CLASS – XII

Practical Assignment for Physics

Experiment No.-1

AIM: To determine resistivity of two/ three wires by plotting a graph between potential difference versus current.
Apparatus
A resistance wire, a voltmeter (0–3) V and an ammeter (0–3) A of appropriate range, a battery (battery
eliminator), a rheostat, a metre scale, one way key, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

Theory
According to the Ohm’s law “the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across its ends provided the physical conditions (temperature, dimensions, pressure)
of the conductor remains the same. If I be current through a conductor and V be the potential difference
across its ends, then according to Ohm’s Law,
I∝V
V ∝ I or V = RI
where, R is the constant of proportionality. It is known as resistance of the conductor.

V
or =R …Working formula
I
R depends upon the nature of material, temperature and dimensions of the conductor.
In S.I. units, the potential difference V is measured in volt and the current I in ampere, the resistance
R is measured in ohm.

(1) To establish the current-voltage relationship, it is to be shown that the ratio V-I remains constant for a
given resistance, therefore a graph between the potential difference (V) and the current (I) must be a
straight line.
V
(2) The constant ratio gives unknown value of resistance, ( = R).
I

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE

1. Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as given in the arrangement diagram
2. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand paper to remove the insulations, if any.
3. Determine the least count of voltmeter and ammeter, and also note the zero error, if any.

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4. Adjust the sliding contact of the rheostat such that a measurable current passes through the resistance coil
or the resistance wire.
5. Note down the value of potential difference V from voltmeter and current I from ammeter.

Observations
1. Length
Length of the resistance wire l = 10 cm
2. Range
Range of the given ammeter = 0-3 A
Range of the given voltmeter = 0-3 V
3. Least count
Least count of ammeter = 0.1 A
Least count of voltmeter = 0.1 V
4. Zero error
Zero error in ammeter, e1 = 0 A
Zero error in voltmeter, e2 = 0 V

5. Table for Ammeter and Voltmeter Readings

Ammeter Reading I (A) Voltmeter Reading V (V) 𝐕

=R
Serial No. of Corrected Corrected 𝟏
Observed Observed (Ohm)
Obs.
𝐈𝟎 I = 𝐈𝟎 + 𝐜𝟏 𝐕𝟎 V = 𝐕𝟎 + 𝐜𝟐
(1)
(2a) (2b) (3a) (3b) (4)
1. 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.9
2. 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
3. 1.5 1.5 1.4 1.4 0.9
4. 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0
5. 2.5 2.5 2.6 2.6 0.9

Mean value of resistance, R = 1.0 ohms.

Calculations
1. Find ratio of V and I for each set of observations.
2. Plot a graph between potential difference V (column 3b) and current I (column 2b), taking V along X-axis
and I along Y-axis. The graph comes to be a straight line.
The resistance can be calculated from the following graph :
AB ∆I
In ∆ABC, tan θ = =
CB ∆V
∆V
cot θ =
∆I
∆V
but R=
∆I
then, R = cot θ
R = 1.0 Ω

Result
(i) Resistance per cm of the wire is 0.1 Ω cm−1 .
(ii) The graph between V and I is a straight line.

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 Experiment No.-2

AIM: To find resistance of a given wire using / Standard resistor using metre bridge.

Apparatus
A metre bridge (slide wire bridge), a Leclanche cell (Battery eliminator), a galvanometer, a resistance box,
jockey a one way key, a resistance wire, a screw gauge, a mere scale, a set square, connecting wires and
a piece of sand paper.

Theory
(i) The unknown resistance X is given by
(100−ℓ)
X= ,R
ℓ
where R is known resistance placed in the left gap and unknown resistance X in the right gap of
metre bridge. ℓ cm is the length of metre bridge wire from zero end upto balance point.
(ii) Specific resistance (ρ) of the material of the given wire is given by
XπD2
ρ= ,
4L
where, L is the length and D is the diameter of the given wire.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Procedures :
1. Arrange the apparatus as shown in arrangement diagram.
2. Connect the resistance wire whose resistance is to be determined in the right gap between C and
B. Take care that no part of the wire forms a loop.
3. Connect resistance box of low range in the left hand gap between A and B.
4. Make all the other connections as shown in the circuit diagram.
5. Take out some resistance (say 2 ohm) from the resistance box, plug the key K.
6. Touch the jockey gently first at left end and then at right end of the bridge wire.
7. Note the deflections in the galvanometer. If the galvanometer shows deflections in opposite
directions, the connections are correct. If the deflection is one side only, then there is some fault
in the circuit. Check or take help of your teacher and rectify the fault.
8. Move (slide) the jockey gently along the wire from left to right till galvanometer gives zero
deflection. The point where the jockey is touching the wire is null point D.
9. Choose an appropriate value of R from the resistance box such that there is no deflection in the
galvanometer when the jockey is nearly in the middle of the wire (i.e., between 45 cm to 55 cm).
10. Note position of point D (with the help of a set square) to know length AD = I.
11. Take at least four sets of observations in the same way by changing the value of R in steps.
12. Record your observations.

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Observations for the Resistance of wire
1. Length of given wire L = …100.. cm.
2. Table for unknown resistance (X)

Point of Balancing
Length DC 𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝐋
balance length AD = V= 𝐕𝐐
S.No. Resistance 𝛉 (ohm) (100-L) 𝐋
point D 1 (ohm)
cm
(cm) (cm)

1 5 42 42 58 6.9
2 10 26 26 74 28.4
3 20 50 50 50 20
4 5 63 63 37 2.90
5 10 76.5 76.5 23.5 6.4
Calculation
6.9+28.4+20+2.9+6.4
Xavg =
5
= 12.992 Ω

Experiment No.-3
AIM: To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find its figure of
merit.

Apparatus
A Weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery or battery eliminator, two (10,000 Ω and 200 Ω)
resistance boxes, two one-way keys, a rheostat, a screw gauge, a matre scale, an ammeter of given range,
connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

Theory
(i) The resistance of the given galvanometer as found by half deflection method
R .S
G=
R−S
where R is the resistance of the given galvanometer and S is the shunt resistance.
E
(ii) The figure of merit, k =
(R+G)θ
where E is the e.m.f. of the cell and is θ the deflection produced with resistance R.
(iii) The maximum current that can pass through the galvanometer.
𝐼g = nk
where n is the total number of divisions on the galvanometer scale on either side of zero.

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Circuit Diagram

Procedure
(a) Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method
1. Make the connections accordingly as shown in circuit diagram.
2. See that all plugs of the resistance boxes are tight.
3. Take out the high resistance (say 2000 Ω) from the resistance box R and insert the key K1 only.
4. Adjust the value of R so hat deflection is maximum, even in number and within the scale.

(b) Figure of merit

5. Take one cell of the battery (battery eliminator) and find its E.M.F. by a voltmeter by connecting
–ve of the voltmeter with –ve of the cell. Let it be E.
6. Make connections as in circuit diagram.
7. Adjust the value of R to obtain a certain deflection θ (say 30 divisions) when the circuit is
closed.

Observation and Calculation

1. Table for resistance of the galvanometer by half deflection method

Deflection Valance mater

Shun Halt
Resistance imbalance resistance G =
S. No. resistance Deflection
R (𝛀) meter 𝐑𝐒
5 (𝛀) 𝐐𝟐 𝛀
(Q) 𝐑−𝐒
1. 7000 22 47 11 47.2 Ω
2. 6200 26 47 13 47.1 Ω
3. 9000 18 47 9 47.3 Ω
4. 10000 16 47 8 47.2 Ω
5. 8000 20 47 10 47.2 Ω
2. Table for figure of merit

Serial No. Number of e.m.f. of Resistance Deflection Figure of merit

the cells E from R.B. 𝛉 (div.) 𝐄
of Obs cells k=
(V) or R (ohm) (𝐑+𝐆)𝛉
(Battery
eliminator) reading of (ohm)
battery
eliminator

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 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

1. 2 15 10 5 0.07
Number of divisions in the galvanometer scale, n = …50…
G +G +G +G +G
1. Calculation for G = 1 2 3 4 5 = 47.2 Ω.
5
RS
(i) Calculate G, using formula, G = and write it in column 6 of Table 1.
R−S
(ii) Take mean of values of G recorded in column 6 of table 1.
1. Calculate for k
E
(i) Calculate k, using formula, k = and write it in column 6 of Table 2.
(R+G)θ
(ii) Take mean of values of k recorded in column 6 of Table 2.
Result
1. Resistance of given galvanometer = 47.2 Ω
2. Figure of merit of given galvanometer = 0.07
Precautions
1. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. All the plugs in resistance boxes should be tight.
3. The e.m.f. of cell or battery should be constant.
4. Initially a high resistance from the resistance box (R) should be introduced in the circuit (otherwise
for small resistance an excessive current will flow through the galvanometer or ammeter can be
damaged).
Sources of error
1. The screws of the instruments may be loose.
2. The plugs of resistance boxes may not be clean.
3. The e.m.f. of battery may not be constant.
4. The galvanometer divisions may not be of equal size.

Experiment No.-4
AIM:
To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit) into a voltmeter of desired
range and to verify the same.
Materials Required
 Given galvanometer  Voltmeter of required range  Two one-way keys
 Battery  Rheostat  Resistance box
 Connecting wires  Sand paper
Theory
To convert a galvanometer into a voltmeter it must be connected in parallel with the section of the circuit.
Further, it must draw a very small current, otherwise the voltage measurement will disturb the original set up by
an amount which is very large. To ensure this, a large resistance R is connected in series with galvanometer.

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The resistance of the voltmeter can be calculated as follows:
V
R= –G
Ig
Where, V is the potential difference, Ig is the current in galvanometer and G is the resistance of galvanometer.
Procedure
Determination of Current for Full Scale Deflection
• Note the given values of resistance of galvanometer G and figure of merit k.
• Note the total number of divisions N0 on either side of the zero of the galvanometer scale.
• Calculate the value of Ig i.e., the current required to produce full scale deflection in the galvanometer
using the formula, Ig = N0k.

Determination of value large resistance

• Calculate the value of large resistance R, required to be connected in series with the galvanometer for
V
converting it into voltmeter using the relation R = – G.
Ig

Conversion of Galvanometer into Voltmeter

• Connect a high resistance box in series with galvanometer and take out the plugs so as to introduce a
resistance R from it.
• Tighten the rest of plugs. Galvanometer is now converted into voltmeter.

Checking accuracy of converted Voltmeter

• Connect a standard voltmeter and the converted voltmeter in parallel with a rheostat as shown in figure.
• Note the readings shown by both the voltmeter for different positions of the rheostat slider.
• Rheostat is connected to the battery in such a way that it acts as a potential divider.
• Record your observations.

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Observations and Calculations
Determination of Current for full scale deflection Ig:
Resistance of the given galvanometer, G = 112.23 Ω.
Figure of merit of the given galvanometer, k = 0.00002125 A/division.
Total number of division on either side of zero of the galvanometer scale, No. = 30 divisions.
Current required for full scale deflection, Ig = N0k = 30×0.00002125 A.
Determination of value of large resistance R:
Required range of converted voltmeter, V = 3 volts.
V
Volts of required resistance, R = – G = 4589.96 Ω.
Ig
Verification
V
Least count of the converted voltmeter, L.C. = = 0.1 volt/div.
N0
Observation table for verification of converted voltmeter
Reading of converted galvanometer into
voltmeter Standard Voltmeter Error % Error
S. No. 𝐕′ −𝐕
P.D. in volts reading, V’ (volts) V’ – V ×100
No. of divisions n 𝐕′
V = n × L.C.
1. 5 0.5 0.5 0 0
2. 10 1 1 0 0
3. 15 1.5 1.5 0 0
4. 29 2.9 3 0.1 3.33
Result
Error in actual and measured potential difference value is very small, so the conversion is verified.

Experiment No.-5
AIM:
To determine angle of minimum deviation of a given prism by plotting a graph between angle of
incidence and the angle of deviation.
APPARATUS
Drawing board, a white sheet paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil, half-metre scale, office pins, graph paper
and a protractor.
THEORY
The refractive index (n) of the material of the prism is given by
A+Dm
sin ( )
2
n=
A
sin ( )
2
where, Dm angle of minimum deviation and A angle of the prism.
DIAGRAM

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PROCEDURE
1. Fix a white sheet of paper on the drawing board with the help of drawing pins or tape.
2. Draw a straight line XX’ parallel to the length of the paper nearly in the middle of the paper.
3. Mark points Q1, Q 2 , Q 3 , … on the straight line XX’ at suitable distance of about 5 cm.
4. Draw normal’s N1 Q1 ,N2 ,Q 2 ,N3 ,Q 3 , … on points Q1, Q 2 , Q 3 … as shown in diagram.
5. Draw straight lines R1 Q1 ,R 2 ,Q 2 ,R 3 ,Q 3 , … making angles of 35o, 40o, … 60o (write value of the
angles one the paper) respectively with the normal’s.

To measure D in different cases

6. Draw straight lines through points P4 and P3 (Pin pricks) to obtain emergent rays S1T1, S2T2,
S3T3,
7. Produce T1S1, T2S2, T3S3, inward in the boundary of the prism to meet produced incident rays
R1Q1, R2Q2, R3Q3, at points F1, F2, F3,
To measure A
8. Measure angle BAC in the boundary of the prism. This gives angle A.
9. Record your observations.
OBSERVATIONS
Angle of prism ‘A’ = 60o

Serial No.
Angle of incidence ∠i Angle of deviation ∠D
Of Obs.
1. 35o 43
2. 40o 39
3. 45o 37
4. 50o 38
5. 55o 40
Graph between Angle of deviation and angle of incidence
δ

37o

i
i=e

Let the value of angle of minimum deviation, Dm = 370

A+Dm
sin ( )
2
Then, n= = 1.5
A
sin ( )
2

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Result : The graph between δ and i indicates that initially, as angle of incidence i increases, angle of
deviation δ decreases and attains a minimum value and then of starts increasing for further increase
in angle of incidence.

CALCULATIONS
Plot a graph between angle of incidence ∠i and angle of deviation ∠D by taking ∠i along X-axis and ∠D
along X-axis. From this graph, find the value of angle of minimum deviation D m corresponding to the lowest
point of the graph.

Experiment No.-6
AIM:
To determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.
APPARATUS
Three glass slabs of different thickness but same material, a travelling microscope, lycopodium powder.
A slab is a piece of transparent material with rectangular faces. All faces are transparent and opposite faces are
parallel. The dimension alongwith the light travels inside the slab is called its thickness.

A Short Description of a Travelling Microscope

It is a compound microscope fitted vertically on a vertical scale. It can be moved up and down, carrying
a Vernier scale moving along the main scale.
In any position, the reading is taken by combining main scale and vernier scale reading.
THEORY
real thickness of slab
From relation, n=
apparent thickness of slab

DIAGRAM

(a) (b) (c)

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 Fig. Real and apparent thickness.
PROCEDURE
Adjustment of travelling microscope
1. Place the travelling microscope (M) on the table near a window so that sufficient light falls on it.
2. Adjust the leveling screws so that the base of the microscope becomes horizontal.
3. Make microscope horizontal. Adjust the position of the eye piece so that the cross wires are
clearly visible.
4. Determine the vernier constant of the vertical scale of the microscope.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Vernier constant (least count) for vertical scale of microscope = …0.02. cm.

Table for Microscope Readings

Cross mark without slab Cross mark with slab placed on Powder sprinkled on top of slab
i.e (𝐑 𝟏 ) it i.e (𝐑 𝟐 ) i.e (𝐑 𝟑 )
Total
M.S.D U.S.D M.S.D U.S.D Total M.S.D U.S.D Total
reading
4.3x27x
4.3 27 0.002 = 5 39 5.078 6.2 41 6.28
4.55
4.4 32 4.46 5.05 39 5.128 6.05 40 6.43
Mean R1 = 4.408 cm Mean R2 = 5.103 cm Mean R3 = 6.206 cm
Real depth = R3 – R1 = 1.797 cm
Apparent depth = R3 – R2 = 1.103 cm

Real depth
Refractive index (a) = = 1.6021
Appareant depth
n1 + n2 + n3
Mean n=
3
RESULT
R3 − R1
The ratio is constant.
R3 − R2
It gives refractive index of the material of the glass slab. 1.6021

PRECAUTIONS
1. In microscope, the parallax should be properly removed.
2. The microscope should be moved in upper direction only to avoid back lash error.

SORUCES OF ERROR
The microscope scale may not be properly calibrated.

Experiment No.-7
AIM:
To find the refractive index of a liquid by using a convex lens and a plane mirror.
Materials Required
 Convex lens  Plane mirror  Iron stand with clap  An optical needle
 Plumb line  Given liquid (water)  Dropper  A metre
PROCEDURE
Determining the focal length of Convex Lens

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 • Place a plane mirror on a horizontal base of the iron stand and keep its reflecting surface upward.
• Keep the given convex lens on the plane mirror such that its principal axis is vertical.
• Fix an optical needle with the clamp of the iron stand so that the needle is in horizontal position above
the lens on its principal axis.
• Move the optical needle up and down so that the tip of its image coincides with the tip of the needle.
• Remove the parallax between both the tips.
• Note down the distance between the upper surface of lens and tip of the needle using a plumb line and
metre scale and take this as d1.
• Note down the distance between plane mirror and tip of the needle and take this as d2.
• The mean of two readings would give the value of focal length of convex lens.
𝑑 +𝑑
f= 1 2
2
Determining the Focal Length of Plano-concave Lens (Formed by Water)
• Fill the space between plane mirror and lens with water. Use a dropper for this purpose.
• Adjust the needle so that the tip of its image coincides with the tip of the needle. Remove parallax
between both the tips.
• Measure the distance d3 between the tip of the needle and top surface of lens.
• Measure the distance d4 between the tip of the needle and plane mirror. The mean of two readings
would give the value of focal length of plano-concave lens.
𝑑 +𝑑
f’ = 3 4
2

OBSERVATION TABLE

Position of needle with respect to O

Without water OF = f1 With water OF’ f2
Distance of needle from Distance of needle from
S. No.
Upper surface of Plane 𝒅 𝒅𝟐 Upper Plane f2 =
f1 = 𝟏+𝟐 𝒅𝟑 +𝒅𝟒
fw =
the mirror surface of the mirror 𝒇𝟐 𝒇𝟏 𝒏𝒘𝒂
𝟐
lens d1 (cm) d2 (cm) (cm) lens d3 (cm) d4 (cm) 𝒇𝟏−𝒇𝟐
(cm)
1. 9.5 11 10.25 14.5 16. 15.25
2. 10 11.5 10.75 15 16.5 15.75
3. 9.4 10.6 10 16 18 17 cm
Calculations
Calculating Refractive Index of Water
𝑓𝐿 = Focus of lens
𝑓𝐶 = Focus of combine lens
• Calculate the focal length of water by using the following formula:
10.25+10.75+10 15.25+15.75+17
𝑓𝐿 = = 10.3 = 𝑓𝐶 = = 16 cm
3 3
• Refractive index of water can be calculated by using the following formula:
𝑓𝐿
𝑛𝑤𝑎 = 2 – = 2 – 0.643 = 1.354
𝑓𝑐
≃ 1.33
Result
Refractive index of given liquid with respect to air, 𝑛𝑤𝑧 = 1.354.

Experiment No.-8
AIM:
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 To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward-bias and reverse-bias,
APPARATUS
A p-n junction (semi-conductor) diode, a 3 volt battery, a 50 volt battery, a high resistance rheostat, one
0-3 volt voltmeter, one 0-50 volt voltmeter, one 0-100 mA ammeter, one 0-100 μA ammeter, one way key,
connecting wires and pieces of sand paper.

THEORY
Forward-bias characteristics. When the p-section of the diode is connected to positive terminal of a
battery and n-section is connected to negative terminal of the batter then junction is said to be forward biased.
With increase in bias voltage, the forward current increases slowly in the beginning and then rapidly.
Reverse-bias characteristics. When the p-section of the diode is connected to negative terminal of high
voltage battery and n-section of the diode is connected to positive terminal of the same battery, then junction in
said to be reverse biased.
When reverse bias voltage increases, initially there is a very small reverse current flow, which remains
almost constant with bias. But when reverse bias voltage increases to sufficiently high value, the reverse current
suddenly increases to a large value. This voltage at which breakdown of junction diode occurs (suddenly large
current flow) is called sneer breakdown voltage or inverse voltage. The breakdown voltage may starts from one
volt to several hundred volts, depending upon dopant density and the depilation layer.

DIAGRAM

FORWARD BIAS
FORWARD BIASING FORWARD BIASING
S. NO.
VOLTAGE (v) CURRENT (mA)
1 0 0
2 0.2 0
3 0.4 0.5
4 0.8 2
REVERSE BIAS
REVERSE BIAS REVERSE BIAS
S. No.
VOLTAGE(V) CURRENT (µA)
1 0 0
2 5 1
3 7 2
4 9 3

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Result : The graph shows the I – V characteristic curve p–n junction diode in forward bias and reverse
bias.

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