The document provides a comprehensive overview of cell theory, detailing key historical figures and their contributions to our understanding of cells. It describes the structure and function of various cell organelles, the processes of mitosis and meiosis, and the differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Additionally, it covers the cell cycle phases and the mechanisms of protein synthesis and energy production.
The document provides a comprehensive overview of cell theory, detailing key historical figures and their contributions to our understanding of cells. It describes the structure and function of various cell organelles, the processes of mitosis and meiosis, and the differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Additionally, it covers the cell cycle phases and the mechanisms of protein synthesis and energy production.
The document provides a comprehensive overview of cell theory, detailing key historical figures and their contributions to our understanding of cells. It describes the structure and function of various cell organelles, the processes of mitosis and meiosis, and the differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Additionally, it covers the cell cycle phases and the mechanisms of protein synthesis and energy production.
The document provides a comprehensive overview of cell theory, detailing key historical figures and their contributions to our understanding of cells. It describes the structure and function of various cell organelles, the processes of mitosis and meiosis, and the differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Additionally, it covers the cell cycle phases and the mechanisms of protein synthesis and energy production.
Lesson 1 Cell Theory – Provides a framework for understanding the structure and organization of living things
• Robert Hooke (1665) – was able to observe a piece of cork specimen. The outermost layer of a woody plant. • Anton Von Leeuwenhoek (1676) – He published an observation on tiny living organisms called animalcules • Robert Brown (1831) – Compared different kinds of plant specimens under a microscope. He coined the term nucleus • Mattias Schleiden (1838) – He concluded that all plant parts are made of cells • Theodor Schwann (1839) – He stated that all animal tissues are composed of cells too • Rudolf Virchow (1858) – “Omnis cellula e cellula”. Every cell comes from another cell
Spontaneous Generation – said living things can come from nonliving matter Louis Pasteur – Opposed this and said living things come from pre-existing microorganisms.
Postulates of Cell Theory
1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells 2. The cell is the basic unit of life in all living things 3. All cells come from pre-existing cells
Lesson 2 Cell – the basic unit of life Organelle – cell structures that are basically the cell’s organs. They are called “little organs”. Functions 1. Production of Proteins 4. Repairing of Cell Parts 2. Storage of Important Materials 5. Digestion of Substances 3. Harvesting Energy 6. Maintenance of Shape and Structure of The Cell
Cell Membrane – selectively permeable barrier that protects cell. Also called Plasma Membrane. Its made of phospholipid bilayer with integral and peripheral proteins.
Integral – embedded protein Head is hydrophilic
Peripheral – attached protein Tail is hydrophobic
H2O, CO2, and O2 are let in. Carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids aren’t let in. Nitrogen, lipids, and ions are let in. All fats are lipids, not all lipids are fats. Enzymes speed up chemical reactions, they’re catalysts.
Cytoplasm – a jelly-like substance which is mainly composed of water and dissolved substances. It’s made of salt and water. It is responsible for the fluid nature of the environment of the cell. Also, the dynamic suspension of cell organelles. It fills the whole cell except the nucleus. • Nucleus – The genetic material is present here; it stores the DNA. It is the Command Center. • Nucleolus – In the nucleus, a sub organelle this is. It’s like the brain, where the transcription of RNA, and protein synthesis take place. • RNA – Ribonucleic acid; Ribosomal DNA • DNA – Deoxyribonucleic acid
Ribosome – made of both RNA and protein, and is the site of protein synthesis in the cell. It organizes mRNA (messenger RNA), decodes it, and the large subunit decodes tRNA to Amino Acid, creating polypeptides. Small subunit decodes tRNA and mRNA. Endoplasmic Reticulum – located outside the cell. Extra protection. A complex network of membrane-bound sacs and tubules within eukaryotic cells. There is rough and smooth ER • Rough ER – Studded with ribosomes on its surface. It is involved with protein synthesis and initial protein folding. Also assists in the transportation of organelles, secretion, and insertion. • Smooth ER – Lacks ribosomes and is involved in lipid metabolism, detoxification, storage of calcium ions, and lipid synthesis.
Golgi Bodies or Golgi Apparatus – cell organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. It is composed of stacked flattened sacs called cisternae. It processes, packages, and sorts proteins and lipids. If it doesn’t work, you can get mutations, cancer, and neurodegenerative diseases. Lysosome – Membrane-bound organelles found in most eukaryotic cells. It is often referred to as the “recycling centers of the cell.” It contains digestive enzymes that breakdown cellular waste. Autophagy – The process of reusing old and damage cell parts, which occurs in the lysosome. Phagocytosis – when something engulfs large foreign substances in the cell and destroys it. It is a type of endocytosis. Transport Vesicles – a small membrane-bound sac that transports materials throughout the cell. It involves intracellular communications, and distributing hormones and molecules like proteins and lipids.
• Endocytosis – The process of engulfing foreign materials and shooting it back out or using it. • Exocytosis - release of substances like hormones
Mitochondria – The powerhouse of the cell as it powers the cell. It uses oxygen as fuel to turn glucose into ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate). There is an inner membrane and outer membrane. • Outer Membrane – serves as a barrier between mitochondria and cytoplasm • Inner Membrane – involves cellular process and signals Apoptosis (Cell Death). It’s where most of the ATP is produced.
Chloroplast – Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plant cells and some other eukaryotic organisms. It converts solar energy to chemical energy. Solar -> chemical a.k.a glucose. • Chlorophyll – Green pigment found in the chloroplasts of plant cells. It absorbs sunlight. • Thylakoids – they are exactly where the light is captured and converted into chemical energy. They’re stuck together like pancakes, stacked to form granum. This is where the light dependent reaction of photosynthesis takes place. • Granum – Singular is Grana. It is the site for light reaction of photosynthesis, and is a stack of thylakoids. It is stacked to maximize surface area for max absorption. • Stroma – the fluid-filled matrix that surrounds the thylakoids within chloroplasts. It is where the light independent reactions take place, a.ka the Calvin Cycle Calvin Cycle – happens in the Stroma as the light independent reaction of photosynthesis. It turns CO2 into glucose using ATP and NADPH (Nicotinamide, Adenine, Dinucleotide, Phosphate, and Hydrogen)
Cytoskeleton – a complex network of protein filaments and tubules within eukaryotic cells. • Microtubules – tubular structures made up of protein subunits called tubulin. • Microfilaments • Intermediate Filaments
Cilia – hair-like structures found on the surface of many cell types, used for movement. Flagella – a long, wavy structure that extends from the plasma membrane and is used to move the cell around. Eukaryotic Cell - organism whose cell contains a nucleus & other membrane-bound organelles Prokaryotic Cell – single-celled organism that lacks nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
Eukaryotes 1. Chromosomes are enclosed 4. Rod shaped 7. Kingdom of Prostia, Fungi, in the nucleus 5. Spherical Plantae, and Animalia 2. Cytoplasm 6. Multicellular 8. Plasma Membrane and Cell 3. 10-100 um Wall Prokaryotes 1. DNA is found in a region 3. 1 – 10 um 6. Kingdom Eubacteria and called nucleoid, which has 4. No membrane-bound Archae Bacteria no membrane (it’s in the organelles 7. Plasma Membrane and Cell cytoplasm) 5. Unicellular Wall 2. Cytoplasm
A = Adenosine T – Thymine C – Cytosine U – Uracil G – Guamine
• DNA: A <-> T; G <-> C
• Codon – mRNA: T-> A; A -> U; G <-> C • Anticodon – tRNA: U <-> A; G <-> C • Amino Acid: Refer to the chart we made Cell Cycle Prokaryotic cell uses binary fission Mitosis Process by which a eukaryotic cell divides its chromosomes into 2 identical sets
Interphase – crucial phase of the cell cycle where the cell prepares for division. Often longest phase. G1 (Gap 1) Phase – The cell carries out normal functions, and checks if conditions are suitable for division S (Synthesis) Phase – The cell duplicates its genetic material, ensuring that each daughter cell will have a complete set of chromosomes. G2 (Gap 2) Phase – The cell continues to grow and prepares for mitosis by producing additional proteins and organelles. Also checks for any DNA replication errors in the Synthesis Phase.
Mitosis The process by which a eukaryotic cell divides its chromosomes into two identical sets, resulting in the formation of two daughter cells. The follow phases fall under Mitosis: • Prophase – chromosomes condense and centrosomes move to opposite of the nucleus, initiating formation of the miotic spindle. • Metaphase – The nucleus dissolves and the cell’s chromosomes condense and move together, aligning in the center of the dividing cell. • Anaphase – The process that separates the duplicated genetic material carried in the nucleus of a parent cell into two daughter cells. • Telophase – The membranes form around the two groups of chromosomes, each at opposite ends of the cell, to produce the two nuclei of the daughter cells. Chromosomes decondense here. It overlaps with cytokinesis. Cytokinesis - The physical process of cell division, which divides the cytoplasm of a parental cell into two cells.
Meiosis A specialized type of cell division that occurs in sexually reproducing organism. It occurs in sex cells, or gametes. Interphase: Same
Meiosis 1 – Interphase is still the same.
• Prophase 1 – Chromosomes condense, and homologous chromosomes pair up. Crossing-over occurs, where genetic material is exchanged. Paternal and maternal parts go together, and exchange by recombination. • Metaphase 1 – Homologous pairs align at the cell’s equator • Anaphase 1 – In mitosis the chromosomes get split. In Meiosis, the homologous chromosomes are pulled to opposite poles, not split yet. • Telophase 1 – The nuclear envelope may reform, creating 2 separate nuclei. Chromosomes start decondensing here. Cytokinesis 1 – The cell divides into two daughter cells, a.k.a Haploid Cells.
Meiosis 2 – Interphase is still the same
A simplified version of mitosis and occurs in 2 daughter haploid cells. It is different because Mitosis makes perfect identical cells, while Meiosis makes genetic variation because of the maternal and paternal chromosomes and alleles. • Prophase 2 - If the nuclear envelope reformed in Telophase 1, it breaks down again. Mitotic spindle is also reformed. • Metaphase 2 – Chromosomes align individually along the metaphase plate (equator) in each haploid daughter cell. Metaphase 1 has pairs of chromosomes; Metaphase 2 only has one. • Anaphase 2 – Centromeres split, and sister chromatids are pulled toward opposite poles in each of the haploid daughter cells. In Anaphase 1, the chromosomes split. Here, the chromatids are split. Cytokinesis 2 – Each haploid daughter cell divides into two, resulting in a total of 4 haploid daughter cells.
