
and n
(in case of discrete series or continuous series)
H 1 1
N
i 1
fi
xi
If x1, x2, …xn > 0 then it is known that A.M. > G.M. > H.M.
MEDIAN
It refers to the middle value in a distribution.
In case of individual series, in order to find median, arrange the data in ascending or descending order of magnitude.
In case of odd number of values
n 1 n n2
Median = size of th item. In case of even number of values Median = average of th and th
2 2 2
observation.
In case of discrete frequency distribution the median is obtained by considering the cumulative frequency (c.f.).
n
N
Find
2
, where N
i 1
fi . Find the cumulative frequency (c.f.) just more than N/2. The corresponding value
of x is median.
In case of continuous distribution, the class corresponding to c.f. just more than N/2 is called the median class and
hN
the median is obtained by Median = l C
f 2
Where l the lower limit of the median class; f the frequency of the median class; h the width of the
n
median class; C the c.f. of the class preceding to the median class and N fi
i 1
MODE
The mode is that value in a series of observations which occurs with greatest frequency. In case of individual
series, for determining the mode, count the number of times the various values repeat themselves and the value
occurring the maximum number of times in the model value.
In case of discrete series, quite often mode can be determined just by inspection i.e. by looking to that value of
variable around which the items are most heavily concentrated.
In case of continuous series,
f1 f 0
Mode l h
2 f1 f 2 f 0
Where l the lower limit of the modal class i.e. the class having maximum frequency; f1 = frequency of the
modal class; f0= frequency of the class preceding the modal class; f2 = frequency of the class succeeding the
modal class and h = width of the modal class.
When mode is ill-defined i.e. there are two or more values which occur with equal maximum frequency, the
mode can be computed by
Mode = 3 median - 2 mean
[4] Statistics
DISPERSION
Literally, dispersion means ‘scatteredness’. Dispersion measures the degree of scatteredness of the variable
about a central value. Different measures of dispersion are
1. Range
2. Mean-deviation
3. Quartile deviation
4. Standard deviation
1. Range
The range is the difference between the largest and smallest observation.
2. Mean-deviation
If x1 , x2 ............xn are n observations then mean deviation about a point A is given by
1
M.D.
n
| xi A |
In case of discrete or continuous series
n
1
M.D.
N
f i | xi A |, N fi
i 1
M.D. is least when taken from the median
Standard Deviation
Variance 2 in case of individual series is given by
2
1 n 2 1 n 2 1 n
2
xi x
n i 1
xi xi
n i 1 n i 1
If x1, x2, ……, xn occur with frequency f1, f2….fn respectively then
n 2
1 2 1 1
2 (variance)
N
x x
i 1
i
N
2
f x f i xi
i i
n
and standard deviation =+ var iance
There is no effect of change of origin on standard deviation
2
2
1 2 21
h
x fi d
i fi di
N N
If there are two samples of sizes n1 and n2 with x1 and x2 as their means 1 and 2 their
standard deviations respectively, then the combined variance is given by
2
n1 12 d12 n2 22 d 22
n1 n2
where d1 x1 x and d 2 x2 x , x being the combined mean.
Statistics [5]
COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION
100
X
Properties of Variance :
1. Let x1 , x 2 , x 3 ,....., x n be n values of a variable X. If these values are changed to x1 + a, x2 + a, ...., xn + a,
where a R , then the variance remains unchanged.
2. Let x1, x2, ...., xn values of a variable X and let ‘a’ be a non-zero real number. Then, the variance of the
observations ax1, ax2, ...., axn is a2 Var (X).
3. Let x1, x2, x3, .....,xn be n values of a variable X, and let xi = a + hui, i = 1,2, ......,n, where u1, u2,.....,un are the
values of variable U. Then, Var (X) = h2 Var (U), h 0
Probability
1. EXPERIMENT:
An operation which results in some well-defined outcomes is called an experiment.
2. RANDOM EXPERIMENT:
The experimenet about which no confirm prediction is possible, is called the random experiment.
e.g. (i) Tossing a coin, (ii) Throwing a die etc.
3. SAMPLE SPACE:
The set of all possible outcomes of an experiment is called the sample space, which is denoted by S.
e.g. (i) On throwing a die, sample space is
5 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and n(S) = 6
(ii) On tossing two coins, sample space is
S = {H, T} × {H, T} = {HH, HT, TH, TT}.
n(S) = 4
4. EVENT:
Every subset of sample space is defined as the event. It is denoted by E.
e.g. (i) The event of appearing odd numbers in throwing a die is
E = {1, 3, 5}
and E S, where S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
5. TYPES OF EVENTS :
(i) Null Event or Impossible Event: It has no member and is denoted by .
e.g.(a) On throwing a die the event of appearing member 7 is an impossible event.
(ii) Sure Event: Since S S, so S is an event which is called sure event.
(iii) Simple Event or Elementary Event: It has only one member.
e.g. (b) On throwing a die the event of appearing prime even number is E = {2} which is a simple event.
(iv) Mixed Event or Composite event or
Compound Event: This event has two or more than 2 members.
e.g.: On throwing a die the event of appearing even numbers is
E = {2, 4, 6} which is a compound event.
(v) Mutually Exclusive Events: Events E1 and E2 are mutually exclusive if E1 I E 2
e.g.: In drawing a card from a pack of 52 cards, the events
A the event when the card drawn is spade
B the event when the card drawn is a heart are mutually exclusive events.
(vi) Mutually Exclusive and Exhaustive Events:
Events E1, E2, E3, .........., En are mutually exclusive and exhaustive events if
[1]
[2] Probability
(a) Ei I E j , where i | j and i, j = 1, 2, 3, .........., n.
(b) E1 E 2 E3 ......E n S
e.g. On throwing a die if
A = the event of appearing odd numbers = {1, 3, 5}
B = The event of appearing even numbers = {2, 4, 6}
Then A B
and A B S 1, 2,3, 4,5, 6
A and B are mutually exclusive and exhaustive events.
(v) Complement of an Event E:
It is denoted by E ' or EC or E and it is the set of all sample points of sample space not of event E.
On throwing a , die, S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
If event be E = {1, 2, 3}
then E = {4, 5, 6}
Note : (a) A A S (b) A A .
6. PROBABILITY OF AN EVENT:
n E no. of favourable cases
PE
n S no. of favourable and infavourable cases
Remarks:
P(S) = 1
P 0
0 P E 1
If A B then P A P B
PA PA 1
7. ODDS IN FAVOUR OF EVENT E:
P E PE
Odds is favour of event E
P E ' 1 P E
= a : b, say.
a
If odds is favour of event E be a : b, then P E
ab
8. ODDS AGAINST EVENT E:
P E ' 1 P E
Odds against event E c : d, say
P E P E
Probability [3]
It odds against event E be c : d, then
d
PE .
cd
9. IDEAS ABOUT A PACK OF 52 CARDS:
A Pack of 52 Cards
Red (26 cards) Black (26 cards)
Hearts (13) Dramonds (13) Spades (13) Clubs (13)
Aces 4
KinGS 4
Queens 4
Jacks 4
Four suits: Heart, Diamond, Spade, Clubs.
Court Cards: 12 (4 kings, 4 queens, 4 jacks)
Honour Cards: 16 (4 aces, 4 kings, 4 queens, 4 jacks)
Face Cards: 12 (4 kings, 4 queens, 4 jacks)
10. SOME OTHER TYPES OF EVENTS:
Independent Events: Two or more events are raid to be independent if occurrence or non-occurrence of
any one of them does not affect the occurrence or non-occurrence of other.
e.g. If a bag contains 3 red and 2 black balls and if two balls are drawn one by one with replacements, then
events are independent events.
Dependent Events: Two or more events are said to be dependent, if occurrence or non-occurrence of any
one of them affects occurrence or non-occurrence of others.
e.g. Let a bag contains 3 red and 2 black balls. Two balls are drawn one by one without replacement. Then
these events are dependent events.
Equally Likely Events: Outcomes are said to be equally likely which we have no reason to believe that
one is more likely to occur then the other.
e.g. When an unbiased die is thrown all the six faces 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 are equally likely to come up.
11. ADDITION THEOREM FOR PROBABILITY:
(i) If A and B the any two events, then P A B P A P B P A B
(ii) If A and B are mutually exclusive events, then P A B P A P B
(iii) If A, B, C are any three vents, then
P A B C P A P B P C P A B P B C P A C P A B C
(iv) If A, B and C are mutually exclusive events, then
P A B C P A P B P C
[4] Probability
(v) P A B P A P B
Some other results:
(i) P A B P B P A B P (B – A)
(ii) P A B P A P A B P A B
(iii) P A B A B P A P B 2P A B
(iv) P A B 1 P A B
(v) P A B 1 P A B
(vi) If A, B, C be three events the
(a) P(atleast two of A, B, C occur)
P A B P B C P C A 2P A B C
(b) P(exactly two of A, B, C occur) P A B P B C P A C 3P A B C
(c) P(exactly one of A, B, C, occurs)
P A P B P C 2P A B 2P B C 2P A C 3P A B C
12. CONDITIONAL PROBABILITIES
Let A and B be any two events such that B or n B 0 or P B 0, then P(A/B) denotes the
conditional probability of occurrence of event A when B has been already occured.
e.g. A coin is lossed thrice. If E be the event of showing atleast two heads and F the event of showing head
in the first throw, then
P E F 3 / 8 3
P E / F
P F 4/8 4
13. MULTIPLICATION THEOREM:
(i) If A and B be any two events then
P A B P A P B / A
P B P A / B
(ii) If events A and B are independent events, then
P A B P A P B P AB
14. BAYE’S THEOREM:
Let S be the sample space and let E1, E2,............, En be n mutually exclusive and exhaustive events associated
with a random experiment. If A is any event which occurs with E1 or E2 or ......... En , then
P Ei P A / Ei
P Ei / A
P E1 .P(A / E1 ) P(E 2 ).P(A / E 2 ) ...... P(E n ).P(A / E n ) for n = 1, 2, 3, .....n.
Probability [5]
15. BINOMIAL PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION:
If for a sample space S, n = total no. of trial
p = probability of event of success for one - trial
q = probability of event of failure for one trial
so that p + q = 1, then probability for r success trial is
P(X = r) = nCr . pr . qn–r.
16. MEAN AND VARIANCE OF BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION:
Mean = np and Variance = npq
and mean > variance
Also standard deviation = npq
Functions and Relations
NUMBERS & THEIR SETS
Natural Number : N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ........}
Whole Number : W = {0, 1, 2, 3, ........}
Integers : I or Z = {............., – 4, –3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ...........} = {0, ± 1, ± 2, ±3, .....}
p
Rational Numbers : Q : p, q z, q 0
q
Irrational Numbers : The numbers which are not rational of which can not be written in the form of p/q called
irrational numbers i.e.
3 21/ 3 , 51/ 4 , , e ..........
Real Numbers : {x, where x is rational and irrational number}
R = {1, 1000, 20/6, , 2 , –10, –20/3, ........}
Positive Real Numbers : R+ = (0, )
Negative Real Numbers : R– = (– , 0)
R0 : all real number except 0(zero) = R – {0}
Imaginary Numbers : Im = k , where k R
INTERVAL
The set of the numbers between any two real numbers is called interval.
Closed Interval
[a, b] = {x : a x b}
Open Interval : (a, b) or ]a, b[ = {x : a < x < b}
Semi Open or Semi Closed Interval
[a, b[ or [a, b) = {x : a x < b} (Left Closed)
]a, b] or (a, b] = {x : a < x b} (Right Closed)
3. FUNCTION
Let A and B be two given sets and if a rule associates to each element a A, a unique element b B, then
this rule f is called a function from A to B. It is denoted by f : A B.
If an element a A is associated with b B under the function f, then the element b is called the f image
of a or the value of f at a. It is denoted by the symbols
b = f (a) or f : a b or (a, b) f
Also a is called the pre-image of b under f.
Remarks :
Whether f : A B is a function or not, test the following :
(i) existence of f-image of every element of A in the set B.
(ii) uniquenees of f-image of every element of the set A.
[1]
[2] Functions and Relations
4. FUNCTION AS A SET OF ORDERED PAIRS
A function f : A B can be expressed as a set of ordered pair is a member of A and second element is the
member of B. Hence f is a set of ordered pairs (a, b) such that
(i) a is an element of A
(ii) b is an element of B
(iii) no two ordered pairs of f have the same first element
(iv) every member of A is a first element of one of the ordered pairs of f
f : A B is a subset of A × B. It is expressed in the form of ordered pairs as follows :
f = {(a, b)/b = f(a), a A and b B}
DOMAIN, CO-DOMAIN AND RANGE OF A FUNCTION
Suppose that f is a function from A to B, i.e. f : A B, then set A is called the domain and set B is called the co-
domain.
Also the set of all f-images of the elements of A is called the range of f and it is denoted by f(A).
Therefore f(A) = {f(a) | a A} B. If f is expressed in terms of ordered pairs, then set of first element of
ordered pairs of f will be domain and set of second elements of these ordered pairs will be range of f i.e.
Domain of f = {x | (x, y) f }
Range of f = {y | (x, y) f }
The set Y is also called the co-domain of f clearly f(x) Y.
X Y
f(x)
f
x y=f(x)
Range
Domain Co-Domain
IDENTITY FUNCTION
The function f : R R is called an identity function if f(x) = x, " x R. The domain of this identity function is
R and its range is also R.
EQUAL FUNCTION
Two fucntion f and g are said to be equal fucntions, if and only if
(i) domain of f = domain of g
(ii) co-domain of f = co-domain of g
(iii) f(x) = g(x) " x their common domain
DOMAIN OF ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
(i) If f(x) = c (constant function), then Df = R
(ii) If f(x) = p (x), a polynomial function in x, Df = R
1
(iii) If f(x) = p(x) , then Df = R – {x : p(x) = 0, x R }
p(x)
(iv) If f(x) = q(x) , then Df = Dp Dq – {x : q(x) = 0, x R }
Functions and Relations [3]
(v) If f(x) = p(x) then Df = {x : p(x) 0, x R}
1
(vi) If f(x) = ,
p(x) then f = {x
D : p(x) > 0, x R }.
(vii) If f(x) = p(x) ± q(x)
then Df D p Dq
(viii) If f(x) = p(x) × q(x) then Df = D p D q
p(x) p(x)
(ix) If f(x) = then Df = x : 0, q(x) 0, x R
q(x) q(x)
NUMBER OF FUNCTION (OR MAPPING) FROM X TO Y
Let X = {x1, x2, x3, ........ xm} (i.e. m elements)
and Y = {y1, y2, y3 ........ ym} (i.e. n elements)
Then each element in domain xi (i = 1, 2, 3, ..... m) corresponds n images
f:X Y
f
x1 y1
x2 y2
xm yn
Thus, Total number of function from X to Y n × n × ..... m times = nm = number of elements in domain.
i.e. (Number of elements in co-domain) Number of elements in domain
REPRESENTATION & TESTING FOR A FUNCTION
Mapping : It show the graphical aspect of the relation of the elements of X with the elements of Y.
(a) f1 : X Y (b) f2 : X Y
X Y
X Y
p 1
x a 2
q
y b 3
r
z c 4
s
5
(c) f3 : X Y
X Y
a x
b y
c z
[4] Functions and Relations
In the above given mapping rule f1 and f2 shows a function because each elements of X is associated with
a unique element of Y. Where as f3 is not function because in f3 element c is associated with two elements
of Y.
Algebraic Method : It show the relation between the elements of two sets in the from of two variables x
and y where x is independent variable and y is depended variable.
If X and Y be two given sets X = {1, 2, 3}, Y = {5, 7, 9} then f : X ® Y, y = f(x) = 2x + 3
In the form of ordered pairs : A function f : X Y can be expressed as a set of ordered piers in which
first element of every ordered pair is a member of X and second element is the member of Y. So f is a set
of order pairs (a, b) such that
(i) a is an element of X (ii) b is an element of Y
(iii) Two ordered pairs should not have the same first element.
Vertical line test for a function : If we are given a graph of the relation. Then we can check whether the
given relation is function or not. If it is possible to draw. a vertical line which cuts the given curve at more
than one point then given relation is not a function and when this vertical line means line parallel to y-axis
cuts the curve at only one point then it is a function. Fig represents a function.
CLASSIFICATION OF FUCNTION
Constant function : If the range of a function f consists of only one number then f is called a constat
function. e.g. let f(x) = c ; where c is constant number.
y
(0, c)
f(x)= c
c
o x
Identity function : The function defined by f(x) = x ; " x R, is called the identity function.
45º x
o
x, when x0
Modulus function : The function defined by f ( x ) | x | , is called the modulus function.
x, when x0
y
45º 45º
o x
| x | 1, when x 0
, when x 0
Signum function : The function defined by f ( x) x = 0, when x 0 , is called signum
0, when x 0 1, when x 0
function. Y
f(x)=1
o X
f(x)=-1
Functions and Relations [5]
Greatest integer function : This function is denoted by [x]. Where [x] = greatest integer less than or
5 5
equal to x. For example 3 = – 2 and 3 = 1
Y
Note : Important Identities :
(i) [x] x (This is always true) X
-2 -1 o 1 2 3 4
(ii) [x] + 1 > x
PROPERTIES OF GREATEST INTEGRAL FUNCTION :
(i) [x] = x, holds if x is integer.
(ii) [x + I] = [x] + I if I is integer.
(iii) [x + y] = [x] + [y], if {x} + {y} < 1
= [x] + [y] + 1, if {x} + {y} 1
(iv) If [ (x)] ³ I, then (x) I.
If [ (x)] £ I, then (x) < I + I.
(v) [–x] = – [x] if x integer
(vi) [–x] = – [x] – 1 if x integer
Fraction-Part Function :
{x} denotes frational part of 'x'. It Y
is equal to x – [x] 1
e.g {2.7} = 0.7, {3} = 0
X
{–3.2} = 0.8 -2 -1 o 1 2 3
Domian = R
Range = [0, 1)
Trigonometric Functions :
Y
(i) Sine function (-3/2,1) (/2,1)
f(x) = sin x
Domain = R - o X
Range = [–1, 1].
(-/2,-1) (3/2,-1)
(ii) Cosine function
Y
f(x) = cos x (0,1)
Domain = R
Range = [–1, 1]. - o X
(-,-1) (,-1)
(iii) Tangent function
Y
f(x) = tan x
( 2n 1)
Domain = R -
2 -3 - o 3 X
Range = R.
[6] Functions and Relations
(iv) Cosecant function Y
y=1
(-3 /2,1) ( /2,1)
f(x) = cosec x
o X
Domain = R – {n : n Z}; (- /2,-1) (3/2,-1)
y=-1
Range = R – (–1, 1)
x=-2 x=- x= x=2
Y
(v) Secant function y=1
(-2,1) (0,1)
f(x) = sec x o X
(- ,-1) ( , -1)
Domain = R – {(2n + 1) / 2 : n Z}; y=-1
Range = R – (–1, 1) x=-
3
x=-
x=
x=
3
(vi) Cotangent function
Y
f(x) = cot x
O
Domain = R – {n : n Z};
x
(- 3 ,0) (- ,0) ( ,0) ( 3 ,0)
2 2 2 2
Range = R.
x=-2 x=- x= x=2
Inverse of trigonometric functions :
(i) f(x) = sin–1 x
2
Y
y = sin -1 x
y=x
Domain = [–1, 1]. 1
y = sin x
0 X
-1
Range = 2 , 2
2
x Y
(ii) f(x) = cos–1 x
-1
y = cos
y=x
/2
1
Domain = [–1, 1].
- -1 0 1 X
Range = [0, ]
(iii) f(x) = tan–1 x Y
2
Domain = R y = tan-1 x
0
Range = 2 , 2
2
Y
(iv) f(x) = cot–1 x
Domain = R ; 2
Range = (0, )
0 X
(v) f(x) = cosec–1 x
Domain = R –(–1, 1) Y
2
Range = , – {0} -1
2 2 0 1 X
2
Functions and Relations [7]
Y
(vi) f(x) = sec–1 x x=
x=
2
Domain = R – (–1, 1).
Range = [0, ] – { /2} (x=-1) 0 (x=1) X
y = -1 y=1
11.9 Hyperbolic function : Y
(i) f(x) = sinh x
Domain = (– , ) o X
Range = (– , )
It is a continuous and one-one function,
Y
(ii) f(x) = cosh x
Domain = (– , )
(0, 1)
Range = [1, ) o X
It is a continuous and many one function.
(iii) f(x) = tanh x
Y
Domain = (– , ) y =1
Range = (–1, 1)
o X
It is a continuous and one-one function.
y = -1
Logarithmic function :
Y
(i) f(x) = loga x (a > 1)
Domain = R+
Range = R
o X
It is a continuous and one-one function. (1, 0)
Y
(ii) f(x) = loga x (a < 1)
Domain = R+
Range = R
(1, 0)
It is a continuous and one-one function. o X
Y
11.11 Exponential function :
(i) f(x) = ax (a > 1)
Domain = R (1, 0)
Range = R+ o X
It is a continuous and one-one function.
Y
(ii) f(x) = ax (a < 1)
Domain = R (1, 0)
Range = R+ o X
It is a continuous and one-one function.
[8] Functions and Relations
Polynomial function : A function y = f(x) = a0xn + a1xn – 1 + .... + an , where a0, a1, a2 .... an are real
numbers and n is non negative integer, then f(x) is called polynomial if a0 0, then n is the degree of
polynomial function.
For Ex. f(x) = x1920 + 5x1919 + 6x , ........ g(x) = x2 + 9x + 3
· The domain of a Polynomial Function is R.
p( x )
Rational function : A function is said to be rational function, if it is of the form , where p(x) and
q( x )
q(x) are polynomial functions and q(x) 0. i.e.,
The quotient of two polynomial functions is called the Rational function.
x2 1
For example, f ( x ) is a Rational Function.
2 x 3 x2 1
Irrational function : A function involving one or more radicals of polynomial or polynomials is called an
irrational function.
x3 x
For Ex. f ( x ) x x 6, g ( x ) are Irrational Functions.
1 x 1/ 4
Algebraic function : An algebraic function is one which consists of a finite number of terms involving
power and roots of variable x and the four simple operations – addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division. Obviously, all polynomial, rational and irrational functions are algebraic functions.
Transcendental function : All functions which are not algebraic are called transcendental functions.
These functions include -
(i) Trigonometric function as sinx, cosx tanx etc.
(ii) Inverse trigonometric functions as sin–1x, cos–1x, tan–1x etc.
1 x 2
(iii) Logarithmic function as logax, loge (1 + x), log , log (x + 1 x 2 ) ..... etc.
2
2 x
ex 1
(iv) Exponential function as ex, e–x, ax , etc.
ex 1
(v) Mixed function as sin2x + ex + 3 logx etc.
(vi) The general exponential functions as xlog x, xcos x etc.
EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT FUNCTION
Explicit Function : A function is said to be explicit if its rule is directly expressed (or can be expressed) in
terms of the independent variable. Such a function is generally written as y = f(x), x = g(y).
e.g. y = 2x + 3, x2 = y + 1 etc.
Implicit Function : A function is said to be implicit if its rule cannot be expressed directly in terms of the
independent variable symbolically we write such a function as f(x, y) = 0, f(x, y) = 0
e.g. x3 + y3 + 3xy = 0, xy + yx = ab etc.
ODD AND EVEN FUNCTION
Odd Function : A function f(x) is said to be an odd function if, f(–x) = – f(x) for all x.
The graph of odd function is symmetrical in opposite quadrants.
For Ex. x3, x5, sin3x
Functions and Relations [9]
Y Y
3
y=x
y=x
X X
o o
Even Function : A function f(x) is said to be an even of f(–x) = f(x) for all x. The graph is always
symmetrical about y-axis.
For Ex. |x|, x2, cosx, sin2x.
Y Y y=|x|
2
y=x
13
5º
45º
X X
o o
Properties of Odd and Even Functions :
(i) The product of two odd functions or two even functions is an even function.
(ii) The product of odd and even function is an odd function.
(iii) Every function y = f(x) can be expressed as the sum of an even and odd function.
(iv) The derivative of an odd function is an even function and derivative of even function is an odd function.
(v) A function which is even or odd, when squared becomes even function.
(vi) It is not necessary that every function is either even or odd, i.e. there are functions which are
neither even nor odd. For example 2x4 + x3, e–x etc.
(vii) For odd function f(–x) + f(x) = 0
(viii)For even function f(–x) – f(x) = 0
CONTINUOUS & DISCONTINUOUS FUNCTION
Continuous Function : A function is said to be continuous. If we are not required to lift the pen or pencil off the
paper while plotting the graph. i.e there is no gap or break or jump in the graph.
e.g. f(x) = x2, f(x) = sin x, f(x) = | x |, f(x) = cos x all continuous function.
Y Y
X o X
o
f(x) = sin x f(x) = x2
(continuous function) (continuous function)
Discontinuous function : A function is said to be discontinuous if there is a break or gap or jump in the graph of
the function at any point.
e.g. f(x) = 1/x, f(x) = tanx, f(x) = [x] are discontinuous functions.
Y
Y
X o X
o
f(x) = 1/x f(x) = tan x
(discontinuous function) (discontinuous function)
[10] Functions and Relations
INCREASING FUNCTION
A function f(x) is called increasing function in the domain D if the value of the function does not decreases by
increasing the value of x.
So x1 > x2 f(x1) f(x2) x1, x2 Domain
or x1 < x2 f(x1) f(x2) x1, x2 Domain
e.g. f(x) = ex, f(x) = ax, f(x) = x2, x 0, f(x) = x|x| are increasing functions.
The graph of these functions rises from left to right.
Y
Y
o X
(1, 0)
o X
f(x) = x|x|
A function is called strictly increasing if
If x1 > x2 f(x1) > f(x2)
or x1 < x2 f(x1) < f(x2) x1, x2 Domain
DECREASING FUNCTION
A function f(x) is said to be decreasing function in the domain D if the value of the function does not increase by
increasing the value of x (variable).
So if x1 > x2 f(x1) f(x2) x1, x2, D
or x1 < x2 f(x1) f(x2) x1, x2 D
e.g. f(x) = loga x(a < 1), f(x) = e–x are decreasing function. The graph of these functions is downward from left to
right.
Y
(1, 0)
o X
A function is called strictly decreasing if
If x1 > x2 f(x1) < f(x2)
Or x1 < x2 f(x1) > f(x2) x1, x2 D
Note : It is not essential for any function to be increasing or decreasing. There are some functions which are
neither increasing nor decreasing i.e. function is increasing in one part of given interval and decreasing in second
part.
e.g. f(x) = sin x, f(x) = |x|, f(x) = ex + e–x
PERIODIC FUNCTION
A fuction f(x) is periodic if there is a positive number T such that f(x + T) = f(x) for all x D.The smallest value
of such T is called the principal or fundamental period of function f(x).If we draw graph of a periodic function
f(x), we find graph gets repeated after each interval of length T.
Functions and Relations [11]
· Obviously, if T is the period of f(x), then f(x) = f (x + T) = f (x + 2T) = f (x + 3T) = ............
e.g. y = sin x is periodic with period 2 p as sin(x + 2p) = sin x. Graphically.
RULES FOR FINDING PERIOD OF A PERIODIC FUNCTION
(i) If f(x) is periodic with period T, then af(x) + b, where a,b R (a 0) is also a periodic function with
period T.
T
(ii) If f(x) is periodic with period T, then f(nx + b), is also periodic with period n .
(iii) If f(x) is periodic with T 1 as the period and g(x) is periodic with T 2 as the period and L.C.M. of T1 & T2 is
possible, then f(x) + g(x) is periodic with period equal to L.C.M. of T1 & T 2, provided f(x) and g(x) connot
be interchanged by adding a positive number in x which is less than L.C.M. of T1 & T2 in this case this
number becomes period of f(x) ± g(x).
1
(iv) If f(x) is periodic with period T, then is also periodic with same period T..
f(x)
(v) If f(x) is periodic with period T, f ( x ) is also periodic with same period T..
(vi) If f(x) is a periodic function with period T and g(x) is a strictly monotonic function. Then g(f((x)) will also be
periodic with period T.
(vii) Constant function is periodic with no-fundamental period.
VALUE OF THE FUCNTION
If y = f(x) is any function defined in R, then for any given value of x(say x = a), the value of the function f(x)
can be obtained by substituting x = a in it and it is denoted by f(a).
TYPE OF FUNCTION
One-one or injective Function : A function f : X Y is said to be one-one or injective if distinct elements of
X have distinct image in Y. Therefore for any two elements x1, x2 of a set X,
x1 x2 f(x1) f(x2)
or f(x1) = f(x2) x1 = x2 then function is one-one
f1 : f2 :
a u p w
b v q x
y
c w r
z
The above given diagram f1 & f2 shows one-one function.
Note :
(i) If function is given in the from of ordered pairs and if no two ordered pairs have same second element then
function is one-one.
(ii) If the graph of the function y = f(x) is given, and each line parallel to x-axis cuts the given curve at maximum
one point then function is one-one.
[12] Functions and Relations
y y
(0, 1)
(-b/a, 0)
x x
o y = ax + b f(x)= a
x
(0<a<1)
EXAMPLES OF ONE-ONE FUNCTIONS
(i) f : R R, f(x) = x, (ii) f : R R, f(x) = ex,
n
(iii) f : R R, f(x) = ax + b, n is odd positive integer (iv) f : R R, f(x) = x |x|
Note : Let f be a one-one function from a set A to the set B. Let O(A) = m and O(B) = n. If m > n no one-
one function can be defined from A to B. So, we have m n.
n
Total number of one-one functions from A to B = n(n – 1) ............ [n – (m – 1)] = Pm
Many-One Function : A function f : X Y is said to be many-one if there exists at least two distinct
elements in X whose images are same in Y.
Therefore f : X Y is many-one if
x1 x2 f(x1) = f(x2)
p a
a p q
b q r
c r s b
t
The above given arrow-diagrams show many one-function.
(i) If function is given in the form of set of ordered pairs and the second element of at least two ordered pairs
are same then function is many-one.
(ii) If the graph of y = f(x) is given and the line parallel to x-axis cuts the curve at more than one point then
function is many-one.
Y Y
o X o X
f(x)= x2 f(x)=|x|
Example of many-one function :
(i) f : R R, f(x) = C, where C is a constat (ii) f : R R, f(x) = x2
(iii) f : R R, f(x) = ax2 + b (iv) f : R R, f(x) = | x |
Methods to check trigonometrical function to be one-one many-one :
(i) If the domain of the function is in one quadrant then trigonometrical functions are always one-one.
(ii) If trigonometrical function changes its sign in two consecutive quadrants then it is one-one but if it does not
change the sign then it is many one.
Functions and Relations [13]
f : (0, ), f(x) = sin x many one
+ +
o X
/2
+
f : (0, ), f(x) = cos x one one
X
o /2 –
(iii) In three consecutive quadrants trigonometrical functions are always many one.
Remarks :
1. Some functions are one-one in every domain. The examples of such functions are as follows :
(i) axn + b, when n is odd. In particular 3x3 + 1, 2x + 1, x5 etc.
(ii) Identity function f(x) = x; conjugate function g ( z) z , Reciprocal function h(x) = 1/x.
(iii) Exponential functions ex, ax, 2x and logarithmic functions loga x, loge x.
(iv) Hyperbolic functions sinh x, tanh x, cosech x, coth x.
(v) x | x |.
2. Some functions are usually many-one functions. Examples are as follows :
(i) axn + b, where n is even and domain contains both positive and negative elements
For ex. x2, x4 – 1 etc.
(ii) Constant function f(x) = c
x|x|
(iii) Modulus function f(x) = | x |, g(x) = x + | x |, h(x) = x – | x |, ( x ) etc.
x
(iv) Greatest integer function [x].
(v) Trigonometric functions sin x, cos x, tan x, sec x, cosec x. Hyperbolic functions sech x, cosh x.
(vi) Even function x2, cos x etc.
3. If the graph of the given function can be easily constructed, then draw its graph. When a line parallel to x-
axis meet it in two or more than two points, then the function is many-one otherwise it is one-one. Obviously
even functions are usually one-one.
Y Y
1)
(0,
X' X X' X
O O
(1, 0)
Y' Y'
y=x+1 y = cos x
(One one) (Many one)
[14] Functions and Relations
19.3 Onto or Surjective Function : A function f : X Y is said to be onto or surjective if every element of Y
is the image of some element of X under the map f.
In other words. Range of f = Co-domain of f.
The following arrow-diagram shows onto function
a l a p
b m b q
n c
c r
d
Example of onto function :
(i) f : R R, f(x) = x, (ii) f : R R, f(x) = ax + b, a 0, b R
Note : Let f be an onto function from a set A to the set B. Let O(A) = m and O(B) = n, we suppose 1 n m.
n
The number of onto functions from A to B is ( 1) n r n
Cr r m .
r 1
19.4 Into function : A function f : X Y is into if there exist at least one element in Y which is not the f-image
of any element in X. Therefore, at least one element of Y such that f –1 (y) = then function is into. In other
words. Range of f co-domain of f.
The following arrow-diagram shows into function.
a l a l
b m b m
n n
c c o
Examples of into function :
(i) f : R R, f(x) = x2 (ii) f : R R, f(x) = | x |
(iii) f : R R, f(x) = c (c is constant) (iv) f : R R, f(x) = sin x
Note : For a function to be onto or into depends mainly on their co-domain.
20. Composite of Functions
Let f : X Y and g : Y Z be two functions, the composite of the function f and g denoted by gof, is
a function from X to Z given by
gof : X Z, (gof) (x) = g[f(x)].
Obviously gof is defined if
range of f domain of g.
Also domain of gof = f-primage of {Rf Dg}.
In particular when Rf = Dg, then Dgof = Df
Properties of Composite function :
The following properties of composite functions can easily be established.
(i) Composite of functions is not commutative i.e. fog gof
(ii) Composite of functions is associative i.e. (fog)oh = fo(goh)
Functions and Relations [15]
(iii) Composite of two bijection is also a bijection
INVERSE FUNCTION
If f : X Y be a one-one onto (bijection) function, then the mapping f–1 : Y X which associates each
element y Y with element x X, such that f(x) = y, is called the inverse function of the function f : X Y
f–1 : Y X, f–1 (y) = x f(x) = y
In terms of ordered pair inverse function is defined as-
f–1 = {(y, x) | (x, y) f}
Note : For the existence of inverse function, it should be one-one and onto.
Properties :
(i) Inverse of a bijection is also a bijection function.
(ii)Inverse of a bijection a unique.
(f–1)–1 = f
(iii)
(iv)If f and g are two bijections such that (gof) exists then
(gof)–1 = f–1og–1
(v) If f : X Y is a bijection then f –1 : Y X is an inverse function of f.
f–1of = Ix and fof–1 = Iy
Here Ix is an identity function on set X, and Iy, is an identity function on set Y.
RELATION
Let A and B be two non-empty sets. A relation from set A to set B is a subset of A × B.
Thus, if R is a relation from A to B then R A × B. Also, if (a, b) R, then we say that a is R-related to
b and denote this by aRb.
In particular, if B = A then the subsets of A × A are called relations from the set A to the set A or simply as
relations in the set A.
Illustrations (i). Let A = {1, 3, 5, 7}, B = {6, 8}. Let R be the relation ‘‘is less than’’ from A to B.
1R6, 1R8, 3R6, 3R8, 5R6, 5R8, 7R8.
Equivalently, R = {(1, 6), (1, 8), (3, 6), (3, 8), (5, 6), (5, 8), (7, 8)}.
(ii) Let A = {1, 2, 3, ......., 32}.
Let R be the relation ‘‘is one fourth of’’ in A.
1R4, 2R8, 3R12, 4R16, 5R20, 6R24, 7R28, 8R32
Equivalently, R = {(1, 4), (2, 8), (3, 12), (4, 16), (5, 20), (6, 24), (7, 28), (8, 32)}.
DOMAIN AND RANGE
If R is a relation from A to B, then the set of first elements of elements in R is called the domain of R and
the set of second elements of elements in R is called the range of R.
Symbolically,
Domain of R = {x : (x, y) R}; Range of R = {y : (x, y) R}.
Domain of R is a subset of A and range of R is a subset of B.
For example,
R = {(4, 7), (5, 8), (6, 10)} is relation from A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} to the set B = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10}.
Domain of R = {4, 5, 6}. This is a subset of A..
Range of R = {7, 8, 10}. This is a subset of B.
[16] Functions and Relations
NUMBER OF RELATIONS
Let A and B be two non-empty finite sets consisting of m and n elements respectively.
A × B contains mn ordered pairs.
mn
Total number of subsets of A × B is 2 .
Since each relation from A to B is a subset of A × B, then total number of relations from A to B is 2mn.
TYPES OF RELATIONS
(i) A relation R in a set A is called the universal relation in A if R = A × A.
For example, if A = {2, 6}, then the universal relation in A is the set {(2, 2), (2, 6), (6, 2) (6, 6)}.
(ii) A relation R in a set A is called the identity relation in A if R = {(a, a); a A}.
For example, if A = {a, b, c}, then the identity relation in A is the set {(a, a), (b, b), (c, c)}.
(iii) A relation R in a set A is called a void relation in A if R =
For example, if A = {1, 2, 3} and let R be the relation defined by aRb iff a – b = 2 . The relation
R = A × A is void relation.
(iv) A relation R in a set A is called a reflexive relation if (a, a) R a A. i.e., aRa a A
For example, if A = {2, 4, 7}, then the relation {(2, 2), (2, 4), (4, 4), (7, 7)} is reflexive.
(v) A relation R in a set A is called a symmetric relation if (a, b) R then (b, a) R, i.e., aRb implies bRa.
For example, if A = {2, 4, 7}, then the relation {(2, 4), (4, 2), (7, 7)} is symmetric.
(vi) A relation R in a set A is called a transitive relation if (a, b), (b, c) R then (a, c) R, i.e., aRb, bRc
implies aRc.
For example, if A = {2, 4, 7}, then the relation {(2, 4), (4, 7), (2, 7), (4, 4)} is transitive.
(vii) A relation R in a set A is called an equivalence relation if R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
For an equivalence relation R in A, we have
(i) aRa a A (ii) aRb bRa (iii) aRb and bRc aRc
For example, if A = {1, 3, 4, 7}, then the relation {(1, 1), (1, 3), (3, 1), (3, 3) , (4, 4), (7, 7),(4, 7) (7,4)}
is an equivalence relation.
(viii) A relation R in a set A is called an anti-symmetric relation if (a, b), (b, a) R then a = b.
(ix) If R is a relation from A to B, then the inverse relation of R is a relation from B to A and is defined as
{(y, x) : (x, y) R}. The inverse relation of R is denoted by R–1.
For example, if R = {(1, 4), (9, 15), (10, 2)} is a relation in A, then R–1 = {(4, 1), (15, 9), (2, 10)} is the
inverse relation of R.
(x) Let R and S be two relations from the sets A to B and B to C respectively, we define a relation SoR from A
to C as follows :
(a, c) SoR iff (a, b) R and (b, c) S for some b B. This relation SoR is called the
composition of the relation R and S.
For example, let A = {2, 3, 4}, B = {1, 5, 7}, C = {1, 3, 6, 8}.
Let R = {(2, 1), (2, 5), (3, 5), (4, 1), (4, 7)} be a relation from A to B.
Let S = {(1, 3), (5, 3), (5, 6), (7, 6), (7, 8)} be a relation from B to C.
SoR = {(2, 3), (5, 3), (3, 3), (4, 3), (4, 6), (4, 8)} is a relation from A to C.
Note : (4, 6), (4, 8) SoR because (4, 7) R and (7, 6), (7, 8) S.
Functions and Relations [17]
IMPORTANT TIPS :
1. Total number of relations from set A to set B is equal to 2n(A) n (B).
2. The universal relation on a non-empty set is always reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
3. The identity relation on a non-empty set is always reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
4. The identity relation on a non-empty set is always anti-symmetric.
5. If R is a relation from A to B and S is a relation from B to C then (RoS)–1 = S–1oR–1.
6. For two relations R and S, the composite relations RoS, SoR may be void relations.
INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS
INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
If sin = x is a trigonometrical equation, then the value of which satisfies this equation is denoted by sin–1 x
and it is read as ‘sine inverse x’. It is called inverse function of sine. Similarly inverse functions of other
trigonometrical functions are defined. Hence inverse functions of trigonometrical functions are defined as follows-
sin–1 x = sin = x
cos–1 x = cos = x
–1
tan x = tan = x
–1
cot x = cot = x
sec–1 x = sec = x
–1
cosec x = cosec = x
DOMAIN AND RANGE OF INVERSE FUNCTIONS
As we know that in direct trigonometric functions, we are given the angle and we calculate the trigonometric ratio
(sine, cosine, etc.) or the value at that angle. Also to many values of the angle the value of trigonometric ratio is
5 9
same e.g., tan = 1 for , , , etc. Inverse trigonometry deals with obtaining the angles, given the value
4 4 4
of a trigonometric ratio. In inverse trigonometry some restrictions have been imposed on the angles, and these are
based on the principle values of the angles.
The inverse of sine function is defined as sin–1x = or arc sin x = , where 1 x 1 and e.g.,
2 2
1 5 13 1 1
3
sin1 and nothing else, although sin , sin etc. are also equal to , sin 2 3 only. Note that
2 6 6 6 2
1 1 1
sin1 x Q sin x
sin x sin x
We list below the difinitions of all inverse trigonometric functions with their respective domains and ranges.
Function Domain Range
y = f(x) (permitted value of x) (permitted value of y)
(i) y = sin–1x [–1, 1] 2 , 2
(ii) y = cos–1x [–1, 1] 0,
(iii) y = tan–1 x , ,
2 2
(iv) y = cot–1 x , 0, )
(v) y = sec–1 x , 1 1, 0, 2 2 ,
(vi) y = cosec–1 x , 1 1, 2 ,0 0, 2
[1]
[2] Inverse Trigonometric Function
1 2 5
e.g., cos–1 ; tan–1 (–1) = – ; cosec–1 (2) = ; sec–1(–1) = ; cot–1 (– 3 ) = , etc.
2 3 4 6 6
PROPERTIES OF INVERSE FUNCTIONS
(i) sin(sin–1x) = x 1 x 1
–1
cos(cos x) = x 1 x 1
–1
tan(tan x) = x x
cot(cot–1x) = x x
sec(sec–1x) = x x 1 or x 1
–1
cosec(cosec x) = x x 1 or x 1
(ii) sin–1(sin ) = only if
2 2
cos–1(cos ) = only if 0
tan–1(tan ) = only if – < <
2 2
cot–1(cot ) = only if 0
sec–1(sec ) = only if 0 or
2 2
cosec–1(cosec ) = only if 0 or 0
2 2
5 5
e.g., tan–1 tan 6 6
5 1
tan–1 tan 6 = tan–1 =–
3 6
(iii) sin–1(–x) = –sin–1x 1 x 1
–1 –1
cos (–x) = – cos x 1 x 1
tan–1(–x) = – tan–1x x
cot–1(–x) = – cot–1x x
1
(iv) sin–1 x = cosec–1 x 1 x 0 or 0 x 1
1
cos–1 x = sec–1 x 1 x 0 or 0 x 1
1
tan–1 x = cot–1 x only if x>0
because range of these two functions are different.
1 1 1
If x < 0, tan x cot
x
(v) sin–1 x + cos–1x = 1 x 1
2
Inverse Trigonometric Function [3]
tan–1 x + cot–1x = x
2
sec–1 x + cosec–1x = x 1 or x 1
2
SUM AND DIFFERENCE FORMULAE
(i) sin–1 x + sin–1y = sin–1 (x 1 y 2 + y 1 x 2 ) if xy 0 or x2 y 2 1
sin 1 x 1 y 2 y 1 x 2 , if x 0, y 0, x 2 y 2 1
= sin 1 x 1 y 2 y 1 x 2 , if x 0, y 0 and x 2 y 2 1
sin–1 x – sin–1y = sin–1 (x 1 y 2 – y 1 x2 ) if xy 0 and x 2 y 2 1
(ii) cos–1 x + cos–1y = cos–1 (xy– 1 x 2 1 y 2 ), if x + y ³ 0
= 2 – cos–1 (xy – 1 x 2 1 y 2 ), if x + y < 0
1 2 2
–1
cos xy 1 x 1 y ,
–1
if x 0, y 0, x y
(iii) cos x – cos y =
cos 1 xy 1 x 2 1 y 2 , if x 0, y 0 x y
xy
(iv) tan–1x + tan–1y = tan–1 1 xy if x, y > 0 and xy < 1
xy
= + tan–1 1 xy if x, y > 0 and xy > 1
xy
tan–1 x – tan–1 y = tan–1 1 xy if x, y > 0
x y z xyz
(v) tan–1x + tan–1y + tan–1z = tan–1 1 xy yz zx
SOME IMPORTANT RESULTS
(vi) 2sin–1 x = sin–1 2x 1 x 2
(vii) 2 cos–1 x = cos–1 (2x2 – 1)
2x 2x 1 x2
(viii) 2 tan–1 x = tan–1 sin 1 cos 1
1 x2 1 x2 1 x2
(ix) 3 sin–1 x = sin–1 (3x – 4x3)
(x) 3 cos–1 x = cos–1 (4x3 – 3x)
3x x 3
(xi) 3 tan–1 x = tan–1
1 3x 2
[4] Inverse Trigonometric Function
MISCELLENEOUS RESULTS
x x
(i) tan 1 sin 1
a 2 x 2 a
3a 2 x x 3 x
(ii) tan 1 2 2
3 tan 1
a(a 3 x ) a
1 x2 1 x2 1
1 cos 1 x 2
(iii) tan 2 2 4 2
1 x 1 x
x 1 x2 1
cos ec 1 1
(iv) sin–1(x) = cos–1
1 x 2 tan1
2
1 x
cot
1
x
sec 1
1 x
2
x
2
–1 –1 1 x 2 tan 1 1 x cot 1 x sec 1 1 cos ec 1 1
(v) cos x = sin
x 2 x 2
1 x 1 x
x 1 1 1
1 x2
–1
(vi) tan x = sin –1 2
1 x
1
cos 2
1 x
cot sec
x
1
1 x 2 cos ec 1
x
GRAPHS
1 LM OP
(1) y = sin x,| x| 1, y
N ,
2 2 Q
(2) y = cos1 x,| x| 1, y 0,
FG IJ
H K
1
(3) y = tan x, x R , y ,
2 2
Inverse Trigonometric Function [5]
b g
(4) y = cot 1 x, x R , y 0,
LM IJ UFG , OP
N 2K H 2 Q
1
(5) y = sec x.| x| 1. y 0,
LM IJ FG OP
K H Q
, 0 U 0,
1
(6) y = cos ec x, | x| 1, y
N 2 2
(i) y sin 1 (sin x) x, x R, y , , y is periodic with period 2
2 2
(ii) y = sin(sin-1 x) = x, x [ 1, 1] , y [ 1, 1]
[6] Inverse Trigonometric Function
(i) y = cos-1(cos x) = x, x R , y [0, ] , y is periodic with period 2
(ii) y = cos(cos-1 x) = x, x [ 1, 1] , y [ 1, 1]
4.3 (i) y = tan-1(tan x) = x, x R (2n 1) n I , y , , y is periodic with period
2 2 2
(ii) y = tan(tan-1 x) = x, x R, y R
(i) l q b g
y = cot-1(cot x) = x , x R n , y 0, , periodic with
Inverse Trigonometric Function [7]
(ii) y = cot(cot-1 x) = x , x R , y R
(i) y = cosec-1(cosec x) = x, x R n, n I , y , 0 0, , y is periodic with period 2
2 2
(ii) y = cosec(cosec-1 x) = x, | x | 1, | y | 1
RS UV LM IJ FG
OP
(i) y = sec-1(sec x) = x, x R ( 2 n 1)
T 2 W
n I , y 0,
N K H
2
U , , y is periodic with period 2
2 Q
(ii) y = sec(sec-1 x) = x, | x| 1; | y| 1
Limits
1. DEFINITION
The real number ‘ l ’ is called the limit of a function f(x) as ‘x’ tends to ‘a’ if for any 0 and howsoever
small there exists a real number d such that.
0 < |x – a| < |f(x) – l | <
and then we write, lim f x = l
x a
2. INDETERMINATE FORMS
The concept of limit was evolved to deal with indeterminate forms of some functions at some specific
x2 4
points. For example the function f(x) = is ready to give its values at x = 0 , –1, 1, 3, 2 ..... etc.
x2
Q f(0) = 2, f(–1) = 1, f(1) = 3, f ( 2 ) = (2 + 2 ).......etc.} but it fails to give its value at x = 2,
22 4 0
as f (2) = (known as an indeterminate form)
22 0
0
(Note, that is capable of assuming any value, that is why it is called ‘indeterminate’), So in this case we
0
find the limit, as follows.
x2 4 (x 2) (x 2)
lim f ( x ) lim = lim = lim
x 2
(x + 2) = 4 ....(1)
x 2 x 2 x2 x2 x2
Following indeterminate forms are in our course, namely
0
(i) (ii) (iii) 0 (iv) (v) 1 (vi) 0 (vii) 0 0
0
3. EVALUATION OF LEFT HAND LIMIT (LHL) AND RIGHT HAND LIMIT (RHL)
When 'x' approaches to 'a' i.e. when x a then this variable 'x' on R–line can do this job in two ways one
form the left hand side i.e. from negative side of the fixed point ‘a’ and second form the right hand side (i.e.
from positive side) of ‘a’ as shown in the figure below
- (Left hand side) x x (Right hand side) +
a R-line
lim f ( x ) or by lim f(x) and similarly RHL by lim f ( x ) or by lim f ( x ) and are
LHL is denoted by x a 0 x a
x a0 x a
determined as (i.e., working rule is)
LHL = xlim f(x) = lim f a - h and RHL lim f ( x) lim f (a h) ; where h > 0
a
h 0 x a h 0
EXISTENCE OF LIMIT :
The limit of a function at a point exists if both left and right limits of the function at that point exist and are
equal. Thus xlim f x exists lim f x = lim f x
a xa- x a +
Note :– (i) Limit of a function at a point (if exists) is unique.
[1]
[2] Limits
(ii) If at some point of a continuous function its value and limit both exist, then they are
necessarily equal.
4. PROPERTIES OF LIMITS
f
· Let f and g be two real functions with domain D. We define four new functions f g ,fg , , g ¹ 0 on domain
g
(D) by setting
· f g x f x g x f g x f x g x
f f x
x ,
· g x if
g x 0 for any x D .
g
Following are some results concerning the limits of these functions.
Let lim f x = l and limg x = m . If l and m exist.
x a x a
(i) Sum and Difference Rule lim f g x lim f x lim g x l m
x a x a x a
(ii) Product Rule lim fg x lim f x lim g x lm
x a x a x a
f lim f x l
(iii) Quotient Rule lim x x a , provided
x a g
lim g x m m0
x a
(iv) Constant Multiple Rule limKf x K.lim f x , where K is constant
x a x a
(v) Modules Rule lim f x lim f x l
x a x a
g x lim g( x )
(vi) Power Rule lim f x { lim f ( x )} x a
x a x a
(vii) Composite Function Rule x a
lim fog x f lim g x f m
x a
In particular
(a) x a
lim log f x log lim f x log l
x a
lim f x
e e el
f x
(b) lim
x a
xa
(c) If lim f x or , then lim 1 0
x a x a f x
5. SOME STANDARD LIMITS
So from above Results
sin x lim cos x 1
(a) lim 1 (b) x 0
x 0 x
tan x ex 1
(c) lim 1 (d) lim 1
x 0 x x 0 x
ax 1 ln 1 x
(e) lim lna, a 0 (f) lim 1
x 0 x x 0 x
Limits [3]
x
1/ x 1
(g) lim 1 x e (h) lim 1 e
x 0 x x
x m am xm am m m n
(i) lim mam1 (j) lim a
x a x a x a x n an n
6. METHODS OF EVALUATION OF LIMITS
(i) Substitution method (ii) Factorization method
(iii) Rationalization or double rationalization (iv) Expansion Method
(v) When x (vi) Simplification
(vii) L’Hospitals Rule (viii) Sandwich Theorem
(ix) Evaluation of a limits of the form 0 × , – , 0° , °
(x) Evaluation of a limits of the form 1
(i) Substitution method : In some cases limit of a function can be found by simple substitution if on substitution
the function does not take indeterminate form.
(ii) Factorization method : If f(x) and g(x) are polynomials and g a 0 , then we have
f x lim f x f a
x a
lim
x a g x lim g x g a
x a
(iii) Rationalization or double rationalization
(iv) Expansion Method : Using expansion of functions
If x 0 and there is atleast one function in the given expression which can be expanded, then we express
Nr and Dr in the ascending powers of x and remove the common factor there.
The following expansions of some standard functions should be remembered:
(v) When x
This type of problems are solved by the taking the highest power of the terms tending to infinity as
common in numerator and denominator then take the limit of the function.
(vi) Simplification:
In this method the indeterminate form is removed by simplifying the expression.
(vii) L’Hospital’s Rule:
f x 0
(a) L’Hospital’s Rule is applicable only when g x becomes of the form is or .
0
0 0
(b) If the form is not or , simplify the given expression till it reduces to the form or and then use
0 0
L’Hospital’s rule.
(c) For applying L’Hospital’s rule differentiate the numerator and denominator separately.
If f a 0 g a or f a g a then according to this rule
f x 0
= lim
x a g x 0
or
PERMUTATIONS & COMBINATIONS
1. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF COUNTING
Multiplication Principle : If an operation can be performed in ‘m’ different ways; following which a second
operation can be performed in ‘n’ different ways, then the two operations in succession can be performed in
m × n ways. This can be extended to any finite number of operations.
Addition Principle : If an operation can be performed in ‘m’ different ways and another operation, which is
independent of the first operation, can be performed in ‘n’ different ways. Then either of the two operations can
be performed in (m + n) ways. This can be extended to any finite number of mutually exlusive operations.
2. FACTORIALS
If n is a natural number then the product of all natural numbers upto n is called factorial n and it is denoted by
n ! or n .
3. PERMUTATION
Each of the different arrangements which can be made by taking some or all of a number of given things is called
a permutation.
4. COUNTING FORMULAE FOR PERMUTATIONS
(I) Without Repetition :
(i) The number of permutations of n different things, taking r at a time is denoted by nPr or P(n, r)
(ii) The number of arrangements of n different objects taken all at a time is nPn = n !
(II) With Repetition :
(i) The number of permutations of n things taken all at a time when p are alike of one kind, q are alike of
second kind and r are alike of a third kind and the rest n – (p + q + r) are all different is
n!
p! q! r!
(ii) The number of permutations of n different things taken r at a time when each thing may be repeated
any number of times is nr.
(III) Number of permutations under certain conditions :
The number of permutation of n different things taken all together when r particular things are to be
placed at some r given places
= n–rPn–r = n r
The number of permutations of n different things taken r at a time when m particular things are to be
placed at m given places = n–mPr–m. (m < r)
Number of permutations of n different things, taken r at a time, when a particular thing is to be always
included in each arrangement, is.
r . n – 1P r – 1
Number of permutation of n different things, taken r at a time, when a particular thing is never taken in
n–1
each arrangement is Pr
Number of permutations of n different things, taken all at a time, when m specified things always come
together is m ! × (n – m + 1)!
[1]
[2] Permutations and Combinations
Number of permutations of n different things, taken all at a time, when m specified things never come
together is n ! – ( m ! × (n – m + 1) !)
(IV) Circular Permutations :
(i) Arrangement around a circular table :
The number of circular permutations of n different things taken all at a time is (n – 1) !, if clockwise and
anticlockwise orders are taken as different.
(ii) Arrangement of beads or flowers (all different) around a circular necklace or garland :
1
The number of circular permutations of n different things taken all at a time is (n –1) !, if clockwise
2
and anticlockwise orders are taken as not different.
(iii) Number of circular permutations of n different things taken r at a time :
Case I : If clockwise and anticlockwise orders are taken as different, then the required number
of circular permutations = (nPr)/r.
Case II : If clockwise and anticlockwise n
orders are taken as not different, then the required
number of circular permutations = ( Pr)/(2r).
(iv) Restricted Circular Permutations
When there is a restriction in a circular permutation then first of all we shall perform the restricted part
of the operation and then perform the remaining part treating it similar to a linear permutation.
5. COMBINATION
Each of the different groups or selections which can be made by some or all of a number of given things without
reference to the order of the things in each group is called a combination.
6. COUNTING FORMULAE FOR COMBINATION
(I) Selections of objects without repetition
n
The number of combinations of n differnt things taken r at a time is denoted by nCr or C (n, r) or
r
(II) Selections of objects with repetition :
The total number of selections of r things from n differents things when each thing may be repeated any
number of times is n + r–1Cr
(III) Restricted Selections / Arrangements :
(i) The number of combinations of n different things taken r at a time,
n–k
when k particular objects occur is Cr – k.
n–k
If k particular objects never occur is Cr.
(ii) The number of arrangements of n distinct objects taken r at a time so that k particular object are
n–k
always included = Cr–k . r !
n–k
never included = Cr .r !
(iii) The number of combinations of n objects, of which p are indentical, taken r at a time is
n–p
Cr + n–pCr–1 + n–pCr–2 + ......... + n–pC0 if r < p.
n–p
Cr + n–pCr–1 + n–pCr–2 + ......... + n–pCr–p if r > p.
(IV) Selections from distinct objects :
The number of ways of selecting one or more out of n different things
n
C1 + nC2 + nC3 +......+ nCn = 2n – 1.
The number of ways of selecting zero or more out of n different things
n
C0 + nC1 + nC2 + nC3 +......+ nCn = 2n .
Permutations and Combinations [3]
(V) Selections from identical objects
The number of combination of n identical things taking r(r < n) at a time is 1.
The number of ways of selecting r things out of n alike things is n + 1 (where r = 0, 1, 2, ....., n).
The number of ways in which a selection of atleast one thing can be made from (p+q) things of which
p all are alike and q all are alike = (p +1) (q+1)–1
The number of ways to select some or all out of (p + q + r) things where p are alike of first kind, q are
alike of second kind and r are alike of third kind is
= (p + 1) (q + 1) (r + 1) – 1
(VI) Selection when both identical and distinct objects are present :
If out of (p + q + r + t) things, p are alike of one kind, q are alike of second kind, r are alike of third kind and
t are different, then the total number of combinations is
(p + 1) (q + 1) (r + 1) 2t – 1
7. DIVISION AND DISTRIBUTION OF OBJECTS
The number of ways in which (m + n) different things can be divided into two groups which contain m and
n things respectively is
m n (m n)!
Cm n Cn , mn
m! n!
Particular cases :
When m = n, then total number of combination is
( 2m) !
(m ! )2
when order of groups is considered.
( 2m) !
2 ! (m ! ) 2
when order of groups is not considered.
The number of ways in which (m + n + p) different things can be divided into three groups which
contain m, n and p things respectively is
mnp np (m n p)!
Cm . Cn . p Cp , mnp
m! n ! p !
Suppose mn distinct objects are to be divided into m groups, each containing n objects and the order of
mn !
groups is not important, then the number of ways of doing this is given by m! n! m
mn !
If, lower, the order of groups is important then the number of ways is given by m
n!
Particular cases :
When m = n = p, then total number of combination is
(3m) !
(m !)3
when order of groups is considered.
(3m) !
3 ! (m !)3
when order of groups is not considered.
Total number of ways to divide n identical things among r persons when there is no restriction is
n + r–1
Cr–1
Total number of ways to divide n identical things among r persons so that each gets atleast one is
n–1
Cr–1
[4] Permutations and Combinations
8. DEARRANGEMENT THEOREM
Any change in the given order of the thing is called a Dearrangement.
(i) If n items are arranged in a row, then the number of ways in which they can be rearranged so that no one of
them occupies the place assigned to it is
1 1 1 1 1
n! 1 .... (1)n
1! 2! 3! 4 ! n!
(ii) If n things are arranged at n places then the number of ways to rearrange such that exactly r things are at
right places is
n! 1 1 1 1 n r 1
1 .... (1)
r ! 1! 2! 3 ! 4! (n r ) !
9. SUM OF NUMBERS
(i) For given n different digits a1, a2, a3 ......., an the sum of the digits in the unit place of all numbers fromed (if
numbers are not repeated) is
(a1 + a2 + a3 + ...... + an) (n – 1)!
i.e. (sum of the digits) (n – 1) !
(ii) Sum of the total numbers which can be formed with given n different digits a1, a2, a3 ....... an is
(a1 + a2 + a3 + ..... + an) (n – 1) ! . (111 ......... n times) (If nos. are not repeated)
10. IMPORTANT RESULTS ABOUT POINTS
If there are n points in a plane of which m(< n) are collinear, then
n m
Total number of different straight lines obtained by joining these n points is C2 – C2 + 1
n m
Total number of different triangles formed by joining these n points is C3 – C3
n(n 3)
Number of diagonals in polygon of n sides is nC2 – n i.e.
2
If m parallel lines in a plane are intersected by a family of other n parallel lines, then total number of
parallelograms so formed is mC2 × nC2 .
11. SOLUTION OF EQUATION
x1 x 2 x 3 ... x r n
The number of non-negative integral solutions of
x1 x 2 x 3 ... x r n ...(1)
= the number of ways of distributing n identical objects among r groups n r 1 Cr 1
The number of positive integral solutions of equation (1)
n r Cr 1
12. EXPONENT OF PRIME p IN n!
Exponent of a prime p in n! is denoted by Ep (n!) and is given by
n n n n
E p n! 2 3 .... k
p p p p
where pk n p k 1 and [.] denotes the greatest integer function.
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS &
EXPRESSIONS
1. QUADRATIC EQUATION
An equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 (where a 0, and a,b,c C), is called a quadratic equation. Here a, b and c are
called coefficients of the equation. This equation always has two roots. Let the roots be and .
b c
Then = (sum of the roots) = (product of the roots)
a a
The quantity D = b2 – 4ac is called discriminant of the equation.
b D
Roots of the equation are given by x =
2a
2. NATURE OF ROOTS
(i) If D > 0, roots of the equation are real and distinct.
(ii) If D = 0, roots of the equation are real and equal.
(iii) If D < 0, roots of the equation are imaginary.
(iv) If D is square of a rational number, roots of the equation are rational. (Provided a, b and c
are rational numbers)
(v) If D >0 and D is not a perfect square, then roots are irrational
3. FORMATION OF AN EQUATION WITH GIVEN ROOTS
A quadratic equation whose roots are and is given by
x x 0
x 2 x x 0
x 2 x 0
i.e., x 2 (Sum of roots)x + Product of roots = 0
TRANSFORMATION OF AN EQAUTION
If , are roots of the equation ax 2 bx c 0 , then the equation whose roots are
1 1 1
(i) , is cx 2 bx a 0 (Replace x by )
x
(ii) , is ax 2 bx c 0 (Replace x by x )
2
(iii) k , k is a x k b x k c 0 {Replace x by x k }
2
(iv) n , n (n N) is a x1/ n b x1/ n c 0 (Replace x by x1/ n )
[1]
[2] Quadratic Equations & Expressions
2
(v) 1/ n , 1/ n (n N) is a x n b x n c 0 (Replace x by x n )
x
(vi) k, k is ax 2 kbx k 2 c 0 (Replace x by )
k
(vii) , is k 2 ax 2 kbx c 0 (Replace x by kx)
k k
5. ROOTS IN SPECIAL CASES
ax2 bx c a ( x )( x ) (If and are roots of the equation)
2
If b 4ac > 0 Then
a > 0, b > 0, c > 0 < 0, > 0 Both roots are negative
a > 0, b > 0 , c < 0 < 0, < 0 Roots are opposite in sign. Magnitude of negative
root is more than the magnitude of positive root.
a > 0, b < 0, c > 0 > 0, > 0 Both roots are positive
a > 0, b < 0, c < 0 > 0, < 0 Roots are opposite in sign.Magnitude of positive
root is more than the magnitude of negative root.
6. CONDITION FOR COMMON ROOT(S)
(i) Let ax 2 bx c 0 and dx 2 ex f 0 have a common root (say). Then a 2 b c 0 and
d 2 e f 0 . Then
2
dc af bf ce ae bd
which is the required condition for the two equations to have a common root.
a b c
(ii) Condition for both the roots to be common is
d e f
8. GREATEST AND LEAST VALUES OF QUADRATIC EXPRESSION
4ac b 2 b
(i) If a 0 , then the quadratic expression ax 2 bx c has least value at x
4a 2a
2
4ac b b
(ii) If a 0 , then the quadratic expression ax 2 bx c has greatest value at x
4a 2a
10. LOCATION OF ROOTS (INTERVAL IN WHICH ROOTS LIE)
In some problems we want the roots and of the equation ax 2 bx c 0 to lie in a given interval. For this we
impose conditions on a, b and c. Since a 0 , we can take f x ax 2 bx c .
(i) A given number k will lie between the roots if f k 0 , D > 0.
Quadratic Equations & Expressions [3]
(where < )
k
x' x
f(k)
In particular, the roots of the equation will be of opposite signs if 0 lies between the roots f 0 0 .
(ii) Both the roots are greater than given number k if the following three conditions are satisfied
b
D 0, k and f k 0
2a
a>0
(where)
f(k) –b/2a
x' k x
(iii) Both the roots will be less than a given number k if the following conditions are satisfied:
a>0 (where )
b
D 0, k and f k 0 f(k)
2a –b/2a
x'
k x
(iv) Both the roots will lie in the given interval k1 ,k 2 if the following conditions are satisfied:
b
D 0, k1 k 2 and f k1 0, f k 2 0
2a
(where & k1 < k2)
f(k1) –b/2a f(k2)
x' k1 k2 x
(v) Exactly one of the root lies in the given interval k1 ,k 2 if f k1 .f k 2 0
D>0 D>0
f(k2)
f(k1) k2 k1
x' k1 x x' k2 x
f(k2) f(k1)
f(k1) > 0 & f(k2) < 0 f(k1) < 0 & f(k2) > 0
11. THEORY OF EQUATIONS
(i) If p x anxn + an-1xn-1 + ... + a0 ,(a0, ........,an R and an 0) then p(x) = 0 has n roots. (real /complex)
(ii) A polynomial equation in x of odd degree has at least one real root ( it has odd no. of real roots).
(iii) If x1,.....,xn are the roots of p(x) = 0, then p(x) can be written in the form p(x) an(x – x1)...(x – xn).
(iv) If is a root of p(x) = 0, then (x – ) is a factor of p(x) and vice - versa.
[4] Quadratic Equations & Expressions
(v) If x1,....,xn are the roots of p(x) anxn + ... + a0 = 0, an= 0.
n a n 1 a ao
Then xi , x i x j n2 , x1 x2...xn = (–1)n .
i 1 an 1 i j n an an
(vi) If equation f (x) = anxn + an–1xn–1 + ... + a1x + a0 = 0 has more than n distinct roots then f(x) is
identically zero.
(vii) If p(a) and p(b) (a < b) are of opposite signs, then p(x) = 0 has odd number of real roots in (a, b), i.e.
it has at least one real root in (a, b) and if p(a) and p(b) are of same sign then p(x) = 0 has even number
of real roots in (a, b).
(ix) If coefficients of p(x) (polynomial in x written in descending order) have ‘m’ changes in signs, then
polynomial equation of nth degree p(x) = 0 have at the most ‘m’ positive real roots and if p(– x) have ‘t’
changes in sign, then p(x) = 0 have at most ‘t’ negative real roots. By this we can find maximum
number of real roots.
No. of complex roots = n – (m + t) where m + t < n.
(x) Imaginary roots of a quadratic equation always occur in conjugate pair.
(xi) Irrational roots of a quadratic equation always occur in conjugate pair.
12. QUADRATIC EXPRESSION IN TWO VARIABLE
The general form of a quadratic expression in two variables x, y is
ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c
The condition that this expression may be resolved into two linear rational factors is
abc 2fgh af 2 bg2 ch2 0
or
a h g
h b f 0
g f c
(i) If roots of quadratic equations a1 x 2 b1x c1 0 and a 2 x 2 b2 x c2 0 are in the same ratio
1 2 b12 a 1c1
i.e.
1 2 then b 22 a 2 c 2
2
(ii) 2
If one root is k times the other root of quadratic equation a1 x b1x c1 0 then
k 1
b2
k ac
STRAIGHT LINES
1. EQUATION OF STRAIGHT LINE
Every linear equation in two variable x and y always represents a straight line eg. 3x + 4y = 5
General form of straight line is given by ax + by + c = 0
(1) Equation of x-axis : y = 0
(2) Equation a line parallel to x axis at a distance ‘a’ from it is y = a
(3) Equation of y-axis : x = 0
(4) Equation of a line parallel to y axis at a distance ‘a’ from it is x = a
2. SLOPE
The slope of a line is equal to the tangent of the angle which it makes with the positive side of x-axis and it is
generally denoted by m.
Thus if a line makes an angle with x-axis then its slope = m = tanθ
y y
o ) x
x
o
y 2 y1
The slope of a line joining two points (x1, y1) and (x2 , y2) is given by m = x x
2 1
a
The slope of a line ax + by + c = 0 is
b
Note :
(i) Slope of x axis or a line parallel to x axis is tan 0° = 0
(ii) Slope of y axis or a line parallel to y axis is tan 90° =
3. DIFFERENT FORMS OF THE EQUATION OF STRAIGHT LINE
3.1 Slope intercept form :- y = m x + c
Where ‘m’ is the slope of the line and ‘c’ is the length of the intercept made by it on y axis
3.2 Point Slope form : The equation of a line with slope m and passing through a point (x1,y1) is y– y1= m (x – x1)
3.3 Two point form : The equation of a line passing through two given points ( x1 , y1) and (x2 , y2) is
y 2 y1
y – y1 = x x1
x 2 x1
3.4 Intercept form : The equation of straight line which cuts off intercepts a and b on the axes of x and y respectively
x b
is 1
a b
3.5 Normal (Perpendicular) form of a line
x cos + y sin = p is the equation of a straight line on which the length of the perpendicular from the origin
is p and is the inclination of the perpendicular with positive direction of x-axis.
[1]
[2] Straight lines
3.6 Parametric form
x x1 y y1
= =r
cosθ sinθ
Is the equation of a straight line passing through a given point A (x1 , y1) and makes an angle with x axis. The
coordinates (x , y) of any point P on this line are (x1 + r cos , y1 + r sin ) . The distance of this point P from the
2 2
given point A is x1 + rcosθ x1 + y1 + rsinθ y1 =r
4. REDUCTION OF GENERAL FORM OF EQUATION INTO STANDARD FORM
General form of equation is ax + by +c = 0 then its
4.1 Slope intercept form is
ax c a c
y= , here slope m = , intercept =
b b b b
4.2 Intercept form is
x y c c
+ = 1 , here x intercept is = , y intercept is = b
c/a c/b a
4.3 Normal form is : To change the general form of a line into normal form, first take c to right hand side and make
it positive, then divide the whole equation by a 2 + b 2 like
ax by c a
= (c > 0) , here cos =
2 2 2 2
a +b a +b a + b2
2
a + b2
2
b c
sinα = and p =
2 2
a +b a + b2
2
5. POSITION OF A POINT RELATIVE TO A LINE
(i) The point (x1 , y1) lies on the line ax + by + c =0 if, ax1 + by1 + c = 0
(ii) If P (x1, y1) and Q (x2 , y2) do not lie on the line ax + by +c = 0 then they are on the same side of the
line, if ax1 + by1 + c and ax2 + by2 + c are of the same sign. They lie on the opposite side of line if
ax1 + by1 + c and ax2 + by2 + c are of the opposite sign.
6. ANGLE BETWEEN TWO LINES
The angle between two lines whose slopes are m1 and m2 is given by
m1 m 2
tan = 1 + m m (i) If the lines are parallel, then m1 = m2
1 2
(ii) If the lines are perpendicular, then m1 m2 = –1
7. EQUATION OF PARALLEL & PERPENDICULAR LINES
(i) Equation of a line which is parallel to ax + by + c = 0 is ax + by + k = 0
(ii) Equation of a line which is perpendicular to ax + by + c = 0 is bx – ay + k = 0
8. EQUATION OF A LINE MAKING A GIVEN ANGLE WITH ANOTHER LINE
The equation of a line passing through (x1, y1) and making an angle a with the line y = mx + c is given by
9. DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL LINES
c1 c 2
The distance between two parallel lines ax + by + c1 = 0 and ax + by + c2 = 0 is d =
a2 b 2
Straight lines [3]
10. BISECTORS OF THE ANGLES BETWEEN TWO LINES
Bisectors of the two angles between two lines a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 are given by
0
c 2=
y+
+b
2
a 2x
a1x + b1 y + c1 a 2 x + b 2 y + c2 P
=± a 1x+ b1y+ c 1= 0
2 2 2 2
a +b
1 1 a +b
2 2
First write the equation of the lines so that the constant terms are positive. Then
(a) If a1a2 + b1b2 > 0 then on taking positive sign in the above bisectors equation we shall get the obtuse angle
bisector and on taking negative sign we shall get the acute angle bisector.
(b) If a1a2 + b1b2 < 0 then positive sign give the acute angle bisector and negative sign gives the obtuse angle
bisector.
(c) On taking positive sign we shall get equation of the bisector of the angle which contains the origin and
negative sign gives the equation of the bisector which does not contain origin.
Note : This is also the bisector of the angle in which origin lies ( since c1 , c2 are positive and it has been obtained
by taking positive sign)
11. LINES PASSING THROUGH THE POINT OF INTERSECTION OF TWO LINES
If equation of two lines L1 = a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and L2 = a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 then the equation of the lines passing
through the point of intersection of these lines is L1 + L2 = 0, value of l is obtained with the help of the additional
infomation given in the problem.
12. HOMOGENEOUS EQUATION OF SECOND DEGREE
The equation ax2 + 2hxy + by2 = 0 represents a pair of straight lines through the origin if h2 ab
(i) If m1 , m2 be slopes of these lines, then
2h a
m1 + m2 = ; m1 m2 =
b b
2 h 2 ab
(ii) If be the angle between these lines then tanθ = a+b
(iii) These lines are identical if h2 = ab
(iv) These lines are perpendicular if a +b = 0
x 2 y 2 xy
(v) Equations of the bisectors between these lines =
ab h
ax12 + 2hx1 y1 + by12
r
(vi) Product of Ist drawn from (x1, y1) to the above pair of line is
(a b)2 + 4h 2
13. GENERAL EQUATION OF SECOND DEGREE
ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 is called the general equation of second degree in x and y it represent a pair
of two straight lines if
a h g
h b f
(i) D = = 0 or abc + 2fgh – af2 – bg2 –ch2 = 0
g f c
2
(ii) h 2 ab, g ac, f 2 bc
[4] Straight lines
14. EQUATION OF LINES JOINING THE INTERSECTION POINTS OF A LINE & A
CURVE TO THE ORIGIN
hf bg gh af
(1) The point of inter section of lines represented by ax2 + c = 0 is 2
, 2
ab h ab h
(2) If the pair of line given by ax 2 c 0 are parallel then h 2 ab, bg 2 af 2 and the distance between them
g 2 ac f 2 bc
is 2 or 2
a(a b) b(a b)
(3) The equationof the pair of the straight line joining the origin to the points of intersection of the curve
ax 2 2hxy by2 2gx 2fy c 0 and the line lx my n 0 is a homogenous equation of second
degree given by
2
2 2 lx my lx my lx my
ax + 2hxy + by + 2gx 2fy
c 0
n n n
15. BASIC IMPORTANT POINT’S
15.1 Area of quadrilateral B
When its sides are |ax| + |by| + c = 0, then it will be a rhombus
c2 2c 2 C
and area of this rhombus = 4 × (area of OAB) = 4 × = A
2ab ab
D
2c 2
Note : If a = b then it becomes a square whose area = 2
a
15.2 Area of Parallelogram
If p1, p2 be distances between the opposite sides of a parallelogram and be one of its angle, then its
area = p1p2 cosec .If y = m1x + c1, y = m1x + c2, y = m2x + d1 and y = m2x + d2 are the sides of a prallelogram
then
D C
P2
c1 c2 d1 d 2
Area = P1
m1 m 2
A B
16. FOOT OF THE PERPENDICULAR AND REFLECTION OF A POINT WITH RESPECT TO A LINE
(i) The foot (h, k) of the perpendicular drawn from the point (x1 , y1 ) on the line ax + by + c = 0 is given by
h x1 k y1 ax by c
1 2 12
a b a b
h x1 k y1 ax by c
(ii) The image (h, k) of the point (x1, y1) in the line ax + by + c = 0 is given by 2 1 2 12
a b a b
Indefinite Integration
BASIC THEOREMS ON INTEGRATION
If f(x), g(x) are two functions of a variable x and k is a constant, then
(i) k f (x) dx k f (x) dx
(ii) [f(x) g( x)]
dx f ( x) dx g( x ) dx
(iii)
d
dx
f (x) dx f(x)
d
(iv) dx f ( x ) dx f ( x ) + c
SOME STANDARD FORMULAE
x n1 1
(i) x n dx c (n 1) (ii) dx loge x c
n 1 x
x ax
e x dx e x c a dx log c a x loga e c
(iii) (iv)
ea
(v) sin x dx cos x c
(vi) cos x dx sin x c
(vii) tan x dx log | sec x | c log | cos x | c
(viii) cot x dx log | sin x | c
x
(ix) sec x dx log | sec x tan x | c log | sec x tan x | c = log tan 4 2 + c
x
(x) cosecx dx log | cosec x cot x | log | cosecx cot x | c = log tan + c
2
(xi) sec x tan x dx sec x c
(xii) cosec x cot x dx cosec x c
2
(xiii) sec x dx tan x c
2
(xiv) cosec x dx cot x c
[1]
[2] Indefinite Integration
1 1 x
(xv) dx tan 1 c
x 2 a2 a a
1 1 xa
(xvi) 2 2
dx log c (x > a)
x a 2a xa
1 1 ax
(xvii) 2 2
dx log c (x < a)
a x 2a ax
1 x x
(xviii) dx sin 1 c cos 1 c
a x 2 2 a
a
1 x
(xix) dx log | x x 2 a2 | c sinh1 c
2
x a 2
a
1 x
(xx) dx log | x x 2 a2 | c cosh1 c
2
x a 2
a
x 2 a2 x
(xxi) a 2 x 2 dx a x2 sin 1 c
2 2 a
x a2 x
(xxii) x 2 a 2 dx x 2 a2 sinh 1 c
2 2 a
x a2 x
(xxiii) x 2 a 2 dx x2 a2 cosh 1 c
2 2 a
1 1 x
(xxiv) dx sec 1 c
x x 2 a2 a a
ax eax eax b
(xxv) e sin bx dx (a sin bx b cos bx) c sin bx tan1 c
2 2
a b a2 b2 a
e ax eax b
(xxvi) e ax cos bx dx 2 2
(a cos bx b sin bx ) c cos bx tan 1 c
a b a 2 b2 a
(xxvii) eax b (af(x) f '(x))dx eax b f(x) c
1
(xxviii) f(ax b)dx ax b + c
a
METHOD OF INTEGRATION
Integration by Substitution
(a) When integrand is the product of two factors such that one is the derivative of the other i.e,
I= f (x) f ' (x) dx
In this case we put f(x) = t to convert it into a standard integral.
(b) When integrand is a function of function
Indefinite Integration [3]
i.e. f [ (x) ] ' (x) dx
Here we put f(x) = t so that f ' (x) dx = dt and in that case the integrand is reduced to f (t) dt .
(c) Integral of a function of the form (ax+b) dx
Here put ax + b = t and convert it into standard integral. Obviously if f (x) dx (x), then
1
f(ax b) dx
a
(ax b)
(d) Some standard forms of integrals
The following three forms are very useful to write integral directly.
[ f ( x )]n 1
(i) [ f ( x )]n f ' ( x ) dx c (where n ¹ –1)
n1
f ' (x)
(ii) f (x) dx log [f (x)] c
f ' (x)
(iii) f ( x)
dx 2 f ( x ) c
dx
(e) Integral of the form a sin x b cos x
Putting a = r cos and b = r sin , we get
dx 1
I= r sin ( x ) r cos ec (x ) dx
1 1 x 1 b
= log tan (x/2 + /2) + c = log tan tan 1 c
r 2
a b 2 2 2 a
(f) Standard Substitution
Following standard substitution will be useful-
Integrand form Substitution
1
(i) a 2 x 2 or x = a sin
a x2
2
1
(ii) 2
x a 2 or x = a tan or x = a sinh
x 2 a2
1
(iii) x 2 a 2 or x = a sec or x = a cos h
x a2
2
x ax 1
(iv) or or x (a x ) or x (a x )
x = a tan2
ax x
x ax 1
(v) or or x(a x ) or x(a x) x = a sin2
ax x
[4] Indefinite Integration
x xa 1
(vi) or or x( x a) or x( x a) x = a sec2
xa x
ax ax
(vii) or x = a cos 2
ax ax
x
(viii) x
or ( x )( x ) (b > a) x = a cos2 + b sin2 q
(a) Integration by Parts :
d
If u and v are the differentiable functions of x, then u.v dx u vdx dx (u) vdx dx.
i.e. Integral of the product of two functions = first function x integral of second function – [derivative of
first) x ( Integral of second) ]
(i) How to choose Ist and IInd function : If two functions are of different types take that function as Ist which
comes first in the word ILATE, where I stands for inverse circular function, L stands for logrithmic function,
A stands for algebric functions, T stands for trigonometric and E for exponential functions.
(ii) For the integration of logarthmic or inverse trigonometric functions alone, take unity (1) as the second
function
x
(b) If the integral is of the form e [f( x) f ' (x)] dx then by breaking this integral into two integrals, integrate one
integral by parts and keep other integral as it is, By doing so, we get - e x [f(x) f '(x) ] dx e x f(x) c
(c) If the integral is of the form [ x f ' (x) f (x)] dx then by breaking this integral into two integrals integrate one
integral by parts and keep other integral as it is, by doing so, we get [x f ' (x) f ( x)] dx x f (x) c
Integration of the Trigonometrical Functions
dx dx
(i) a b sin 2
x
, (ii) a cos 2
x b
dx dx
(iii) a cos 2 x b sin 2 x , (iv) (a cos x b sin x ) 2
.
(For their integration we multiply and divide by sec2x and then put tan x = t.)
Some integrals of different expressions of ex
ae x
(i) b ce x
dx [put ex = t]
1
(ii) 1 e x
dx [multiplying and divide by e–x and put e–x = t]
1
(iii) 1 e x
dx [multiplying and divide by e–x and put e–x = t]
1
(iv) e x
dx [multiply and divided by ex]
ex
Indefinite Integration [5]
e x e x f ' ( x)
form
(v) e x
e x
dx
f ( x )
ex 1
(vi) e x
dx [multiply and divide by e–x/2]
1
2
e x e x
dx [integrand = tanh2 x]
(vii) e x e x
2
e2x 1
(viii) 2x dx [integrand = coth2 x]
e 1
1 1
(ix) (e x
e x 2
)
dx [integrand =
4
sech2x]
1 1
(x) (e x
e x )2
dx [integrand =
4
cosech2x]
1
(xi) (1 e x
)(1 e x )
dx [multiply and divide by ex and put ex = t]
1
(xii) 1 e x
dx [multiply and divide by e–x/2]
1
(xiii) 1 ex
dx [multiply and divide by e–x/2]
1
(xiv) e 1 x
dx [multiply and divide by e–x/2]
1
(xv) 2e x 1
dx [multiply and divide by 2e x / 2 ]
(xvi) 1 e x dx [integrand = (1 – ex) / 1 e x ]
(xvii) 1 e x dx [integrand = (1 + ex) / 1 ex ]
(xviii) e x 1 dx [integrand = (ex – 1) / ex 1 ]
ex a
(xix) dx [integrand = (ex +a) / e2x a2 ]
ex a
x2 1
8. x 4 kx 2 1 dx (Divide N.r and Dr by x2 then put x ±1/x = t)
x2 1
9. x 4 kx 2 1 dx (Divide N.r and Dr by x2 then put x ±1/x = t)
[6] Indefinite Integration
d
Nr = A (Dr) + B (Dr) + C
dx
x2 1
10. x 4 kx 2 1 dx x2 = {(x2 + 1) + (x2 – 1)}
2
1 1
11. x 4 kx 2 1 dx 1= {(x2 + 1) – (x2 – 1)}
2
1 1
12. x 4 a4 dx 1 {(x 2 a2 ) (x 2 a 2 )}
2a 2
1
13. (ax b) dx ; Put (x + d) = t2
cx d
1 1
dx
14. ; Put (px + q) =
(px q) ax 2 bx c t
1
15. (ax 2 bx c) px q
dx ; Put (px + q) = t2
1
16. dx; Put (x = 1/t)
(Ax 2 B) cx 2 D
1
17. (a sin2 x b sin x cos x c.cos2 x) dx
1 2 tan x / 2
18. (a b sin x) dx ; put sinx =
1 tan2 x / 2
1 1 tan2 x / 2
19. dx put cosx = 2 & put tan x/2 = t
(a b cos x) 1 tan x / 2
1
20. (asin x bcos x c) dx
P sin x qcos x r
21. a sin x bcos x c dx
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