Chapter 1: NUTRITION

Introduction

Components of food necessary for the body are called Nutrients. Organisms that prepare food themselves from simple
substances are called Autotrophs and animals take in ready-made food made by plants are called Heterotrophs.
• Herbivores: Animals that eat only Plants.
• Carnivores: Animals that eat other animals.
• Omnivores: Animals that eat both plant and animals.
Types of nutrients:

• Carbohydrates
• Fats
• Proteins
• Vitamins
• Minerals
• Dietary Fibers and Water
Carbohydrates and Fats

Carbohydrate and fats are the energy giving food. Carbohydrate give less energy than fats. Animal fats are saturated
fatty acids, which are harmful for health. We should choose unsaturated fatty acids for cooking. Trans fats are unsat-
urated fats that damage the heart.
Proteins

Proteins are body building foods. Proteins are polypeptides i.e. linear chains of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
Enzymes are proteins which perform role of biological catalysts.
Receptors are proteins which perform function related to communication systems in the body.
Collagen is the most abundant protein in animal world and
Ribulose bisphosphate Carboxylase-Oxygenase (RuBisCO) is the most abundant protein in the whole of the bio-
sphere. Protein deficiency causeskwashiorkor and Maerasmus.

Vitamin and Minerals

Vitamin A,E,C are anti-oxidants that absorb free radicals. The vitamins and minerals deficiency can cause the diseases
mentioned in the table.
Table:Deficiency diseases

Vitamins or minirals Disease

Vitamin A Night blindness / Xeropthalmia
Vitamin B1 Beri beri
Vitamin C Scurvy
Vitamin D Rickets
Vitamin E Anemia / Loss of fertility
Vitamin K Bleeding
Calcium Bone and tooth decay
Iron Anemia
Iodine Goiter
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Note: Mercury poisoning causes mina mata disease and cadmium poisoning causes itai-itai.

Test to Detect Iodine, Proteins and Fats

1. Test for starch: IODINE TEST

• Take small food quantity and add dilute iodine solution if it turns blue black then it has starch
2. Test for proteins: COPPER SULPHATE + CAUSTIC SODA TEST
• Take small food quantity and add copper sulphate and caustic soda solution if it turns violet then it has
proteins
3. Test for fats: PAPER TEST

• Take small food quantity and wrap it in paper and crush it. Observe oil patch in light

Dietary Fibers and Water

Roughage or dietary fibers are present in plant products like whole grains, pulses, potatoes, fresh fruits, vegetables.
Don’t have nutrients but helps to get rid of undigested food.
Human body and nutrients

Digestion is a process in which complex components of food are broken into simpler substances.
Saliva breaks down starch into sugars. Stomach secretes mucous, hydrochloric acid and digestive juices. The mucous
protects the lining of the stomach, acid kills the bacteria and digestive juices break proteins into simpler substances.
Liver is the largest gland in the body. It secretes bile stored in the gall bladder, bile is important in digestion of fats. It
produces cholesterol [lipoprotein].
Low density cholesterol is bad and high density cholesterol is good.

Humans can’t digest cellulose. The temperature of a human body is 35-42° Celsius.

Miscellaneous

Starfish feeds on animals that are covered by a calcium carbonate shell. The shell is popped open and then the
starfish puts its stomach out of its mouth to eat the soft animal inside. The stomach then goes back inside and then the
food is slowly digested.
Small intestine is lined with villi which help in absorption of food. Small intestine is 7.5m and large intestine is 1.5m.
In herbivores, small intestine is longer to digest cellulose. In carnivores, small intestine is smaller as meat is easily di-
gested.

Introduction

Blood contains fluid part called plasma. Red blood cells [erythrocytes] have red pigment hemoglobin which binds
oxygen and transports it to all cells. They are formed in the red bone marrow and have a lifetime of 120 days. They are
destroyed in the spleen. White blood cells [leucocytes] fight against germs that enter the body. White blood cells is neu-
trophiles [destroy foreign bodies]; basophiles [inflammatory response], eosinophiles [allergic response], lymphocytes
[immune response] and monocytes [destroy foreign bodies]. Platelets [thrombocytes] in blood are responsible for clot-
ting
•
Types of Blood Group
Blood cells can have two antigens A, B, AB [both] or O [none]. O blood group is universal donor and AB is universal
recipient.
•
Blood's Flow

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 Blood vessels are arteries that carry oxygen rich blood to different body parts. The walls are thick, elastic as blood
flow is rapid and high pressure. Veins carry carbon dioxide rich blood to the heart. They have thin walls and valves that
allow blood flow in one direction only.

Our muscles release lactic acid during anaerobic respiration. This lactic acid causes cramps. When we are drowsy,
we slow down breathing and body doesn’t get sufficient oxygen so we yawn to take excess air.
Blood Oxidation and Purification

During respiration ribs move up and diaphragm moves down, this increases size of chest cavity and air comes in.
During exhaling, ribs move down and in and diaphragm moves back to position and this reduces chest cavity so air is re-
leased. Respiration is an exothermic reaction i.e. heat is evolved. Reactions of decomposition of wastes into compost
are also exothermic.Blood capillaries in the kidneys filter waste material as urine. This is passed into the urinary bladder
through the ureters. The urethra is connected to the urinary opening through which urine is passed. In dialysis, blood is
filtered by an artificial kidney, when the natural kidneys fail.
Pulmonary artery carries CO2 rich blood from heart to lungs, Pulmonary vein carries oxygen rich blood to heart from
lungs. Arteries divide to form capillaries to reachtissues, capillaries rejoin to form veins to take blood from tissues to
heart.
Carbon monoxide reduces oxygen carrying capacity of blood. It combines with hemoglobin to form carboxy-
haemoglobin and this reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of blood.

Human Heart

Fig. Human Heart

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 Heart has four chambers, two atria and two ventricles. The right atria and ventricle have deoxygenated blood. The left
atria and ventricle have oxygenated blood. Ventricles have thick walls as they have to pump blood to different organs.

Miscellaneous

Organisms that need energy to regulate body temperature need separate oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood. Oth-
ers who regulate temperature of body based on temperature of surroundings can tolerate mixing of blood.
Hydra and sponges don’t have a circulatory system or blood. Water that flows through their body carries food and
oxygen to different parts and waste material from parts is thrown out by it too.

Birds, insects excrete uric acid [least toxic so doesn’t need water for excretion]. Fishes excrete ammonia [highly toxic
so needs lots of water]. Mode of excretion depends on availability of water.
or Chapter 3: MICRO-ORGANISMS
Introduction
Micro –organisms are of four types: bacteria [TB, typhoid, cholera, diphtheria, and plague], algae, protozoa [dysentery,
malaria] and fungi. Virus [jaundice] reproduces only inside host organisms.

Lactobacillus multiplies in milk and turns it into curds.

Amoeba is a single celled organism. It has pseudopodia which are finger like projections. These capture the food particle
and put it in the food vacuole. After digestion the leftover matter is expelled by the vacuole. Amoeba reproduces asexu -
ally by binary fission.

Hen egg is also single cell.

Bacteria living in our mouth break food and leave acid that causes tooth decay. Tooth decay is caused when the pH of
mouth goes below 5.5. Calcium phosphate, insoluble in water and is the hardest substance in the body but at pH 5.5 it
starts dissolving.

Female Anopheles mosquito carries malaria parasite and female aedes mosquito carries dengue virus.
Java
Chapter 4: CELLS

Bodies of organisms are made of tiny units called Cells. Cell have outer boundary called cell membrane [made up of
lipids and proteins], most cells have a nucleus and inside the cell membrane or plasma membrane is present cytoplasm.
Nucleus, cytoplasm and membrane are basic components of cell.

•
Types of cell components:
• Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Golgi body
• Mitochondria
• Nucleus
• Vacuole
Endoplasmic reticulum

Endoplasmic reticulum is of two types Rough ER – it has ribosome attached to it. Ribosome manufactures proteins.
Smooth ER has a role in manufacturing lipids. ER also serves as a transport channel between various regions of cyto-
plasm or cytoplasm and nucleus.
In vertebrates, SER detoxifies poisons and drugs.
Golgi body
Golgi body helps in formation of lysosomes [contain digestive enzymes which digest wastes, foreign bodies or even
damaged cell organelles and the cell itself – hence called suicide bags].

It helps in making complex sugars from simple sugars and stores, packages products in vesicles.
Nucleus

Nucleus contains chromatin material, during division of cell it gets organized into chromosomes. These contain informa-
tion to be inherited by the next generation in form of DNA.
Functional units of DNA are genes. DNA contains information necessary for organizing and constructing cells.
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Vacuole
A single large Vacuole is present in plant cells and multiple small vacuoles in animal cells. Vacuoles store liquids or solid
contents.
Centrioles are seen only in animal cells. Plastids are found only in plant cell.
Green plastids called chloroplasts carry chlorophyll. White plastids are called leucoplasts; they store starch, oil and pro-
teins. They have their own DNA and ribosome.
Membranes

Membranes are porous and allow nutrients and substances to move in or out. Hence it’s selectively permeable. Diffusion
plays an important role in exchange of gases. Water is moved by osmosis [Solvent moves from dilute to concentrated so-
lution]. Food is taken in by endocytosis. Cytoplasm and nucleus are called protoplasm.
Plant and Animal Cells:

Plant cells and bacterial cells have cell wall [made of cellulose] outside the membrane. No cell wall in animal cells. Be -
cause of cell walls plant cells can withstand much greater variations in surrounding medium than animal cells.
Viruses:

Viruses lack membranes and hence do not show any characteristics of life till they enter a host and use its cell machinery
to multiply. They have few biochemical mechanisms on their own; they enter the host and use his processes for their
work. They have either DNA or RNA not both. RNA acts genetic material only in viruses.
Facts of Cellular Respiration:

Cellular respiration involves using oxygen [aerobic] to break down food [glucose] into energy; carbon dioxide and water
are released.
If this process takes place in absence of oxygen [in yeast] then alcohol, carbon dioxide and energy are formed. This is
anaerobic respiration.
Hence Yeast [single celled organisms] is used in making wine and beer. They convert sugar to alcohol; this process is
called fermentation [discovered by Louis Pasteur].

Lactobacillus helps in conversion of milk into curd. Bio fertilizers are organisms that enrich the quality of soil.
Yeast multiplies rapidly and produces carbon dioxide by respiration this causes bubbles of gas that fill the dough and in -
crease its volume. So it’s used in making bread, pastries and cakes.
Miscellaneous:

1. Some Antibiotics are made from fungi and bacteria. However antibiotics don’t work against viral infections.
Antibiotic like penicillin stops creation of a cell wall in bacteria but as humans don’t create a cell wall it has no ef-
fect on humans. Viruses don’t follow these pathways and hence viral infections don’t have antibiotics.
2. Analgesics relieve pain, antihistamines relieve inflammation.
3. Sodium benzoate [can be metabolized by body], sodium metabisulphide, salts of propanoic, sorbic acid and edi-
ble oils are some common preservatives. Sugar reduces moisture content and so microbes can’t grow.
4. Aspartame [100x sweeter than sugar; used in cold drinks, cold foods], sucralose [600x], saccharin [550x; used
by diabetic patients to sweeten food; is excreted in urine], alitame are artificial sweeteners.
5. Evolution isn’t progress from lower to higher forms. But evolution seems to have given birth to complex designs
even when simpler designs continue to flourish.

Chapter 5: FABRICS

Introduction
Fabrics like cotton, silk are made of yarns and yarns are made of fibers.
Types of Fibers:

Natural Fibers: Cotton, jute [plant], silk [cocoon of silkworm], wool [sheep, goats, rabbits, yak, camels hair] are made of
fibers of plants and animals.
Cotton:
Cotton is a polymer of cellulose, which is made up of large number of glucose units.
Wool:
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Angora wool is obtained from angora goats of J&K. Wool of Kashmiri goat is used to make pashmina shawls. Llama and
alpaca of South America also yield wool.
Silk:
Sericulture – Rearing of silkworms to obtain silk.
Properties of Natural fibers:

1. Cotton: Obtained from fruits [bolls] of the plant. Grown in black soil and warm places.
2. Jute:
• Obtained from stem.
• Harvested during flowering stage.
• Grown during rainy season.
• Stem are immersed in water and they rot. Then fibers are separated.
3. Flax: A natural fiber from plants.

Artificial Fibers: Synthetic fibers burn easily and stick to the body of person. Synthetic fibers are all made from petro-
chemicals.
Rayon:
Rayon is artificial silk it’s made by chemical treatment of wood pulp.
Nylon:

Nylon is a fully synthetic fiber made up of coal, water and air. A string of nylon is stronger than string of steel so it’s used
in making parachutes and ropes.
Polyester:
Polyester is used for wrinkle free clothes.
Terelyne:
Terelyne is polyester. PET is polyester used for making bottles, utensils, wires etc
Acrylic:
Acrylic is artificial wool.

Plastics

Plastics are Polymers. Some bend on heating and are called thermoplastics [PVC, Polythene]. Some molded once
don’t change their shape called thermosetting plastics. [Bakelite, melamine]
Teflon is used in non stick cookware. Melamine is used on coat of firemen so it makes them flame resistant.
Rubber

Rubber – is manufactured from rubber latex which is a colloidal dispersion of rubber in water. It’s a linear polymer of iso-
prene called cis 1, 4 isoprene. Since natural rubber is brittle at low temperatures and soft at high temperatures it is
treated with Sulfur in a process called Vulcanization.

SHEEP BREEDS
Lohi – Raj, Punjab
Rampur bushair – UP, HP
Nali- Raj, Punjab, Haryana
Bakharwal – J&K
Marwadi, pathanwadi – Gujarat

Table 1: Sheep breeds of India

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Note: Anthrax is a blood disease common among wool sorters.

Chapter 6:ELEMENTS

Introduction

Metals are malleable [can be beaten into sheets], ductile [pulled into wires] and conductors of heat and electricity,
sonorous [produce ringing sounds when struck].
Exceptions:

1. lithium, sodium, potassium [alkali metals] are soft and can be cut;
2. mercury is liquid at room temperature.
3. Iodine is a non metal but lustrous.
4. Carbon exits as different allotropes like diamond [hardest substance, sharpening tools, manufacturing tungsten
filaments for light bulbs, cutting, grinding], and graphite [conductor of electricity, lubricant in machines where oil
can’t be used due to high temperature].

Facts of Metals

Generally, oxides of metals are basic and non metals are acidic.

Sodium is very reactive with oxygen and hence stored in kerosene. Phosphorous reacts with oxygen so kept in water.
Brass [copper+zinc], bronze [copper+tin], solder [lead+tin] welding electrical wires together.
Metals react with acids to produce hydrogen gas. Non metals don’t react.
More reactive metals can replace less reactive metals in reactions.
Out of 98 naturally occurring elements, 20 are non metals. Most are metals. Bromine is non metal, which is liquid at room
temperature. Metalloids have property of both metals and non metals. e.g.: boron, silicon, and germanium.

Coke is a pure form of carbon, used in manufacture of steel.

Coal tar is starting material for synthetic fibers, drugs, naphthalene balls are made from coal tar.
Chemical Properties of Match-stick:
Matchstick has antimony trisulphide and potassium chlorate. The rubbing surface has powdered glass and red phospho-
rous. On striking the surface, red phosphorous get converted to white phosphorous which reacts with potassium chlorate
to create enough heat to ignite the antimony trisulphide.
Carbon dioxide as an extinguisher:

CO2 is a good fire extinguisher if petrol or oil is burning. Even electrical fires are extinguished by using CO2 as it cuts off
oxygen supply to fire by making a protective blanket as it’s heavier than O2.
Heat Energy:
The amount of heat energy produced on complete combustion of 1 kg of a fuel is called its calorific value. The calorific
value of a fuel is expressed in a unit called kilo-Joules per kg (kJ/kg).
A paper cup filled with water doesn’t burn as heat is transferred to the water and it doesn’t reach its ignition temperature.

Ethylene Glycol [antifreeze] reduces freezing point of water to -17.2C.

Lavoisier’s laws of chemical compositions:
Mass can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
In chemical substances, the elements are always present in definite proportion by mass.
1 atomic mass unit was equal to exactly one twelfth the weight of one atom of carbon-12.
Ions are charged particles, positively charged are cat ions and negatively charged are anions.
The number of particles present in 1 mole of any substance is fixed as 6.022*10^23. 1 mole of a substance is its relative
atomic or molecular mass in grams.

e.g.: 1 mole of carbon atoms = 12 g of carbon atoms.

Atoms and Properties:
Sub atomic particles, electrons were discovered by J.J.Thomson by the cathode ray experiment and protons were dis-
covered by Goldstein. Chadwick discovered neutrons.
Atomic number is the number of protons in an atom. Mass number is the sum of protons and neutrons.
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Isotopes have same atomic number [due to same number of protons but different number of neutrons] but different
mass numbers. e.g.: isotopes of hydrogen are protium, deuterium and tritium. Chemical properties of isotopes are same
[as they depend on electronic structure] but their physical properties are different.
Special isotopes: isotope of cobalt is used to treat cancer. Isotope of iodine is used to treat goiter.
Isobars: atoms of different elements with same mass number but different atomic number.
Isotones have same number of neutrons but different number of protons [and electrons].
Becquerel discovered radioactivity. In this an unstable nucleus undergoes decay.
Types of decay are
1. ά – Decay: helium nucleus is emitted. Heavy, slow, least penetrating, easily blocked, positive charged.
2. B-decay: electrons or positrons are emitted. Less Heavy, fast, more penetrating [100 times more than al-
pha], tough to block, negatively / positively [positron] charged.
3. γ-decay: high energy photons are emitted. Lightest, fastest, highly penetrating [1000 times more than alpha],
toughest to block, no charge.
Miscellaneous:

Dihydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe [70% of total mass of the universe]. Oxygen is the most abun-
dant element [up to 47%] on earth.
The mixture of CO and H2 is called water gas or synthetic gas. It’s used in the synthesis of hydrocarbons and methanol.
Hydrogenation of vegetable oils using nickel as catalyst gives edible oils.
Aqua regia is mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acid in ratio of 3:1 it can dissolve even gold and platinum.
Anaesthesia is oxygen and nitrous oxide. Carbogen is 95% oxygen and 5% CO2, it stimulates natural breathing.
Zones of candle flame: Outer zone [blue] – hottest, middle zone [yellow] –less hot, inner zone [black] – least hot.
In limestone caves, stalactites are seen hanging from the roofs and stalagmites are seen at the bottom of the cave.

Chapter 7:MIXTURES

Introduction

Homogenous mixtures have a uniform composition throughout e.g. salt water and sugar water, tincture alcohol
[iodine+alcohol]. Solid solutions like alloys [brass = zinc + copper] and gaseous solutions like air are possible too.
Heterogeneous mixtures have non uniform composition and physically distinct parts. e.g.: salt and iron fillings, salt and
sulfur.
Suspensions are solutions in which solutes don’t dissolve in the solvents but remain in suspension. e.g.: chalk powder
in water.
Colloids: these are heterogeneous mixtures but the solutes are small in size they can’t be visible to naked eye and so
the mixture appears homogenous. Colloids can scatter beam of light passing through it i.e. tydall effect. Also the parti-
cles of a colloid don’t settle if left undisturbed. e.g.: milk

Components of a colloid are:

Dispersed phase [solute-like] and Dispersing medium [solvent like].
These can be separated by Centrifugation.

Dispersed Phase Dispersing Medium Type Example

Liquid Gas Aerosol Fog, clouds, mist

Solid Gas Aerosol Smoke, automobile exaust
Gas Liquid Foam Shaving cream
Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, face cream
Solid Liquid Sol Milk of magnesia, mud
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 Gas Solid Foam Foam, rubber, sponge, pumice

Liquid Solid Gel Jelly, cheese, butter

Solid Solid Solid Sol Coloured gemstone, milky glass

Table 1: Examples of colloids

Ref: N.C.E.R.T. Textbook Class VI
Chromatography is the process of separating of solutes that dissolve in the same solvent. It’s also used for separating
colors in dye, pigments from natural colors and drugs from blood.
Separation of two miscible liquids that have sufficient difference in their boiling points can be done by distillation. If dif-
ference is less than 25k then fractional distillation is done.

Miscellaneous facts:
Important Alloys:
a. Brass [copper + zinc]
b. Bronze [copper + tin],
c. Solder [lead + tin] welding electrical wires together.

Solved Question Papers

Q. Consider the following pairs:

Commonly used material vs. Unwanted or controversial chemicals found in them
1. Lipstick: Lead
2. Soft drinks: Brominated vegetable oils
3. Chinese fast food: Monosodium glutamate
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched? (UPSC CSAT 2017)

1. 1 only

2. 2 and 3 only

3. 1 and 3 only

4. 1, 2 and 3

Ans . D

Q. Consider the following statements:

1. In tropical regions, Zika virus disease is transmitted by the same mosquito that transmits dengue.
2. Sexual transmission of Zika virus disease is possible.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (UPSC CSAT 2017)

1. 1 only

2. 2 only

3. Both 1 and 2

4. Neither 1 nor 2

Ans . C

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Dengue, Zika and chikungunya are spread through a common vector, the Aedes aegypti mosquito. Although Zika virus is
primarily transmitted through mosquitoes, it can also be sexually transmitted as well.

Q. The terms Event Horizon, Singularity, ‘String Theory and Standard Model are sometimes seen in the news in
the context of (UPSC CSAT 2017)

1. Observation and understanding of the Universe

2. Study of the solar and the lunar eclipses

3. Placing satellites in the orbit of the Earth

4. Origin and evolution of living organisms on the Earth

Ans . A

Q. What is the purpose of ‘evolved Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (eLISA)’ project? (UPSC CSAT 2017)

1. To detect neutrinos

2. To detect gravitational waves

3. To detect the effectiveness of missile defence system

4. To study the effect of solar flares on our communication systems

Ans . B

Q. In India, it is legally mandatory for which of the following to report on cyber security incidents?
1. Service providers
2. Data centres
3. Body corporate
Select the correct answer using the code given below: (UPSC CSAT 2017)

1. 1 only

2. 1 and 2 only

3. 3 only

4. 1, 2 and 3

Ans . D

Chapter 8:WATER

Introduction

22 March is World water day. UN recommends 50 liters of water per person per day. 2003 was the international year of
freshwater observed by the UN. 2005-2015 was the international decade for action on WATER FOR LIFE.71 % of earth
is covered with water.

Properties of Water
1. Water has high boiling point, high freezing point, high heat of vaporization
2. high heat of fusion [controls body temperature],
3. specific heat [leads to moderation of temperature of climate],
4. thermal conductivity,
5. dipole movement,
6. excellent solvent [helps in transportation of ions in plants],

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 7. Amphoteric [acts as acid and base] and high dielectric constant. This is due to extensive presence of strong
bond between hydrogen.

Hardness of Water
Temporary hardness of water is due to calcium and magnesium hydrogen carbonates. It can be removed by boiling and
addition of lime. This converts them to carbonates and hydroxide which are soluble.
Permanent hardness is due to presence of Magnesium and calcium chlorides and sulphates it is treated using washing
soda.

Aquifers
Aquifers are underground water resources where water is stored between rock layers.
Earths Water Composition:

Oceans – 97%
Polar ice caps – 2%
Ground water – 0.61%
Lakes - 0.009%
Saline lakes and inland sea – 0.008%
soil moisture – 0.005%
Water vapor – 0.001%
rivers – 0.0001%

TABLE 1: WATER SUPPLY

Miscellaneous
During rains, the canopy of trees allows water to trickle down slowly via stems and roots to theground. This ensures that
water doesn’t hit ground directly as it could lead to damage to the soil by erosion.
During fires we must wrap a woolen blanket over a burning object to cut off the supply of air to it

During heavy rains, water flows into soil and covers all air pockets so earthworms rise to the surface to breathe.
Hydrogen peroxide is used as a bleaching agent, treating industrial effluents and pollution control.
Eucalyptus trees should be planted along sewage lines as these absorb wastewater and release water vapor into the at-
mosphere.

Chapter 09:ENVIRONMENT

Introduction

Herbs – Plants with green and tender stems almost no branches. E.g: Tomato – Herb
Shrubs – Branches near the base, thin but hard stem. E.g: Lemon- shrub
Tree- Thick, brown stems. Tall with branches near the top. Mango – Tree. Branchy part of the tree above the stem is
called crown. Crowns of tall trees form a roof like structure called Canopy. Crowns of smaller trees form a lower layer
called Under-storey.

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Creepers-plants with weak stems that spread on ground or take support of other structures. [Money plants, beanstalk,
gourd, grape vines]

Parts of a Plant

Stem – conducts water and minerals.

The part of a leaf by which it is attached to the stem - petiole.

The broad, green part of the leaf - lamina

Veins – lines present on the leaf. Thick line in middle is midrib.
Design of veins – venation is of two types reticulate – net like or parallel.
Transpiration – Leaves releasing water in the form of water vapor. The evaporation of water from leaves creates a suc -
tion that pulls water from roots to greater height. It also cools the plant.

Plant Tissues

Xylem is the tissue in plants for transportation of water and minerals. Food is transported by a second tissue called
phloem. Xylem is made of trachids, vessels, parenchyma and fibers. Unidirectional movement is possible.
Phloem is also a complex permanent tissue like xylem and consists of sieve tubes, companion cells, parenchyma and
fibers. Transport food in both directions.

Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis – Leaves prepare food using carbon dioxide and water and food produced is stored in form of starch.
Oxygen is released in this process. Amount of oxygen released during photosynthesis is much higher than the CO2 that
is released during night time.
The following things occur in photosynthesis, absorption of light energy by chlorophyll, conversion of light energy into
chemical energy and splitting of water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. Reduction of CO2 into carbohydrates.
These steps need not occur immediately.
Leaves take in CO2 from atmosphere through pores present on surface called stomata; these are surrounded by guard
cells. Leaves have a green pigment called chlorophyll that captures energy from the sun and uses it to synthesize food
using water and CO2. Roots also take in air from the soil.

Types of food production in Plants

Cuscuta is a parasitic plant that takes nutrition from other host plants. Pitcher plant is insectivorous plant but it also
carries out photosynthesis. These plant doesn’t get sufficient nutrition from the soil.
Fungi like yeast, Mushrooms are saprotrophs that feed on decaying matter.
Symbiotic relationship: Some organisms live together and share food and nutrients. [Lichens – Algae and fungus live to-
gether. Algae provide food by photosynthesis and fungi provide water, nutrients and shelter. They are good indicators
of pollution as they don’t grow in polluted areas. ]

[Rhizobium a bacteria converts atmospheric nitrogen into soluble form; this is absorbed by the leguminous plants that in
turn provide it shelter and food. Thus nitrogenous fertilizers are not needed for leguminous plants. ]
Mycorrhizal fungi – Phosphorous fixing fungi lives in the roots of higher plants.
Frankia – nitrogen fixer bacteria for non leguminous plants.
Blue green algae, nostoc, azotobacter and Lightning are also nitrogen fixers. Ammonia is converted to nitrites by ni-
tro somas and nitrococcus. This is converted to nitrate by nitrobacteria.
Nitrate poisoning of ground water causes methaemoglobina [blue baby syndrome].

Roots and their features

Roots- absorb water and nutrients from soil by a process called osmosis. They anchor the plant to the soil. Root hairs in-
crease surface area for absorption.
Root types are tapped root [a main root and lateral root] or fibrous roots [hair like roots]. Some plants like banyan, grass
roots arise from parts other than radicle called adventitious roots.
Plants with tap roots have reticulate venation and with fibrous roots have parallel venation system.
Edible roots - carrot, radish, sweet potato, turnip and tapioca.
Roots, stems, leaves are vegetative parts of plants and flowers are reproductive parts of plants.
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Plant Tissues

Two types of tissues in plants – permanent [non-growing] and meristematic [growing]. Depending on their location they
are apical, intercalary or lateral. Initially meristems grow cells same as themselves but as these cells grow and mature
they get differentiated into components of other tissues. Meristem cells have dense cytoplasm, no vacuoles, thin cell
walls and large nuclei.
Permanent tissue is of multiple types like
Parenchyma – these are living tissues which store food and provide support to plants. They may contain chlorophyll and
then it’s called chlorenchyma. In floating plants it has air in the intercellular space and is responsible for buoyancy and
called aerenchyma.
Collenchymas are living tissue which provides mechanical support to plant and also flexibility without breaking.
Sclerenchyma is dead tissue but hard and no intercellular space. It provides mechanical support to plant. Cell walls are
thick due to lignin. Epidermis is the single, continuous layer of cells that covers entire plant body. It has pores called
stomata at certain in points that allow gaseous exchange. Epidermis is thicker in plants in deserts to prevent water loss.

Plant Nutrients:

Macronutrients: These are present in plant tissue in large number; some are obtained from water [H, O], from air [C]
and rest from soil [N, P, K, Ca, Mg, and S]. Useful as components of biomolecules, activate/inhibit enzymes, components
of energy related substance, affect osmotic potential of cell,
Micronutrients: Needed in small amounts. These include iron, manganese, copper, molybdenum, zinc, boron, chlorine
and nickel.
Deficiency of N, K, and Mg are visible in senescent leaves as biomolecules with these elements are broken down to mo -
bilize younger leaves. Boron and calcium deficiency leads to death of meristem, buds and tips. Phosphorous deficiency
[blue leaves] and Fe, Mn, Mg, N deficiency [yellow leaves].

Miscellaneous
Green manures – cover crop that is planted on the field and ploughed under while its green. This is done to improve nu -
trients in the soil.
Legumes [N2 fixers] – cowpea, soybean,
Non legumes [add biomass, suppress weeds] – sorghum, millets, sudan grass, buckwheat
Cocaine is obtained from coca plant. Charas, ganja, hashish, and marijuana are obtained from cannabis. Opium, mor-
phine, thebaine and heroin are obtained from poppy plant.

Chapter 10:FLOWERS

Introduction
Flowers can be Unisexual [male or female reproductive parts] or Bisexual [both reproductive organs]. Male / Female
unisexual and bisexual flowers can be on same plant or different plants.
Parts of a Flower
Petals – Prominent parts of an open flower.

Sepals – Small leaf like structures enclosing petals

Stamens [male reproductive part] – Inner parts of the flower are made of anthers [pollen grains or male gametes
present here] and filaments.
Pistil [female reproductive part] – Inner parts of the flower contains ovary, style, stigma. Ovary has ovules [egg or fe-
male gametes here].
Process of Reproduction in Plants

Transfer of pollen to stigma is called pollination. It can happen by agents like wind, water or insects. It can be self pollina-
tion [if pollen falls on stigma of same flower] or cross pollination [if it falls on stigma of different flower of same plant or dif-
ferent plant of same kind]
The male and female gamete fuse to form zygote [fertilization], zygote becomes an embryo.
After fertilization, ovary becomes fruit and ovules become seeds. Seeds contain the embryo. Other parts fall off.

Chapter 11:SOIL

Introduction

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Soil has the following layers:
Topsoil or A-Horizon: Humus, top most layer, retains water, provides shelter to organisms
B-Horizon: Middle layer, harder and more compact
C-Horizon: Rocky
Bedrock: last layer.
Soil is clayey if proportion of fine particles is more, sandy if proportion of big particles is more and loamy if equal propor-
tion of fine and big particles. Loamy soil is best for plants, sandy soil is well drained and clayey soil retains water.
Clayey soil used for making pots, toys and statues.
Types of Crops:

Kharif crops: Grown in rainy season from June to September.

Rabi crops: Grown from October to march during winter season. e.g.: wheat, rapeseed, mustard, linseed, gram and
pea.

Chapter 12:BODY JOINTS

Introduction

Ball and Socket joint - The rounded end of one bone fits into the cavity of the other bone. Such a joint allows movement
in all directions. [Shoulder and arm]

head joins our neck at a pivot joint.

Hinge Joint – only allows back and forth movements. [Elbow]
Fixed joints – immovable joint [upper jaw and head]
Cartilage – Additional parts of skeleton but not hard as bones. [Ear]

Muscles – Required to make movement. Two muscles are needed to move a bone. While one contracts the other ex-
pands. Contracting bone moves a muscle in its direction and then its paired muscle expands. When the other muscle
contracts the bone moves in the second direction.This causes movement.

Animal Tissues
Animal tissues are of multiple types like:
Epithelial tissue: it is a protective tissue that covers all parts of the body. It has no intercellular space. It allows material
to pass through it but only selective materials. It has many types like squamous, ciliated, columnar, tall etc depending on
structure.

Connective tissue: Blood, bones [made of calcium and phosphorous compounds] and ligaments [join bones together],
cartilage [smoothens bone surfaces at joints], tendons [connect muscles and bones] are types. Adipose connective tis-
sue stores fats between internal organs to act as insulator.
Muscular [striated, unstriated and cardiac] and nervous tissues [made of neurons that receive and conduct impulses] are
other types.
Miscellaneous
Muscles can only pull not push.

Fine hair and mucus in our nose prevents dust from entering the human body.
Earthworm eats its way through the soil. Its body throws undigested material that it eats;this makes the soil more fertile. It
breathes through its skin. Air present inside the water and soil is used for breathing by the earthworms. Insects have tra-
cheas to breathe.
Birds have hollow bones.
Snails move with the help of a muscular foot.
Chapter 13:ORGANISMS AND ENVIRONMENT

Introduction

Ecology – study of relationship between organisms and environment

Ecosystems – functional unit of nature encompassing interaction between its biotic and abiotic components.
Habitat – surrounding where organisms live. It has abiotic components like rocks, soil, air, water and light. It also has bi-
otic components like plants, micro organisms, animals. 70% of all species are animals [out of 10 animals 7 are insects]
and 22% are plants.
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Food chain - a series of organisms feeding on each other taking part at various biotic levels. Each step of the food chain
is called trophic level. At each trophic level, 10% of the energy present is passed on to the higher trophic level. [10%
law] i.e. from plants to herbivores to carnivores.
Transfer of energy in trophic levels is unidirectional. The pyramid of trophic levels shows sharp decline from bottom to
top.
Living organisms are classified into 5 broad kingdoms: Monera, Protista, fungi, plantae, and animalia.

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Page 16 of 40
 Fig 1: Biomass Pyramid
However the aquatic biomass pyramid is inverted. A small mass of phytoplankton support a large mass of zooplanktons.

Fig 2: Aquatic ecosystem - Inverted biomass pyramid

Since at each level organisms are eaten by several other organisms at higher level, we use food webs to depict these.
Bio-magnification is phenomenon when harmful substances absorbed by lower level are passed on to higher trophic
levels. However at higher trophic levels, the concentration of these substances increases [magnifies] as these feed on
large number of organisms from lower trophic levels.

Eutrophication is the natural aging of the river or water body due to nutrient enrichment. Acceleration of this happens
when manmade activities release pollutants in the lakes. This affects aquatic life and increases growth of water hyacinth
[most problematic weed]. The lake literally chokes to death.
Bio fortification is breeding crops with higher levels of vitamins and minerals.
Bio remediation is use of microbes to make toxic waste harmless.
Mega biodiversity regions

Mega biodiversity region is the region between tropic of cancer and Capricorn. This is since the tropical areas have been
undisturbed for a long time enough for species diversification also more solar energy is available and temperature is con-
stant and predictable. Half the world’s biodiversity is located in few countries like Brazil, India, Columbia, equator, Peru,
Indonesia, Zaire, Madagascar, China and Malaysia.
Acclimatization
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Acclimatization: Small but rapid changes taking place in a single organism to overcome changes in thesurrounding.
When we reach high altitudes, due to low pressure body doesn’t get enough oxygen and this is countered by increasing
breathing rate, RBC count inblood and reducing binding affinity of hemoglobin.
e.g.: when we move from plains to mountains we breathe faster.

Camels have long legs to keep body away from the heat of the ground. They don’t sweat, their dung is dry and urine is
very less.
Fishes have streamlined body and fins to help move and change direction in water. They have scales on skin to protect
the body and help in easy movement. Gills help them use oxygen dissolved in water.
Aquatic animals use the carbonates dissolved in sea water to make their shells. This is another reason why CO2 is less
in the atmosphere.

As oxygen dissolved in water is less, aquatic animals breathe faster than terrestrial. However as temperature decreases
oxygen solubility in water increases, thus aquatic animals are more comfortable in cold waters than warm.
Scuba divers have a lower concentration of nitrogen and higher conc. of oxygen and helium in the breathing tank as un-
der pressure of sea the other atmospheric gases dissolve more in blood. When the diver comes to shore, this pressure
decreases and dissolved gases are released. This would create bubbles in blood vessels.
Polar bears have two thick fur layers under their skin and a layer of fat that insulates them from cold.

Small animals are rarely found in cold areas as they might lose body heat quickly due to the larger surface area relative
to the volume.
In deep oceans we find brown algae as only certain components of visible light can penetrate depth of sea.
Desert plants like cactus don’t have leaves but spines. They loose very little water by transpiration. Photosynthesis is
carried out in the stems. CAM pathway is a special photosynthesis mechanism which keeps stomata closed during it.
They have very long roots.

Mountain plants might have cone shaped structure with sloping branches or needle like leaves. The rainwater or snow
slides off easily. Animals in such areas have thick skins or fur.
Some birds, fish even insects migrate seasonally to more hospitable regions.
Animals in tropical rainforests see intense competition over food.
Plants lack nervous system or muscles.

Photochemical smog is formed due to peroxyacetyl nitrate, hydrocarbons, ozone, nitric oxide, formaldehyde and sun-
light. It is called oxidizing smog. To solve this we could plant pinus, junipirus, and pyrus as they metabolize NO2.
To increase CO2 solubility in soft drinks, the bottle is sealed under high pressure.

Chapter 14:REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

Introduction

It can be asexual or sexual. In asexual, new plants are obtained without seeds and in sexual they are obtained from
seeds.
Vegetative propagation is a part of asexual reproduction where new plant is grown from vegetative parts of plant.
Plants obtained from vegetative propagation grow faster, bear fruits, flowers fast and are exact copies of the parent.

e.g.: Rose – stems, potato, ginger, turmeric – buds, bryophyllum – leaves, sweet potato, dahlia –roots.
Yeast reproduces by budding, algae by fragmentation, fungi, moss, ferns by spore formation.
External fertilization i.e. fusion of male and female gametes outside the body is common in aquatic animals.

Viviparous animals give birth to young ones, oviparous animals lay eggs.
Adolescence may begin earlier in girls. They may grow faster than boys too.

Chapter 15:CHROMOSOMES

Introduction

The male has two chromosomes X and Y, the female has only X chromosomes. During reproduction if X and X chromo-
some come together than the zygote shall develop into female if X and Y chromosome fuse, then zygote shall develop
into male.
Gender Determination
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The sex of the offspring depends on whether he inherits X chromosome from father making it XX pair [female child] or Y
chromosome from father making it XY pair [male child].
Facts about Blood Group
Also if one parent has blood group A and second B, then offspring may get AB.

If one parent = A, second parent =O, then A;

If one parent = B, second parent =O, then offspring may get B;
If one parent = O, second parent =O, then offspring may get O.
If one parent = AB, second parent =A/B/O, then offspring may get AB;
Chromosomal disorders
There are 23 chromosomes, 22 autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosomes.

Genetic disorders are Hemophilia [sex chromosome linked passed from mother to son], Cystic fibrosis, Sickle-cell
anemia [autosomal – can be passed from any parent to offspring], Color blindness [sex chromosome linked passed
from mother to son, in rare cases to daughters if father is color blind and mother is a carrier], Phenylketonuria
[autosomal], Thalassemia [ autosomal ] due to defective genes.
Miscellaneous

Allergic person release IgE antibody and the blood cells release histamines these cause allergic reaction.

Chapter 16: HORMONES

Human Hormones
Pituitary gland is an endocrine [ductless] gland. The hormones of pituitary gland stimulate testes and ovaries to pro-
duce their hormones. It also stimulates thyroid and adrenals to secrete their hormones. Pituitary gland produces growth
hormone necessary for normal growth of a person.

Other endocrine glands are thyroid [secretes thyroxin controls metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats lack of
which causes goiter]; pancreas [produce insulin lack of which causes diabetes] and adrenals [produce adrenalin which
helps adjust to stress].

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 Fig 1: Glands of the body
Plant Hormones

Auxins: These are indole compounds. Helps the cells grow longer, rooting of stems, promote flowering, prevent early
dropping of fruits and leaves but enhance dropping of old leaves. It is also used as weed killer of dicots.
Gibberellins: helps in the growth of stems, elongation of fruits. All are acidic.
Cytokinins: Promote cell division.
Ethylene: Hastens ripening of fruits by increasing their respiration rate.
Abscisic acid: inhibits growth, leads to wilting of leaves.

Miscellenous

Thyroxin causes morphosis of tadpoles into frogs. Thyroxin needs iodine, so if the water in which tadpoles swims don’t
have iodine. The tadpoles can’t become frogs.

Chapter 17: MOTIONS, MEASUREMENTS OR DISTANCES

Laws of Motion

Newton’s laws of motion

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First law [law of inertia]: An object remains in the state of rest or uniform motion till a force compels it to change that
state. Tendency of objects to stay at rest or keep moving is inertia.
e.g.:

1. when a bus starts motion our body is pulled backwards as it is at rest and the feet and bus are in motion.
2. When a bus applies brakes the body moves forward as it’s in motion but the feet and the bus are in rest.
3. When a car takes a turn our body swings as it was in a straight line motion.
4. When we make a heap of carom coins and take a striker and hit them then the lowermost coin moves, but the re-
maining heap falls in place due to inertia.
Inertia is present in all objects; more the mass more is the inertia. Hence mass is a measure of inertia.
Second law: The rate of change of momentum of an object is proportional to the applied unbalanced force which is in
the direction of the force.
e.g.:

1. A cricketer catching a ball pulls his hand back to increase the time his hand takes to reduce the speed of ball to
zero.
2. An athlete also jumps on a cushion to increase the time his body would take to reduce its speed to zero.
3. A karate artist breaks a slab of ice with a single blow using same principle.
4. A small bullet can kill a man if its momentum is great, a heavy truck moving a small speed can kill a man easily
sue to it momentum.
Third law: Every action has an equal and opposite reaction.
e.g.: when a bullet is fired, the force by which it moves forward causes recoil of the gun. When the sailor jumps forward,
his boat moves backwards.
Energy and types of Energy

Kinetic energy is possessed by an object by virtue of its motion.

Potential energy is possessed by an object by virtue of its position or configuration.
Sum of potential and kinetic energy is called Mechanical energy.
Power is the rate at which work is done. [Unit = watt] Commercial unit of energy is kilowatt hour, thus electrical energy
used by an appliance in a month is in kilowatt hour this is also expressed in terms of “unit”.

e.g.: when we stretch a bow the potential energy that is stored in it gets transferred into kinetic when the bow is released.
When an object is raised it has gravitational potential energy due to the work done in raising it.

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 Fig 1: Types of energy
Miscellaneous

In 1790 French came up with a standard system of measurements. High speed winds are accompanied by reduced air
pressure.

Time period [time to complete one oscillation] of a pendulum of a given length is constant. Pendulum were discovered
by Galileo Galilee
Speedometer – measures vehicle speed.
Odometer- measures distance traveled.
Galileo Galilee: proposed a new design to the telescope. Designed barometer and pendulum. Discovered moons of
Jupiter and the sunspots. He said all planets revolve around the sun not earth.
Kepler's Laws:

1. First law: Orbit of planets is ellipse with Sun as a foci.

2.
3. Second law: Line joining the planets and the sun sweeps equal areas in equal intervals of time.
4.
5. Third law: Cube of the mean distance is equal to square of the time period.

Chapter 18: CLIMATE

Climate

Air moves from region of high air pressure to low air pressure. Air when heated rises as it becomes lighter. Air expands
on heating.

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Thunderstorms develop in hot, humid tropical areas like India very frequently. The rising temperatures produce strong
upward rising winds. These winds carry water droplets upwards, where they freeze, and fall down again. The swift move-
ment of the falling water droplets along with the rising air creates lightning and sound. It is this event that we call a thun -
derstorm.

Cyclone names
Typhoons – Philippines, Japan
Hurricane – American continents

Chapter 19: LIGHT, SHADOWS, REFLECTIONS

Introduction

Light is made of seven colors. Violet [lowest wavelength] bends most when passing through a prism and red [highest
wavelength] least. This phenomenon is called dispersion. It is a transverse wave not a mechanical wave.
Law of reflection says that Angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. Also the angle of incidence, angle of re -
flection and normal lie on the same plane.
Diffusion is caused when the reflection surface is irregular so reflected rays are not parallel.
Human Eye and its Constituents

The white part of the eye is tough to protect interior from accidents.
The transparent coating is called cornea. Behind the cornea is the iris, which gives color to the eye.
The iris has an opening called pupil. Iris controls the amount of light entering the eye. Behind the pupil is a convex
lens which focuses light on the retina.
The retina has two cells: rod shaped for dim light and cone shaped for bright light and colors.
Sensations of these cells go to the brain via the optic nerve.

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Sight Disorders

Sometimes the crystalline lens of eye becomes milky or translucent, this is called cataract.
In myopia, shortsightedness the person can’t see far away objects. This is corrected by using a concave lens.
Hyper metropia or farsightedness is corrected using convex lens.
Presbyopia affects accommodation of eye i.e. ability to adjust its focal length to see objects nearby or far. Such a person
uses bi-focal i.e. upper part concave for far sight and lower part convex for near sight.
Astigmatism: This occurs when the cornea is not spherical in shape. For example, the cornea could have a larger cur-
vature in the vertical plane than in the horizontal plane or vice-versa. If a person with such a defect in eye-lens looks at a
wire mesh or a grid of lines, focusing in either the vertical or the horizontal plane may not be as sharp as in the other
plane. Astigmatism results in lines in one direction being well focused while those in a perpendicular direction may ap-
pear distorted. Astigmatism can be corrected by using a cylindrical lens of desired radius of curvature with an appropri -
ately directed axis. This defect can occur along with myopia or hypermetropia.

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 Fig 2: Eye defects

Mirrors

Image formed by a plane mirror is virtual, erect, laterally inverted.

Spherical mirrors are concave or convex.
Concave Mirrors
Concave mirrors are used in dental equipment's, by doctors to check ear, nose, and throats. Reflectors of torches, head -
lights of vehicles, shaving mirrors to get enlarged image of face.
Image of concave mirrors can be real or virtual, inverted or erect and same size, larger or smaller, depending on position
of object with respect to mirror.

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 Fig 1: Concave mirror
Ref: N.C.E.R.T Class XI Science
P = center of the reflecting surface. Pole
C= Center of curvature. Lies outside in case of concave, inside in case of convex.
F= Principal focus. Distance between P and F is focal length f.
Convex Mirror

Convex mirror form image of objects spread over a large area. They are used in rear view or side mirrors of vehicles. Im-
ages are virtual, erect and diminished.

Fig 2: Convex Mirror

Ref: N.C.E.R.T Class XI Science
Lenses
Lenses are transparent. They form images by refraction of light.
Convex lens

Convex lenses [magnifying glass] are thicker at middle and thinner at edges.
Image of convex lens can be real or virtual, inverted or erect and same size, larger or smaller, depending on position of
object with respect to mirror [same as concave mirrors].
Concave lens
Image of concave lens is always virtual, erect and diminished [same as convex mirror].

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Convex lens is used in microscope, refracting telescopes, reflecting telescopes [also have concave lens].
Concave lenses are other way round. Convex lens are converging and concave lenses are diverging. Power of con-
vexlens is positive and concave lens is negative.
Miscelleneous

Refraction of light: Bending of light when it enters a medium is called refraction. Due to refraction pencil appears to
bend in water, coin in water appears raised. The object inside water appears enlarged. Twinkling of stars, advanced sun-
rise or delayed sunset and apparent flattening of sun at sunrise and sunset into oval shape is also caused due to atmo-
spheric refraction.
Dawn and twilight are also due to refraction. they are maximum at the poles and decrease towards the equator.

Total internal reflection occurs when a ray of light traveling from denser to rarer medium is incident at an angle more
than the critical angle, it is reflected inside and no refraction takes place.
e.g.: Mirage, diamonds can be cut in such a manner to facilitate total internal reflections to make it shiny, Optical fibers,
prisms.
When light ray entered from rarer [optically rarer] to denser [optically denser] medium it bends towards the normal [also
speed decreases] and when it enters rarer medium from denser it bends away from the normal [speed increases]. Opti-
cal density is different from mass density.
Light travels fastest in vacuum, then air, then liquids and finally solids.
Tydall effect - Scattering of light causes blue sky phenomenon and reddening of sun at sunrise and sunset. Blue wave -
length is easily scattered by dust particles, hence sky appears blue. Violet is scattered more easily than blue but our
eyes are more sensitive to blue color. However at a great height effect of scattering are negligible so sky appears dark.
Alert lights are Red as it has higher wavelength and won’t be scattered by dust or fog or smoke.
Similarly at sunrise or sunset, the sunlight travels greater distance to reach us; the smaller wavelengths are already
scattered so only longer wavelength i.e. Red reaches us.

Day birds have more cones than rod cells and in night birds reverse is the case.
Braille pattern founded in 1821 has 63 characters.
Persistence of vision: Image on the retina persists for one sixteenth of a second after it’s removed. Hence in cinemas
the images are flashed at a rate faster than 16 per second.
Objects that give out light are luminous objects.
Shadows need a source of light and an opaque object.

Chapter 20: ELECTRICITY AND CIRCUITS

Conductors and Insulators

Conductors –Allow electricity to pass through them. Due to free electrons present on their surface. [Metals, Human
body]
Insulators – Don’t allow electricity to pass through them. [Air]
Pure water doesn’t conduct electricity. Most of the acids, bases and salts are conductors. When electrodes are dipped in
water and an electric current is passed through it, Oxygen bubbles formed on the electrode connected to the positive ter -
minal of the battery and hydrogen bubbles formed on the other electrode.
Effects of Electric current

Heating effect of electric current is used in geysers, heaters, irons etc. The heating produced in a wire depends on its
material, thickness, length. Bulbs have filament of tungsten that emits light when heated at high temperatures, it is also
filled with inert gas like nitrogen or argon.
Magnetic effect of current was discovered by Hans Oersted. This principle is used in electromagnets, electric bells.
Uses of Electric current

Electroplating is a common application of chemical effects of electric current.

e.g.: Chromium doesn’t rust or scratch so a metal is coated with chromium for utensils, tin is coated on iron in tin cans
so food doesn’t come in contact with iron. Iron objects are coated with zinc to prevent corrosion "Galvanization" .

Corrosion is an oxidation reaction.

Oily foods get oxidized if kept in the open and their taste changes [rancidity], due to this they are kept in air tight contain -
ers. Hence, Chips bags are flushed with nitrogen to prevent oxidation.
AC current can be transmitted farther than DC without much loss of electrical energy.
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Household devices are connected in parallel.
Fuel Cells

Fuel cells use reaction of oxygen and hydrogen, porous carbon electrodes and aqueous solution of NaOH. Platinum or
palladium electrodes are used as catalysts.

Fig 1: Fuel cell

Solved Question Papers

Q.With reference to ‘fuel cells’ in which hydrogen-rich fuel and oxygen are used to generate electricity, consider the fol-
lowing statements :
1. If pure hydrogen is used as a fuel, the fuel cell emits heat and water as by-products.
2. Fuel cells can be used for powering buildings and not for small devices like laptop computers.
3. Fuel cells produce electricity in the form of Alternating Current (AC).
Which of the statements given above is / are correct? (UPSC CSAT 2015)

• 1 only

• 2 and 3 only

• 1 and 3 only

• 1, 2 and 3

Ans . A

1. The purpose of a fuel cell is to produce an electrical current that can be directed outside the cell to do work, such
as powering an electric motor or illuminating a light bulb or a city.

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 2. One great appeal of fuel cells is that they generate electricity with very little pollution–much of the hydrogen and
oxygen used in generating electricity ultimately combines to form a harmless byproduct, namely water alongwith
releasing heat.
3. A single fuel cell generates a tiny amount of direct current (DC) electricity. In practice, many fuel cells are usually
assembled into a stack. If alternating current (AC) is needed, the DC output of the fuel cell must be routed
through a conversion device called an inverter.

Chapter 21: MAGNETISM

Introduction

All magnets have two poles, north seeking end or North Pole and south seeking end or South Pole.
Magnetic – Materials attracted towards a magnet [iron, nickel, cobalt]
Non magnetic – Materials that are not attracted towards a magnet.
A freely suspended bar magnet always rests in the North South direction.

Take a rectangular piece of iron. Place it on the table. Now take a bar magnet and place one ofits poles near one edge of
the bar of iron. Without lifting the bar magnet, move it along the length of the iron bar till you reach the other end. Now,lift
the magnet and bring the pole (the same pole you started with) to the same point of the iron bar from which you began.
Move the magnet again along theiron bar in the same direction as you did before. Repeating these several caused the
iron bar to become a magnet.
In magnetism, similar poles repel and opposite poles attract each other.
Magnetism can be lost by heating, hammering or dropping magnet from a height.
Electro-Magnetic Forces

Electromagnetic force can be attractive or repulsive but gravitational force is always attractive.
EM force is stronger than gravitational force.

Nuclear force is 100 times stronger than EM force but range is less.
Gravitational force doesn’t need an intervening medium.
Magnetic field produced by a current in a conductor decreases as the distance from it increases.
Right hand thumb rule gives the direction of magnetic field due to current in a conductor. Thumb points in the direction
of current and curled fingers point in direction of magnetic field.
Miscellaneous

Magnetic field is produced even by the weak electrical impulses of our nerve cells. Significant magnetic field is present in
brain and heart. The magnetic field produced by the body is the basis of MRI scans that get images of body parts.

Chapter 22: ACID, BASES and SALTS

Introduction

Acid [pH <7] – Sour, Base [14 > pH > 7] – bitter and soapy to touch. Water soluble base –alkali.
Turmeric, litmus [obtained from lichens], China rose are some natural indicators of acid, base. Vanilla, onions and clove
are olfactory indicators.

ACID OCCURS IN
acetic acid vinegar
formic acid ants sting
citric acid citrus fruits like lemon, orange
lactic acid curds
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 oxalic acid spinach, tomato
ascorbic acid [vit c] amla

Table 1: Acids and their natural occurances

BASES OCCUR IN
Calcium hydroxide lime water
ammonium hydroxide window cleaner
sodium or potassium hydroxide soap
magnesium hydroxide milk of magnesia

Table 2: Bases and their natural occurrences

Acid Base tests

Turmeric turns red with soap as soap is basic. Soap is sodium or potassium salt of long chain carboxylic acids, this
forms scum with hard water. However detergents are salts of ammonium or sulphonate salts, these don’t form scum with
hard water and remain effective. China rose turns dark pink for acidic and green for basic. Phenolphthalein turns
colorless with acid and pink with base.
Acid - Base Reactions

Acid reacts with base to get salt and water; heat is always evolved [exothermic]. Salt can be basic, acidic or neutral.
This is called neutralization. Salts of strong base and strong acid are neutral. Those of strong acid and weak base are
acidic and strong base, weak acid are basic. Blood is basic in nature.
Carbon dioxide turns lime water [calcium hydroxide] into milky [calcium carbonate]
Galvanization is depositing zinc on iron objects to prevent rusting as it cuts off contact of water vapor and oxygen with
iron. Stainless steel doesn’t rust, its iron and chromium, nickel, manganese and carbon
Miscellaneous

We take milk of magnesia [base] when we get indigestion due to excess hydrochloric acid in stomach.
To remove effect of ant bite [formic acid] we put moist baking soda [sodium bicarbonate] or calamine solution [zinc car-
bonate]. Nettle sting releases methanoic acid.
By adding excess fertilizers soil becomes acidic so we put quick lime [calcium oxide] or slaked lime [calcium hydroxide]
to it. To make it less basic we add organic matter to it.
Acid rain is caused by carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide which mix with water to become nitric acid, car-
bonic acid and sulphuric acid. Sulphur dioxide is emitted by coal based power plants.

Bleaching powder [calcium oxychloride] is used for bleaching clothes and disinfecting water. Washing soda is used for
removing permanent hardness of water and as a cleaning agent.
Plaster of Paris or calcium hemihydrates [CaSO4, ½ H2O] is used as a plaster to support fractured bones in the right
position. On mixing with water it becomes gypsum [CaSO4, 2H2O] which is hard.

Chapter 23: HEAT

Introduction
When a solid is heated the kinetic energy of the molecules is increased and it overcomes the force of attraction of mole -
cules and the solid melts. When a solid melts the temperature doesn’t increase, the heat energy is used up and is hidden
inside the solid and is used for changing its state so it’s called latent heat of fusion.

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Open system is where there is an exchange of matter and energy between system and surroundings. Closed system has
only exchange of energy. In isolated systems both are absent.
Law of Thermodynamics

First law of thermodynamics is the law of conservation of energy

“Energy can neither be created nor destroyed”.
Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat absorbed or reject by unit mass of a substance to raiseits temperature by
1°C. Water has higher specific heat than land and so it heats and cools slower. Skating is possible on snow as water is
formed belowthe skates due to low temperature. This acts as a lubricant.

F = 9C/5 + 32; F= temp in Fahrenheit, C= temp in Celsius

Effect of Heat on substances

Solids like camphor, ammonium chloride, naphthalene, anthracene turn from solid to gas on heating. This is called subli-
mation.
Even on application of pressure the state of matter changes. Pressure exerted by gases is measures using unit atmos -
phere. 1 atm is pressure at sea level.It decreases with height.

Evaporation occurs as a few particles of a liquid on its surface have higher kinetic energy and they break away from the
rest and turn into vapor.
In solids, heat is transferred from higher temperature to lower temperature by process called conduction [Copper is
coated on the bottom of the utensils as it’s a good conductor and helps in spreading out the heat evenly].
Water and air are poor conductors of heat. In water, when its heated hot water at the bottom rises up and cold water
moves down. This continues till the whole water is heated. This process is called convection.
Radiation is the process by which sun’s heat reaches us. Radiation doesn’t need a medium. All objects emit radiation
when heated; the frequency of radiation goes from lower to higher as the temperature increases.
States of Matters

Plasma – fourth state of matter. This consists of super energized and excited ionized gaseous matter. The neon bulb
has neon gas and CFL has argon or helium, this gets energized when electricity is passed through them. This creates
plasma that glows depending on the nature of the gas. In sun and stars plasma is created due to high temperatures and
produces light.
Bose-Einstein condensate – fifth state of matter. BEC is formed when a gas at very low density is cooled to su-
per low temperatures.
Density measured as kilogram per meter cube.
Natural gas contains methane [50-90%], ethane, propane, butane and hydrogen sulphide [waste]. LPG uses propane
and butane. when natural gas is heated we get carbon black used in tyre industries.
Nuclear Energy

Nuclear reactors work on nuclear fission [fission was discovered by Fermi]. Atom bombs also work on the same principle.
In reactors, neutrons need to be slowed to ensure interaction with the uranium isotope this is done using heavy water
[D2O] or graphite.

Cadmium rods are used to control the reaction. Energy produced by the sun and the working of the hydrogen bomb is
based on nuclear fusion.
India has a three stage nuclear program.
In first stage, the natural uranium is used as fuel, heavy water as moderator [pressurized heavy water reactors] and we
get plutonium.
In second stage, plutonium and uranium oxide is used to give uranium -233 in fast breeder reactors where no moderator
is needed.
In final stage, thorium and uranium-233 is used to get energy [thorium based reactors].
Heavy water reactors need frequent refueling and produce less energy compared to light water reactors that use distilled
water as coolant and fissile uranium -235 as fuel.
Miscellaneous

Anomalous behavior of water

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Water exhibits anomalous behavior below 4°C, its volume increases and density decreases. Due to this the ponds and
lakes freeze at the top during winters as at 4°C water becomes less dense and remains on top and solidifies. This leaves
animal and plant life intact at bottom.
Effect of Wool and Cotton on Heat
Dark clothes or surfaces absorb more heat and hence dark clothes are preferred in winter. Light clothes reflect more heat
and so such clothes are preferred in summer.

Wool is a bad conductor of heat, woolen fibers trap air and this prevents body heat from escaping. So woolen clothes are
preferred in winters. We should use two blankets instead of one in winters as the trapped layer of air between the blan-
kets prevents heat from escaping.
Cotton clothes are sweat absorbent, they expose the sweat to the atmosphere and when it evaporates it absorbs latent
heat from the body, this heat is removed and the body cools down.
Effect of Air parcel on heat
Construction of houses is done using hollow bricks that have air trapped in them. This prevents heating of houses during
summer and keeps flats cool. During winter the heat from flats doesn’t escape out keeping them warm.

Chapter 24: FORCE

Introduction

This is either contact [friction, muscular] or non contact [magnetic, electrostatic, gravitational, pressure]
Pressure
Pressure is inversely related to area. So smaller the area, larger the pressure for the same force.
Pressure and its real applications

E.g. Nail is easily pushed into wood from its pointed end than its head, tools for cutting have a sharp edge, shoulder bags
have broad straps, and porters carrying heavy loads wrap a cloth on their head.
A large wooden plank placed on top of the circus performer keeps his ribs from breaking when an elephant steps on him.

All above activities regulate pressure by changing the surface area.

Suits of astronauts are filed with air to counter the pressure exerted by the body otherwise their blood vessels would
burst as there no pressure on the moon.
At high altitudes, pressure is low so liquids boil at low temperature. Hence we use pressure cookers to cook.
In autoclaves to sterilize medical instruments, waters boiling point is increased by putting higher pressure on it.
Pressure by liquids

Liquids also exert equal pressure at the same depth. Air also exerts a great pressure on organisms but our body coun-
ters the pressure so we don’t feel anything.
Liquids are treated as in-compressible, whenever pressure is applied on any part of a liquid it is transmitted in all direc-
tions equally and undiminished. This principle is used in hydraulic lifts and brakes.

Chapter 25: SOUND

Share Quote
Introduction
What is Sound?
Sound is produced by vibrating objects. Vibrations cause compressions [high pressure] and rarefactions [low pressure].

Sound waves travel through a medium like this. Sound waves are longitudinal i.e. individual particles of a medium move
in a direction parallel to the direction of propagation of the disturbance. The particles don’t move physically but oscillate
back and forth.
In humans, the voice box or larynx has two vocal cords that produce sound through vibration when lungs force air
through them.
Vocal cords in males are 20mm, women 15mm and children even shorter.

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Fig 1: Larynx and Physiology of ear
Eardrum vibrates when sound waves hit it; these vibrations are sent to the brain from the inner ear.
The sound waves are collected by the pinna [outer ear] these then pass through the auditory canal to the ear drum
which amplifies it. The middle ear [hammer, anvil, and stirrup] then amplifies it and sends it to the inner ear. In the inner
ear [the cochlea] converts it to electrical signals which are taken to the brain by the auditory nerve. The brain interprets
them as sound.
Properties of Sound

· Loudness of sound is proportional to square of its amplitude.

· Loudness is measured in decibels.
· Amplitude decides the loudness of the sound.
· Higher sound has higher energy so travels a longer distance.
· However as it moves away from the source its amplitude keeps on decreasing.
· Pitch or shrillness is determined by its frequency.
· Quality or timber of sound decides the pleasantness of sound.
· Sound of single frequency is a tone; sound which is a mixture of multiple frequencies is a note.
Speed of Sound

Speed of sound remains almost same for all frequencies in a given medium under same physical conditions. Intensity
is the amount of sound energy passing through a unit area it’s different than loudness. Two sounds of equal intensity can
be of different loudness.
Speed of sounds is highest in solids and least in gases.
It increases with temperature of the medium. Sound travels through solids, liquids, gases but not through vacuum.
Sonic Boom
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When a sound producing object moves faster than sound, it creates shock waves that have high energy. Air pressure
variations due to these shockwaves produce a large, sharp sound called sonic boom.
Sound obeys the laws of reflection same as light waves. The sensation of sound persists in our brain for 0.1s. If the ob-
stacle from which sound is reflected is at distance more than 17.2m then we hear echo. Sound absorbent materials ab-
sorb sound and prevent multiple reflections.
Stethoscope, horns, trumpets, shehenais, auditoriums are designed to take advantage of multiple reflections of sound.
Human Ear

Human ear can hear sounds only between 20 Hz to 20000 Hz i.e. 20 -20000 oscillations per second. Children below 5
can hear infrasonic sounds i.e. below 20Hz. During earthquakes infrasonic sound are produced which are heard by birds
and animals and they are disturbed earlier.
Applications of Sound
Ultrasonic sounds above 20 kHz. They have many applications like in cleaning of instruments, detecting cracks in build-
ing, machines, ultrasound machines and echo cardiograph, SONAR. All depend on detection of reflected ultrasonic
waves from obstacles, body parts etc.
Doppler Effect is observed when a moving object causes change in frequency of EM waves. In military it’s used to de-
tect enemy aircrafts.

Fig 2: Doppler effect

In astronomy it’s used to find speed of moving stars and in sonography it’s used to study heart beats and blood flow. In
echocardiography it used to study heart beats.

Chapter 26 :METHODS OF SEPARATION

Introduction

1. Threshing: Beating stalks to free grains

2. Winnowing: Separate lighter and heavier components of a mixture by blowing air.
3. Sieving: Separate components of different sizes by filter.
4. Sedimentation: Heavier component in a mixture settles after water is added.
5. Decantation: When water is removed along with lighter component.
6. Filtration: Pass mixture through a filter paper.
7. Evaporation: Water is vaporized by sunlight.
8. Condensation: Water vapor cools down to water.

Chapter 27: SURFACE TENSION

Introduction

Surface tension explains why Bubbles are spherical.

Water doesn’t spread on some surfaces but forms droplets.

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Oil and water don’t mix; water wets us but not ducks.
Hairs of brush stick together when removed out of water.
Raindrops are spherical. oil rises in wick; sap and water rise in plants.

Particles of soil remain separated under water but stick together when taken out.
When glass pieces are melted the edges take rounded shape and become smooth, this is called fire polishing.
Properties of Surface Tension
Surface tension decreases with temperature.
Angle of contact determines if liquid shall spread or form droplets. It is reduced by wetting agents so they can penetrate
well; whereas it is increased by waterproofing agents so water doesn’t stick. Detergents molecules attract water on one
side and grease-dirt on other so they help in washing by reducing surface tension of water-oil.

Fig 1: Angle of Contact

Viscosity is due to the friction between different liquid layers as they slip past each other when the liquid flows.
Properties of Viscosity

Higher viscosity means slower is the flow. Increasing the temperature decreases the viscosity.
E.g.: Glass is an extremely viscous liquid; it’s so viscous that it resembles solids. The windowpanes of old buildings are
thicker at the bottom as glass flows down due to gravity.
Friction
Rolling friction [rolling a body on ground] is less than sliding friction [pushing a body already in motion] is less than
static friction [pushing a static object].
e.g.: Use of ball bearings in hubs and axels of ceiling fans and bikes to reduce contact surface between two solid parts.
Thin cushion of air is maintained between solids in relative motion for same purpose. Lubricants too reduce friction.
Earthquakes occur when continental plates brush past each other or collide. Earthquakes are measured in Richter’s
scale. An earthquake of intensity 6 is 1000 times more destructible than earthquake of intensity 2, so Richter scale is not
linear.
Satellites
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The escape velocity on moon is lower so gas molecules if formed escape as they can easily overcome the gravitational
pull of the moon. Thus the moon has no atmosphere.
Geostationary satellites appear to be appearing fixed from any point on the earth. To do this the satellite must be at a
height of 35800km from the earth’s surface and in the equatorial plane. Since EM waves beyond a certain frequency
can’t be reflected by the ionosphere [TV], for reflecting such waves we use geostationary satellites.
Polar satellites go around earth in north south direction, their time period is 100 mins approx and their altitude is 500-
800km. The satellites at a higher height have a lower speed of revolution to stay in orbit as gravitational pull is lesser but
this is independent of their weights. They don’t fall as earth’s gravitation provides necessary acceleration to it.

Fig 2: Types of Satellite

Satellites are launched preferably from equator and eastwards as it aids the speed due to lower acceleration due to grav-
ity ‘g’. Speed of rotation of satellites is independent of its size and mass.
Note: centrifugal force is more at equator than poles. Gravity is higher at poles than equator.
Electromagnetic Waves
EM waves in decreasing order of wavelength
Long Radio wave AM radio > TV and FM waves > short radio > microwave > infrared > visible > UV > X-ray > gamma
In satellites, the acceleration towards the center of the earth is equal to earth’s acceleration due to gravity at that point.
Thus the objects inside the satellite experience weightlessness. A body in free fall experiences no upward force on him
and so feels weightless.
Chapter 28: STARS

Introduction

The moon completes one rotation around its axis in 29 days and same time it take to complete one revolution around the
earth. Hence, we never see the other side of the moon. Pole star doesn’t move from its position as it’s located on earth’ s
axis.
Mercury is smallest planet and closest to the sun. It has no satellites. Venus [Earths twin] is closest to the earth and ro-
tates east to west. Saturn is less dense than water. Uranus has a highly tilted axis; it appears to be rolling on its side. It
also rotates from east to west. First four planets are rocky with few satellites or no. But outer planets are gaseous and
with many satellites.
Asteroids are found between mars and jupiter.largest asteroid is cerus. Comets have an elliptical orbit around the sun
and have a long period of revolution. Their tail is always away from the sun. Meteors are objects that enter the earth’s at-
mosphere, usually they burn in the atmosphere but sometimes they fall on the earth. This fallen body is called meteorite.
Atmosphere regulates temperature of the planet by allowing it to cool slowly in day time and during night time trapping
the heat and preventing it from escaping.
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Ozone layer absorbs the harmful UV-B radiations of the sun. But due to CFC’s it is thinning and this leads to a hole in the
ozone layer above Antarctica. Ozone [O3] is the product of UV radiations. UV rays split the O2 molecule into free atoms
which combine with the O2 molecule to form ozone molecule. Depletion of ozone layer above Antarctica is seen and is
called ozone hole. This is due to formation of polar stratospheric clouds in summer which cause depletion. In winter chlo-
rine sinks are present which prevent ozone depletion.
Greenhouse effect is seen when the long wave radiation of the earth is absorbed by the greenhouse gases causing heat-
ing of the atmosphere.

Solved Question Papers

Q.‘Project Loon’, sometimes seen in the news, is related to (UPSC CSAT 2016)

1. waste management technology

2. wireless communication technology

3. solar power production technology

4. water conservation technology

Ans . B

Q.With reference to ‘Li-Fi’, recently in the news, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. It uses light as the medium for high-speed data transmission.
2. It is a wireless technology and is several times faster than ‘WiFi’.
Select the correct answer using the code given below. (UPSC CSAT 2016)

1. 1 only

2. 2 only

3. Both 1 and 2

4. Neither 1 nor 2

Ans . C

1. Li-fi gives data transfer rate of 10 gigabytes per second

2. Li-Fi device circulates data via LEDs that emit an intermittent flicker at a speed imperceptible to the human eye

Q.What is ‘Greased Lightning-10 (GL-10)’, recently in the news? (UPSC CSAT 2016)

1. Electric plane tested by NASA

2. Solar-powered two-seater aircraft designed by Japan

3. Space observatory launched by China

4. Reusable rocket designed by ISRO

Ans . A

1. NASA has developed and successfully flight tested a battery-powered plane with 10 engines that can take off
and land like a helicopter and fly efficiently like an aircraft

Q.With reference to `Astrosat’, the astronomical observatory launched by India, which of the following statements is/are
correct?
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1. Other than USA and Russia, India is the only country to have launched a similar observatory into space.
2. Astrosat is a 2000 kg satellite placed in an orbit at 1650 km above the surface of the Earth.
Select the correct answer using the code given below. (UPSC CSAT 2016)

1. 1 only

2. 2 only

3. Both 1 and 2

4. Neither 1 nor 2

Ans . D

1. Astosat weighs 1513 kgs.

2. USA, Russia, Japan and Europe have such space observatories.

Q.India is an important member of the ‘International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor’. If this experiment succeeds,
what is the immediate advantage for India? (UPSC CSAT 2016)

1. It can use thorium in place of uranium for power generation

2. It can attain a global role in satellite navigation

3. It can drastically improve the efficiency of its fission reactors in power generation

4. It can build fusion reactors for power generation

Ans . D

Q.Consider the following statements:

The Mangalyaan launched by ISRO
1. is also called the Mars Orbiter Mission
2. made India the second country to have a spacecraft orbit the Mars after USA
3. made India the only country to be successful in making its spacecraft orbit the Mars in its very first attempt
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (UPSC CSAT 2016)

1. 1 only

2. 2 and 3 only

3. 1 and 3 only

4. 1, 2 and 3

Ans . C

Q.In the context of the developments in Bioinformatics, the term ‘transcriptome’, sometimes seen in the news, refers to
(UPSC CSAT 2016)

1. a range of enzymes used in genome editing

2. the full range of mRNA molecules expressed by an organism

3. the description of the mechanism of gene expression

4. a mechanism of genetic mutations taking place in cells

Ans . B

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Q.Mission Indradhanush’ launched by the Government of India pertains to (UPSC CSAT 2016)

1. immunization of children and pregnant women

2. construction of smart cities across the country

3. India’s own search for the Earth-like planets in outer space

4. New Educational Policy

Ans . B

Q.With reference to pre-packaged items in India, it is mandatory to the manufacturer to put which of the following infor -
mation on the main label, as per the Food Safety and Standards (Packaging and Labelling) Regulations, 2011?
1. List of ingredients including additives
2. Nutrition information
3. Recommendations, if any, made by the medical profession about the possibility of any allergic reactions
4. Vegetarian/non-vegetarian
Select the correct answer using the code given below. (UPSC CSAT 2016)

1. 1, 2 and 3

2. 2, 3 and 4

3. 1, 2 and 4

4. 1 and 4 only

Ans . C

1. Labels have to contains 1, 2 and 4

Q.Which of the following statements is/are correct? Viruses can infect

1. bacteria
2. fungi
3. plants
Select the correct answer using the code given below (UPSC CSAT 2016)

1. 1 and 2 only

2. 3 only

3. 1 and 3 only

4. 1, 2 and 3

Ans .

1. viruses are classified mainly into the following four types. Plant viruses including algal viruses-RNA/DNA
2. Animal viruses including human viruses-DNA/RNA
3. Fungal viruses(Mycoviruses)-ds RNA
4. .Bacterial viruses (Bacteriophages) including cyanophages

Q.The term ‘Goldilocks Zone’ is often seen in the news in the context of (UPSC CSAT 2015)

• the limits of habitable zone above the surface of the Earth

• regions inside the Earth-like planets in outer space

• search for the Earth-like planets in outer space

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 • search for meteorites containing precious metals

Ans . C

1. In astronomy and astrobiology, the circumstellar habitable zone (CHZ), or simply the habitable zone (Goldilocks
Zone), is the region around a star within which planetary-mass objects with sufficient atmospheric pressure can
support liquid water at their surfaces.
2. Researchers are finding that life can thrive in some unexpected places.

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