Engineering Physics Laboratory

Manual
By
Department
Of
Humanities & Science
Common
To
MEC, ECE,CIVIL, CSE,

Prepared by
Dr. V. Prashanth Kumar
Mr. N. Ramesh,
Assistant Professor,
Humanities and Science Department.

1
 MARRI LAXMAN REDDY
Institute of Technology & Management
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated JNTU, Hyderabad)
Dundigal, Quthbullapur (M), Hyderabad-500043.

Department of Humanities & Science

ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1.Dispersive power of the material of a prism –Spectrometer.

2.Determination of wavelengths of white source –Diffraction grating.

3.Newton’s Rings –Radius of curvature of Plano convex lens.

4.Melde’s experiment–Transverse and longitudinal modes.

5.Charging, discharging and time constant of an R-C circuit.

6.L-C-R circuit –Resonance & Q-factor.

7.Magnetic field along the axis of current carrying coil –Stewart and
Gees method and to verify Biot –Savart’s law.

8.Study the characteristics of LED and LASER diode.

9.Bending losses of fibres & Evaluation of numerical aperture of a given

fibre.

10.Energy gap of a material of p-n junction.

11.Torsional pendulum –Rigidity modulus.

12.Wavelength of light, resolving power and dispersive power of a

diffraction grating using laser.

13.V-I characteristics of a solar cell.

2
 MARRI LAXMAN REDDY
Institute of Technology & Management
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated JNTU, Hyderabad)
Dundigal, Quthbullapur (M), Hyderabad-500043.

INDEX

S.NO Name Of The Experiment Page.no

1 Dispersive power of the material of a prism –Spectrometer. 3

2 Determination of wavelengths of white source –Diffraction 6

grating.
3 Newton’s Rings –Radius of curvature of Plano convex lens. 10

4 Melde’s experiment–Transverse and longitudinal modes. 13

5 Charging, discharging and time constant of an R-C circuit. 16

6 L-C-R circuit –Resonance & Q-factor. 19

7 Magnetic field along the axis of current carrying coil –Stewart 23

and Gees method and to verify Biot –Savart’s law.
8 Study the characteristics of LED and LASER diode. 27

9 Bending losses of fibers & Evaluation of numerical aperture of 31

a given fiber.
10 Energy gap of a material of p-n junction. 36

11 Torsional pendulum –Rigidity modulus. 39

12 Wavelength of light, resolving power and dispersive power of 42

a diffraction grating using laser.
13 V-I characteristics of a solar cell. 44

3
 1.Dispersive power of the material of a prism –Spectrometer.

AIM: To determine the dispersive power of the material of the given prism.
APPARATUS: Spectrometer, prism, mercury vapour lamp, reading lens.
PRINCIPLE : The Refractive Index of the material of the prism is given by

μ=
For Red color

=
For Blue color

=
Where and are angle of minimum deviations of red and blue colors.
Dispersive power of the prism is

Where μ = average refractive index of blue and red colors.

i.e; μ =
Description:
Spectrometer setup
1. Check the prism table horizontally aligned or not with the help of spirit level.
2. Position the instrument so that the telescope can be pointed at some distant object and
adjust the eyepiece of the telescope, until the cross wires are in focus and focus on the
distant object. When you have apparently got the image of the cross wires located at this
distance comfortable for the eyes. Do not disturb the spectrometer adjustment.
3. Position the instrument on laboratory optical bench ensure that we can see through the
telescope when it is at least 600 to either side of the principal axis of the collimator.
4. Position a discharge lamp close to the slit at the end of collimator and make sure the slit
is narrow, sharp and bright. Adjust the collimator only until the slit image is in focus.
5. Rotate the telescope so that it focus the collimator and observe the slit image and adjust
the slit width its image is just wider than the cross wire.
6. Determine the least count of the Vernier.

4
Measurement of minimum angle of deviation Dmin
1. Rotate the prism table and telescope until light will pass symmetrically through the
prism.
2. Locate the position of spectrum in the field of telescope.
3. Looking at the spectrum rotate the prism table until the position of minimum deviation
(Dmin) is achieved. Minimum deviation is obtained by slowly moving the prism table to
one direction, the spectrum also moves in the same direction. But at a certain point the
spectrum reverses (Dmin) its direction is called minimum deviation.
4. Fix the table in the stationary position, so that the spectrum will not deviate from its
minimum deviation position, and use the slow motion screw fitted to the telescope to set
the cross wires accurately on the centre of required color and the reading = A.
5. Take direct ray reading by making telescope in line with the collimator and record as B.
The readings ( A-B) will give the angle of minimum deviation.

5
Observation:
Least count of the Vernier of the spectrometer =
Angle of the prism (A) –
Direct ray reading –
Vernier 1 –
Vernier 2 –

Reading corresponding to Minimum

Colour minimum deviation Deviation
of the position Direct Reading
S.no (D)
line V1-v2 V1’-
v2’
Vernier 1 Vernier 2 Vernier 1 Vernier 2

1 Blue

2 Red

Precautions:
1. Don’t touch polished surface of the prism with hands to avoid finger prints.
2. Use reading lens with light while taking the readings in Vernier scale.
3. The mercury light should be placed inside a wooden box.

Result: Dispersive power of the material of the given prism ω = ______________.

6
2.Determination of wavelengths of white source –Diffraction grating

Aim:-To determine the wavelength (  ) of the given monochromatic light by diffraction grating
methods (1) Normal incident and (2) Minimum deviation-using spectrometer.

APPARATUS:- Spectrometer, grating, sodium vapour lamp, reading lens, reading lamp, spirit
level, grating mount etc.

Theory/Principle:- Waves bend round the obstacles placed in their path. This property of
bending of light around the obstacle & spreading of light waves into the geometrical shadow of
an obstacle is called diffraction.

Here the obstacle is used as grating. The diffraction grating consists of a very large number of
extremely narrow identical and equi-spaced slits.

In the diffraction pattern the zeroth order will give maximum intensity of light. On the either side
of it, we get different orders(1st ,2nd ,3rd………..) of decreasing intensity of light.

sin  sin  * 2.54

FORMULAE:- Normal incidence method = =
nN n *15000

2 * 2.54 * sin D / 2
Minimum deviation method =
15000

Where  = wave length of a given sodium spectrum

 = Angle of diffraction N= Number of lines/cm

D =Angle of minimum d n=order of spectrum

FIGURE:- (Mercury or sodium lamp)

450 450

7
PROCEDURE:-

a. Normal incidence method:-

Preliminary adjustment of the spectrometer are made. The grating table is leveled using
a spirit level. The grating mounted on the grating table for the normal incidence.The slit
of the collimator is illuminated with sodium light.
1. The collimator (C) is adjusted with a fine slit for sending parallel rays. The well
defined image of the slit is observed through the telescope(T).
2. Two verniers are adjusted such that their coincide with the zero and 1800 of the main
scale.
3. The least count and the direct reading (R0) are noted.
4. The telescope (T) is rotated through 900 exactly from R0 and then fixed.
5. Now the grating G is mounted on the grating table adjust until the ray from C is
incident on it at 450.The reflected ray will be observed in (T)
6. Without disturbing T vernier scale alone is released and is turned along with the
grating table and G through 450exactly.
7. Now the vernier scale and main scale are fixed and T is brought back to T0 position
and now the ray from C said to be normally incident on G.
8. When telescope is at T0 the readings from the verniers v1 & v2 should correspond to
R0.
9. T is moved to left to observe first order diffraction pattern. The point of intersection
of the cross wires is coincides with it. This position of telescope is T1.The readings of
V1 and v2 are noted similarly, the readings for second order are noted. When the
telescope is at T2 position.
10. The step 9 is repeated when telescope is at right side of T0 and readings at T1 and T2
Positions are noted. The results are tabulated in table.

b. MINIMUM DEVIATION METHOD:-

The first five steps of the procedure, mentioned in normal incidence method, are the same
for the method also.
Experiment is performed in following steps:
1. The grating G is mounted on the grating table such that its plane is parallel to the
axis of rotation of the grating table. In this case the ray from C is incident normally
on G.
2. The telescope is rotated to the left to observe the first order diffraction pattern.
3. The grating table is released is turned along with G while moving G in one direction
(say from right to left) it is followed with the telescope. The image first moves to the
right, reaches a limiting position and then retraces its path.
4. The readings on the verniers V1 and V2 are noted when the point of intersection of
the cross wires coincides with the image are the limiting positions. This position of
the telescope is referred as D1 (L)

8
 5. The steps 4 & 5 are repeated for D2(L) and D1(R) & D2 (R) on the right. The
corresponding readings of the verniers (v1&v2) are noted. The results are tabulated in
table.
6. Note the direct reading R at the end of empty.

Observation:-
Value of 1 M.S.D =10/2=301
No.of divisions on the vernier(N)=30 division
Least count of the spectrometer(L.C)=S%N=11

Tabulation

Order Spectrometer Direct reading Difference( θ) =

’n’ reading Mean(θ) sin  * 2.54
n *15000

Left Right V11 V12 2θ=V11- 2θ=V12-

side(v1 side(v2) v1 v2
)

9
2.Minimum deviation method
Direct reading; V11=
V2 1 =

Order’n’ Minimum deviation reading Angle of minimum deviation(D) Mean(D)

1 1
Left (V1) Right (V2) D1= V1 - V1 D2= V2 -
V2

CALCULATION:

2 * 2.54 * sin D / 2
=
15000

RESULT:- ----------------------------

VIVA VOICE
1. In this experiment how does the diffraction occur.
2. What is diffraction grating.
3. What is reflection grating.
4. How many types of spectra are available.
5. What is dispersive power of a grating.
6. Define diffraction.
7. What type of light source is used in this experiment.
8. What are the applications of diffraction.
9. What is fringe.
10. How do you calculate width of the fringe in diffraction pattern.
11. How many no of lines are drawn in grating plate.
12. How many colours are observed in this experiment.
13. Can you give the wave length of VIBGYOR
14. What are the essential parts of spectrometer.
15. What is plane transmission diffraction grating.

10
3.Newton’s Rings –Radius of curvature of Plano convex lens
AIM : To determine the Radius of curvature of plano convex lens by forming Newton’s rings.
APPRATUS: Travelling microscope, sodium vapour lamp, plane convex lens, plano convex
lens, a thin glass plate and a magnifying glass.
Principle:
= Ao
λ - Wave length of sodium light
R - Radius of curvature of the of Plano convex lens.
Dm - Diameter of the mth ring.
Dn - Diameter of the nth ring.

DESCRIPTION: A black paper is laid on the base of the travelling microscope over which the
thick glass plate is placed. Over this thick glass plate, a plano convex lens is placed. A parallel
beam of light from the sodium lamp is made to fall on the glass plate which is inclined at 450
with the horizontal, as shown in the figure 1. The beam of light is reflected on to the setup made
by means of a glass plate. As a result of interference between the light reflected from the lower
surface of the lens and the top surface of the thick glass plate. Concentric rings, called Newton’s
rings, with alternate bright and dark rings, having a central black spot are seen through the
microscope shown in figure2. The microscope is focused properly so that the rings are in sharp
focus. The rings so formed are not to be disturbed till the experiment is completed.

PROCEDURE: The point of intersection of the cross wires in the microscope is brought to the
centre of the ring system. The wire is set tangential to any one ring, and starting from the centre
of the ring system, the microscope is moved on to one side; say left, across the field of view
counting the number of rings. Now the cross wires are set at 30th ring and the reading on the
microscope scale is noted, using a magnifying glass. Similarly, the readings with the cross wires
set on 25th, 20th, 15th, 10th dark rings are noted. The microscope is moved in the same direction
and the readings corresponding to 10th, 15th, 20th, 25th, 30th dark rings on the right side are noted.
The readings are tabulated in the observation table.
A graph is drawn with the number of rings on X-axis and the square of diameter
of the rings on Y-axis. The nature of the graph is a straight line as shown in figure3. From the
graph, the values of and Dn2 corresponding to m and n values are noted.

The slope of the graph is calculated from the formula

Using these values the wave length of sodium light is calculated.

11
Experimental set-up

FIGURE2:

12
Observations:

Microscope reading
No. of the On the On the
Diameter of the
S.no ring (n) left side right D2
ring D = (a - b)
(a) side (b)
1
2
3
4
5

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Wipe the lens and the glass plates with cloth before starting the experiment.
2. The centre of the rings must be dark.
3. Use reading lens with light while observing the readings.
4. Before starting the experiment make sure that the movement of microscope in both sides
of the rings.

VIVAVOICE:-

1. Why the rings are circular

2. Define interference.
3. Why the fringes are straight.
4. What are Newtons rings
5. What is constructive interference and destructive interference.
6. Why do the rings gets closer as the order of the rings is increased.
7. What is the purpose of glass plate incline at 450(beam splitter) in this experiment.
8. Why the centre of rings are dark.
9. Define monochromatic radiation.
10. What will happen if few drops of transparent liquid is introduced between the
plano convex lens and glass plate.

RESULT: Radius of curvature of Plano convex lens is__________________.

13
 4.Melde’s experiment–Transverse and longitudinal modes

AIM: To determine the frequency of a vibrating bar (or) tuning fork using Melde’s
arrangement.
Apparatus: Melde’s arrangement, rheostat, plug keys, connecting wires, meter scale, thread,
weight box, power supply.

Principle:

Longitudinal mode:

Frequency of tuning fork n= Hz

m - Mass per unit length (or) linear density.

T - Tension= (M+m) g.
l – Length of a single loop.

Transverse mode:

Frequency of tuning fork n= Hz

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Procedure:

Transverse mode:-
In transverse mode, the tuning fork is made to vibrate perpendicular to vibrating thread.
The vibrating thread forms many well defined loops. These loops are due to the stationary
vibrations set up as a result of the superposition of the progressive wave from the prong and the
reflected wave from the pulley. The frequency of each segment coincides with the frequency of
the fork.
Set the Meld’s experiment in transverse mode vibrations with 2-3meters length of thread
and note the number of loops and length of the thread are recorded in observations table.
Repeated the same procedure for different length and recorded is in the observation table and
calculated the frequency of the tuning fork.
Longitudinal mode:-
In longitudinal mode, the tuning fork is parallel to the vibrating thread. Set the Meld’s
experiment in the longitudinal mode of vibrations and note the observations in observation table
for different lengths. Calculate the frequency of the tuning fork by using the formula.

Observations:

Mass of the thread (w) - gms

Length of the thread (y) - cm
Mass of the pan (p) - gms
Linear density =( - gm/cm

Transverse mode vibrations:

Length
Load applied Length of the
Tension No. of n=
in the of the x loops
S.No T=(M+m)g loops
pan(m)gm loops
(x) l=
(d)

Average of n =

15
Longitudinal mode vibrations:
Length
Load applied Length of the
Tension No. of n=
S.No in the of the x loops
T=(M+m)g loops
pan(m)gm loops
(x) l=
(d)

Average of n =

PRECAUTIONS:
 The thread should be uniform and inextensible.
 Well defined loops should be obtained by adjusting the tension with milligram weights.
 Frictions in the pulley should be least possible

Viva voice:-

1. Define frequency
2. Define transverse and longitudinal wave
3. What is vibration?
4. What is the difference between electric tuning fork & normal tuning fork.
5. Define standing wave.
6. Define stationary waves.
7. Define linear density?
8. What are the units of linear density tension?
9. What is the distance between two successive nodes or two anti nodes?
10. Explain the importance of meld’s experiment?
11. What is difference between the longitudinal and transverse waves?
12. What is difference between the standing waves and stationary waves?

RESULT:
Frequency of the tuning fork in longitudinal mode ____________Hz
Frequency of the tuning fork in Transverse mode ____________Hz

16
5.Charging, discharging and time constant of an R-C circuit
Aim: To study the charging and discharging of voltage in a circuit containing resistance and
capacitor and compare the experimental RC time constant with theoretical RC time constant.

Apparatus:
Power supply, Resistors, Electrolyte, capacitors, voltmeter, stop watch, commutator,
connecting wires.

Principle:
The charging voltage across the capacitor is given
V= (1 – e -t/RC)
The discharging voltage across the capacitor is given
V= - e -t/RC
Where
t – Time constant
R - Resistance
C - Capacitance
Theoretical Time constant of RC circuit τ =RC.
Circuit Diagram:

+ S1 + -

E - R

Fig. 1. Capacitor charging and discharging circuit diagram

Graph:

V0

V0

V=0.36V0 V=0.64V0

T (sec) t (sec) T t (sec)

Fig. 2(a): Capacitor discharging Fig. 2(b): Capacitor charging

17
Procedure:
This circuit is connected as shown in fig, taking one set of R and C values.
Charging:
When the terminal1 is connected to A, the capacitor will change with time. This changing in
charge is noted as a voltage across the capacitor with time. The change in charging voltage is
noted for every 5sec with help of stop watch and recorded in the observation table. The graph is
drawn between time on x-axis and voltage on y-axis. The time constant is calculated from the
graph by calculating the time corresponding to 63% value of maximum value and comparing
with theoretical value of time constant(RC).
Discharging:
When the terminal1 is connected to B, the charged capacitor will be discharged with
time. The decayed voltage across the capacitor is noted with 5sec time interval upto zero voltage.
The graph is drawn between the voltage across the capacitor and time on x-axis. The time
constant is calculated at 36% of maximum voltage across the capacitor and comparing with
theoretical value of time constant (RC).
This experiment is repeated with different set of R and C values.
Observation:
R= C=
Time in Voltage across Capacitor
Second
Charging Discharging

Applications:
1. When a capacitor is charged by a DC Voltage, the accumulation of charge on its plates is
a method of storing energy which may be released at different rates. An example of the
energy storage application is the photoflash capacitor used in flashguns of photographic
cameras.
2. The charging time and discharging time is calculated for a R.C circuit and is connected to
series of decorative bulbs.
3. Capacitors are of two types; a) fixed and b) variable, both of which are used in a wide
range of electronic devices. Fixed capacitors are further divided into electrolytic and non-
electrolytic.

18
 VIVA VOCE:-

1. What is charge?
2. What is the unit of charge, resistance and capacitance?
3. What is time constant?
4. What is the value of microfarad in picofarads?
5. What is ohm?
6. What is ampere?
7. What is an electric circuit?
8. What are series and parallel connections in a circuit?
9. Define ohms law.
10. What is relation between resistance and specific resistance?
11. State four types of capacitors.
12. Define capacitance and resistance
13. State the applications of capacitor in filter circuits
14. What is the value of energy stored in the capacitor?
15. Why a resistance of low value is not acceptable in charging process?
16. What will happen if the resistance of low value is connected in the circuit?
17. Why the charging process not continued till the capacitor voltage reaches supply voltage.

Result :
1. Theoretical Time constant =

2. Experimental Time constant =

19
 6.L-C-R circuit –Resonance & Q-factor
AIM:-To study the characteristics of series and parallel resonance of LCR Circuit and to find
resonance frequency and quality factor.

Apparatus:-LCR Circuit board contains set of resistors, capacitors, inductors and milliammeter.

Theory: - In this LCR circuit, it consists of inductor(L), capacitance C, and resistance(R), are
connected in series with a sinusoidal frequency of e.m.f of source, electromagnetic oscillations
are set in the circuit and it behaves as an oscillator. As the circuit is driven by the external A.C.
power source, it behavior is similar to the force oscillations in spring mass system. Therefore the
study of the LCR circuit allows us to study the phenomenon of forced oscillations and hence
resonance. The conditions for resonance in the circuit can be obtained. When L and C are
connected in series with R, at a particular frequency, the capacitive reactance XC is equal in
magnitude with inductive reactance XL and they are out of phase by 1800. At this frequency the
current through the circuit is maximum, and this frequency is called resonance frequency.

1 1 1
XC  XL ; XC  and X L  2fL → 2fL  →f 
2fC 2fC 2 LC

1
The frequency of oscillations in series is given by fseries =
2 LC --------- (1)

In a parallel resonance circuit, at resonance, the circuit does not allow the current to flow and
works as a perfect choke for A.C, such a circuit is called rejecter circuit, which is shown in the
figure 1. In a parallel circuit, the impedance maximum at the resonant frequency and
consequently the current is minimum.

The parallel resonant frequency is given by

1
fparallel = ------------- (2)
2 1 / LC  ( R / L) 2

R C L Imax

A 70%Imax

A
Fig.
Series resonance

Fig. 1 LCR series Circuit f1 fr f2

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PROCEDURE:-

SERIES RESONANCE OF LCR CIRCUIT:-

Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

Apply input signal using signal OR function generator.

-In this case the output should be 10 V only. Take the output across the resistor and set it to
Ammeter input sockets.

- Change the frequency till the ammeter readings should be a sharp rise and fall, adjust the signal
such that the maximum possible ammeter readings should be a sharp rise and fall.

-Adjust the signal such that the maximum possible Ammeter deflection is to be counted. This is
the resonant frequency of the connected combination of the circuit.

-Again adjust the amplitude of the function generator such that the full scale deflection. Now
reduce the frequency till the deflection falls in ammeter.

-After that increase the frequency in regular intervals & note down the ammeter readings.

-Plot the graph between the deflection readings and frequency and repeat the same study how
resonant frequency depends up on the different combination of L.C.R. the readings are tabulated
as follows

PARALLEL RESONANCE:-

-Connect the circuit as per the parallel resonance circuit diagram.

-Apply the input signal from a reliable signal generator. The output should be 10 V only. Take
the output across the tank circuit connect to input ammeter sockets.

-Change the frequency till the ammeter readings sharp fall and adjust the signal such that the
deflection falls down considerably then increase the frequency generator amplitude such that to
get full scale deflection.

-Now reduce the frequency till the deflection till the deflection falls down and then increase the
frequency in regular intervals and note down the deflection.

-Plot the graph between the metre deflection divisions and frequency and repeat the procedure
for different values of R and study how Q is affected & also study the how the resonant
frequency depends on different combinations of L.C.R.

21
LCR PARALLEL RESONANCE L Imax

SIGNAL C R

GENERATOR A
Fig. 3 Parallel circuit
fr Frequency (Hz)

Band width BW = f1 – f2 = ------------------------------Hz

Resonant frequency = fr = 1/2π LC =----------------------------------------Hz

Quality factor Q = fr/BW =--------------------------------------------------------

Series resonance:-

L 1C1R1 L 2C2R2 L 3C3R3

S.No

Frequency Current frequency current frequency Current

RESULT:- Series resonance of frequency of circuit (fr) = ________________ Hz

22
Parallel resonance:

L 1C1R1 L 2C2R2 L 3C3R3

S.No

frequency current frequency current frequency Current

RESULT:- Parallel resonance frequency of circuit (fr) =-----------------------------(Hz)

VIVA VOCE:-
1. What is resonance?
2.What is capacitance?
3.What is resistance?
4.What is the SI unit of Inductance?
5. What is the difference between series resonance & parallel resonance?
6.What is oscillator?
7.What is the difference between A.C & D.C?
8.Define Frequency?
9.What is quality factor?
10.What is the role of inductance in LCR circuit?
11. What are the units of inductance?
12.Explain the importance of band width.

23
 7.Magnetic field along the axis of current carrying coil
Stewart and Gees method and to verify Biot –Savart’s law

AIM: To determine the field of induction at several points on the axis of a circular coil carrying
current using Stewart and Gee’s type of tangent galvanometer.
APPRATUS: Stewart and Gee’s galvanometer, Battery eliminator, Ammeter, Commutator,
Rheostat, Plug keys, connecting wires.
PRINCIPLE:
When a current of i-amperes flows through a circular coil of n-turns, each of radius a, the
magnetic induction B at any point(P) on the axis of the coil is given by

B = ____________(1)

Where B is the magnetic induction on the axial line of the coil

= 4π X 10-7
n is number of turns in the coil =
i is the current through the coil =
a is the radius of the coil (in cms) =
x is the distance from the centre of the coil(in cms)=
When the coil is placed in the magnetic meridian, the direction of the magnetic field will
be perpendicular to the magnetic meridian; i.e., perpendicular to the direction f the horizontal
component of the earth’s field; say Be
When the deflection magnetometer is placed at any point on the axis of the coil such that the
centre of the magnetic needle lies exactly on the axis of the coil, then the needle is acted upon
by two fields B and Be, which are at right angles to one another. Therefore, the needle deflects
obeying the tangent law,
B = B etan ______________(2)
B e the horizontal component of the earth’s field is taken from standard tables. The
intensity of the field at any point calculated from equation (2) and verified using equation(1).

Procedure :
With the help of the deflection magnetometer and a chalk, a long line of about one meter
is drawn on the working table, to represent the magnetic meridian. Another line perpendicular to
this line is also drawn. The Stewart and Gee’s galvanometer is set with its coil in the magnetic
meridian, as shown in the figure. The external circuit is connected , keeping the ammeter,
rheostat away from the deflection magnetometer. This precaution is very much required because,
the magnetic field produced by the current passing through the rheostat and the permanent
magnetic field due to the magnet inside the ammeter affect the magnetometer reading, if they are
close to it.

24
Figure:

The magnetometer is set at the centre of the coil and rotated to make the aluminum
pointer read (0,0) in the magnetometer. The key, K, is closed and the rheostat is adjusted so as
the deflection in the magnetometer is about 600. The current in the commutator is reversed and
the deflection in the magnetometer is observed. The deflection in the magnetometer before and
after reversal of current should not differ much. In case of sufficient difference say above 20 or 30
, necessary adjustments are to be made.
The deflections before and after reversal of current are noted when d = 0. The readings
are noted in Table 1. The magnetometer is moved towards East along the axis of the coil in steps
of 5 cm at a time. At each position, the key is closed and the deflections before and after reversal
of current is noted. The mean deflection be denoted as E . The magnetometer is further moved
towards east in steps of 5cm each time and the deflections before and after reversal of current are
noted, until the deflection falls to 300.
The experiment is repeated by shifting the magnetometer towards west from the centre of
the coil in steps of 5cm, each time and deflections are noted before and after reversal of current.
The mean deflection is denoted as W.
It will be found that for each distance (X) the values in the last two columns are found to
be equal verifying equation (1) and (2).
A graph is drawn between X on x-axis and the corresponding Tan E and Tan W
along y-axis. The shape of the curve is shown in the figure. The points A and B marked on the
curve lie at distance equal to half the radius of the coil (a/2) on either side of the coil.

25
 Model graph:-

Tanθw TanθE

WEST distance( x) EAST

Precautions:
1. The ammeter, voltmeter should keep away from the deflection magnetometer because these
meters will affect the deflection in magnetometer.
2.The current passing through rheostat will produce magnetic field and magnetic field produced
by the permanent magnet inside the ammeter will affect the deflection reading.

Observations:

Current through the coil i = ________amps. Number of the turns n = ___________

-4
Radius of the coil (in mts) a = ___________ o = _____________ Be = 0.39x10

Distance of Deflection in the Deflection in the

deflection magnetometer East side magnetometer West side

B=Be tan θ
magnetometer

Tan θ
Mean w
Mean e

Tan w
Tan e

S.No from centre of

θ=
the coil(X) in θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4 θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4

B=
meters

26
S. No. Distance from the
 0 nia 2 Remarks
centre of the coil B (Tesla)
B   0 BE Tan (Tesla) 2( x 2  a 2 ) 3 / 2
d (meters)

1.

2.

3.

4.

Viva voce questions:-

1. Define electric field.

2. What is permeability?
3. Define magnetic meridian & magnetic field.
4. What is the use of an ammeter?
5. Define the magnetic field of induction and give its units.
6. State Biot-savarts law.
7. What is deflection magnetometer?
8. What is tangent law?
9. What is the difference between magnetic induction & earth’s magnetic field?
10. What is a commutator?
11. What do you observe in this experiment?
12. What is tangent galvanometer?
13. What is the use of tangent galvanometer?
14. What is the value of permeability of free space?

Result: The theoretical and calculated values are approximately same.

27
 8.Study the characteristics of LED and LASER diode

AIM:-To study V-I characteristics of LED and LASER diode.

Apparatus:-LED and LASER trainer kits, digital and multimeters.

THEORY:-A p-n junction diode, which emits light in forward biasing is known as light
emitting diode.The emitted light may be in the visible range or invisible range and the intensity
of light depends on the applied potential.

In this experiment lead is represented by standard digram along with its source of resistance. The
V-I characteristics of the diode are measured by applying sweep voltage by a source V to the
diode. It is monitoring the current by ammeter. In general the V-I characteristics curve of a diode
gives the relationship by the following equation

I=Is[exp(ev/KT)-1]

Where Is is the saturation current.

Principle:- In a P-N junction charge carrier recombination takes place when the electrons
cross from the n-layer to the p-layer. The electrons are in the conduction band on the p-side
while holes are in the valence band on the p-side. The conduction band has a higher energy level
compared to the valence band and so when the electrons recombine with a hole the difference in
energy is given out in the form of heat or light. In case of silicon or germanium, the energy
dissipation is in the form of heat, where as incase of the gallium-arsenide and gallium
phosphate, it is in the form of light. But this light is in the invisible region & so these materials
cannot be used in the manufacture of LED. Hence gallium-asrsenide phosphide which emits light
in the visible region is used to manufacture and LED.

CONSTRUCTION:- An n-type layer is grown on a substance and a p-type layer is grown

over it by diffusion process. The p-layer is kept at the top because carrier recombination takes
place in it. The terminals anode and cathode are taken out of the n-layer and p-layer respectively.
The anode connections are made at the edge in order to provide more surface area for the
emission of light. A metal film is applied to the bottom of substance to reflect light to the surface
of the device and also to protect them from destruction.

28
PROCEEDURE:- -Connect one end of the optical fiber cable to the output terminal of
LED and the other end is coupled to the power supply.
-It consists of P-N diode and then switch on the power supply.
- Adjust the set knob to extreme end into anticlock wise direction.
-It gives the minimum output in the power meter and observes the output power in the
power meter.
- Next slowly turn the set knob into clock wise direction then note down the current IL
.Through the LED terminals again note down the reading in the power meter(p0) then
tabulate the readings in the following table
-Repeat the same method for nothing the various of IL and power meter readings and next
plot the graph between IL and P0

V-I Of LED

S.NO VL(mv) IL(mA)

V-I of LASER

S.NO VL(mv) IL(mA)

29
Proceedure for V-I characteristics of a LASER:-

- Connect one end of the optical fibre to the output terminal of the LASER and the other
end is coupled to the power meter.
- It consists of P-N diode then switch on the power supply.
- Adjust the set knob of power meter to the extreme end in the clock wise direction and it
gives the minimum output in the power meter. Observe the power in the power meter.
-slowly turn the set knob in to clock wise direction the note down the current I L across
the LASER input terminals.
-Note the readings in the power meter and tabulated following table and repeat the
procedure for finding the various values of IL and the P0.
- Plot the graph between IL and the P0 from the experiment and determine the slope
before and after the value of the threshold current.

LED graph:-

CURRENT

Voltage

LASER graph:-

CURRENT

Voltage

30
ADVANTAGE:-
1. It works on low voltage and current and hence consumes less power

2.It requires no warm-up time,

3. It can switched oN or OFF at a faster rate.

4. It has long life time

5. It is small size and less weight.

APPLICASTIONS:-
1. Infra red LEDS are used in burglar alarms ,

2.It is used in solid state video displays.

3. It is used in the field of optical communications ,

4. It is used in image sensing circuits.

5. It is used in numerical displays like watches, pocket calculators etc.

PRECAUTIONS :-
Make sure that the volt meter is measuring the voltage across the LED only.
Increase the power supply very slowly until led just starts to glow.
Continously monitor the current so that it do not exceed the maximum current, with
this the damage of the LED with high current can be avoided.

RESULT:- -----------------------------------------------------------

VIVAVOICE
1.What are n-type and p-type of semiconductors?
2.Define conduction and valence band in a semiconductor?
3.What are LED materials and give some examples?
4.What is the basic mechanism of LED?
5.What are the input and output energies of LED?
6.What are the majority charge carriers in a p-type semiconductor?
7.What are the majority charge carriers in a n-type semiconductor?
8.What are different types of lasers
9.What is laser. Explain?
10.What is the difference between laser and convectional light?
11.What is stimulated emission?
12.What are the characteristics of laser?
13.What are the applications of laser in industry, research.

31
 9(A).Bending losses of fibres & Evaluation of
Numerical aperture of a given fibre

AIM:-To determine the losses in optical fiber due to the macro bending and also to
determine the transmission losses.
APPARATUS: Optical fiber trainer module, optical fiber cables of different lengths,
mandrel.
THEORY:- The transmission loss or attenuation of an optical fiber is perhaps the most
important characteristics of the fiber. Attentuation result primarily from absorption and
scattering of light. Attenuation also results from a number of effects like, fiber joints,
Improper cleaving and also splicing due to axial displacement and mismatch of core
diameters of fibers. But here, we study the attenuation due to macro bending and
transmission losses in fibers.
Loss of optical power=-10/Llog P0/pfdB/m
Where P0 power launched in to the fiber
Pf=power reached at the end of fiber.
L=Length of the given optical fiber.
PROCEEDURE:-
To determine the bending losses:
1. Connect the one end to the 1m long optical fiber to the output end of the LED and the
other end to the photo detector. switch on the power.
2. Turn the SET P0 knob clockwise a little. Insert the leads of the dB meter at the output
terminals of the optical power meter circuit and then note the output power in the dB
meter.
3. With out disturbing the SET P0 knob with one turn of OFC on the mandrel and
measure the output power, in the Db meter, as described above. Note the readings in
the table 1.
4. Repeat the 2&3 by increasing SET P0 knob and measure the corresponding pF1 and
pF2 values and note in Table 1. The loss due to bending of the OFC= pF1- pF2

Table 1:-

S.N0 Output power without Output power with Loss= pF1- pF2
bending(pF1)dB bending (pF2)dB

To measure Attenuation Losses:-

32
 Connect one end of the 1m long OFC to the output end of the LED and the other end
to the photo detector (PIN diode).switch on the power.
Repeat the second step by increasing SET P0 knob and measure the corresponding
(PF1) values for five different of P0 and note in Table 2.
Repeat steps 1 through 3 by connecting 5m long OFC and note the readings P F2 in
table 2.
Calculate the loss in each OFC by using the formulae shown in Table 2.
The loss in a particular cable plus the loss due to in-line adopter and the loss due to
inline adopter is about 1.0 Db. Therefore the loss in each fiber is obtained.

Table 2:- To determine the transmission loss in cables

Length of cable-1=-----------------------m.
Length of cable-2=-----------------------m.

S.No Output pwer Output pwer Output power Loss in cable- Loss in cable-
in cable -1 in cable -1 in combined 1=Pf3- Pf2 2=Pf3- Pf1
cable (dB) (dB)
(Pf1)dB (Pf2)dB
(Pf3)dB

Result: ------------------------------------------------------

33
9(B) .DETERMINATION OF NUMERICAL APERTURE USING OPTICAL
FIBRE

AIM:-To determine the numerical aperture of the fiber cable includes in TNS20A due to macro
macro bending and also to determine the transmission losses.

Apparatus:- Optical fiber kit, Na jig, Mandrel, optical fiber.

Theory:-Numerical aperture of any optical system is a measure of how much light can be
collected by the optical system. It is the product of the refractive index of the incident medium
and the sine of the maximum ray angle.

NA=ni. sinθmax ni for air is 1

NA=Sinθmax

For a step index fiber, as in the present case, the numerical aperture is given by

ncore  ncladding
N=

For very small difference in refractive indices the equation reduces to

N=ncore 2

where  is the fractional difference in refractive indices.

The experiment may refer to the specifications of the PMMA fiber and record the manufacturer’s
NA , ncladding , and ncore and  .

Or

N.A=sinα=D/(4L2+D2)1/2

Where L=perpendicular distance between the fiber end and the screen.

D=diameter of the light falling on the screen.

34
Procedure:-The schematic diagram of the numerical aperture measurement system is shown
below and itself explanatory.

NA MEASUREMENT SCHEME OF DIAGRAM

Optical fibre

Power supply Connector

scale

The step by step procedure is given below as follows:-

Step 1:-Connect one end of the cable 1 (1-meter FI cable) to FO LED of TNS20A and the other
end to the NA jig as shown.

Step2:- Plug the AC mains. Light should appear at the end of the fiber on the NA Jig. Turn the
knob clockwise to set to maximum P0.The light intensity should increase.

Step3:- Hold the white screen with the concentric circles (10,15,20, and 25mm diameter)
vertically at a suitable distance to make the red spot from the emitting fibre coincide with the
10mm circlce.

Another method:-

In this method the experiment set up for the N.A Measurement is shown in the above
figure.
First of all, one end of the optical fiber is connected to the power output LED. The other
end of the fiber is connected to N.A. Jig through the connector.
The A.C main supply is switched on. The light emitted by LED passes through the
optical fiber cable to the other end. The set knob is adjusted such that maximum intensity
is observed on the screen and it should not be further disturbed.

35
 A screen with concentric circles of known diameter is moved along the length of the NA
jig to observe the circular spreading of light intensity on the screen.
The screen is adjusted such that the first circle from the centre of the screen is
completely filled with the light. At this position, the distance (L) from the fiber end to
the screen is noted on the NA jig.
The experiment is repeated of the subsequent circles by adjusting the length L along NA
jig and the readings are noted in table. The diameter of the circles may be determined
using a travelling microscope.

To determine the NA of optical fiber:-

S.NO Distance of the Diameter of the N.A Θ(degrees)

screen(L)mm circle D(mm)

Result:- ---------------------------------------------------

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Define Numerical aperture .
2. Define Attenuation in optical fiber.
3. What are the parts of optical fiber.
4. What is the principle of optical fiber.
5. Define Acceptence angle.
6. What are the types of optical fibers.
7. What is Step index optical fiber.
8. What is Graded index optical fiber.

36
 10.Energy gap of a material of p-n junction.
Aim: To determine the width of the forbidders energy gap in a semiconductor material by
reverse bias pn-junction diode method.
Apparatus: Power supply, heating arrangement, thermometer, micro ammeter, germanium
diode.
Principle:

The width of the forbidden

Energy gap [ ] = 2.3026 x 103 x K x m eV
K=Boltzmann constant
M=slope of the line from the graph drawn between logI0 and 103/T

= eV
-4
= 1.9833 x 10 x m (slope) eV
Slope (m) =

Procedure:

1. Sufficiently long wires are soldered to the diode terminals and the diode is connected into
the circuit as shown in the figure.
2. The diode is immersed in an oil bath which in turn is kept in a heating mantle. A
thermometer is also kept in the oil bath such that its mercury bulb is just at the height of
the diode.
3. The power supply is switched on and the voltage is adjusted to say 5 volts. The current
through the diode and the room temperature are noted.
4. The power supply is switched off. The heating mantle is switched on and the oil bath is
heated up to 900.
5. The heating mantle is switched off when the temperature of the oil bath reached 900. The
current corresponding to this temperature is noted. With a decrease of every 50 the
current is noted.
6. As the temperature decreases the current through diode decreases. And the observations
are noted in the table.
7. A graph is plotted taking 103/T on X-axis and logI0 on Y-axis. A straight line is obtained.
8. The slope of the straight line is determined and hence the energy band gap is calculated.

37
Experimental Figure:
+ -

+
A
-

Thermometer

Copper vessel

- + oil

Graph

Log I0

1/T

Precautions:
1. The diode and the thermometer are placed at the same level in the oil bath.
2. The maximum temperature of the diode is not allowed to go beyond 900C.

38
Observations:
Temperature
Current ( I0 ) Temperature (t)
S.No
µA 0
C
T=(t+273) 10-3 lnI0
0
K

Viva voice:

1. Define an intrinsic semiconductor .

2. Distinguish bet ween an N-type semiconductor and a P-type semiconductor
3. Explain the formation of P-N juction in a diode.
4. What is the depletion layer in P-N juction?
5. Explain conduction band and valence band in an intrincic semi conductor.
6. Define energy gap in an intrinsic semi conductor.
7. On what factors energy gap depends?
8. What is farward bias and reverse bias?
9. Expalint he formation of covelant bonds in an intrinsic semi conductor?
10. Write the applications of P-N junction daiode

Result: The width of the forbidden gap in germanium semiconductor is found to be

_____________ eV.

39
 11.Torsional pendulum –Rigidity modulus
AIM : To determine the modulus of rigidity (η) of the material of the given wire using a
Torsional pendulum.

APPARATUS: A circular brass disc provided with a chuck and nut at its centre, steel wire, a
rigid clamp, stop watch, meter scale, screwguage, and Vernier calipers.

Principle:

Rigidity Modulus: η= ) dynes/cm2

M - Mass of the disc.
R - Radius of the disc.
a - Radius of the wire.
l - Length of the pendulum.
T - Time period.

DESCRIPTION: The Torsional pendulum consist of a uniform circular metal disc of about 8 to
10cm diameter with 1 or 2cm thickness, suspended by a wire at the centre of the disc as shown in
figure. The lower end is gripped into another chuck, which is fixed to a wall bracket.

Graph:

40
PROCEDURE:
The circular metal disc is suspended as shown in above figure. The length of the wire
between the chucks is adjusted to 100cm. when the disc is in equilibrium position; a small mark
is made on the curved edge of the disc. This marking will help to note the number of oscillations
made by slowly turning the disc through a small angle. Care is to be taken to see that there is no
lateral movement of the disc.
When the disc is oscillating the time taken for 20 oscillations is noted with the help of a
stopwatch and recorded in the observations table in trail 1. The procedure is repeated for the
same length of the wire and again the time taken for 20 oscillations is noted and noted as trail2 in
the observation table. From trail 1 & 2 the mean time for 20 oscillations is obtained. The time
period (T), i.e., the time taken for one oscillation is calculated.
The experiment is repeated by decreasing the length of the wire in steps of10cm and the
results are tabulated in the table.
By using the Vernier calipers the radius of the disc (R) is calculated, the radius of the
wire (a) is calculated by means of screw gauge and the mass of the disc (M) is found by means of
rough balance and these values are substituted in the formula. The mean value of ( l / ) is
calculated from the observations and hence η is determined.
A graph is drawn with ‘l’ on X-axis and T2 on Y-axis. It is a straight line graph and the
value of ( l / ) is calculated and the rigidity modulus of the material of the wire η is calculated
.
Precautions:
1.The wire should not have any bending.
2. The chuck nuts should be tight because the wire becomes loose and the oscillations may not
be perfect.
3.The time period between the oscillations must be uniform.
4.Galvanometer is an eample of making use of the Torsional oscillations.

Observations:
To determine the radius of the disc:
Least count of the Vernier calipers= =

S.No Main scale Vernier Vernier Total

reading(a) coincidence Reading(b=L.C*V.C) Reading(a+b)cm
1
2
3

41
To determine the radius of the wire:
Least count of the Screw Gauge = =
Screw Gauge Error - Correction:

P.S.R H.S.R Total (a+b)

S.No (a) H.S.C Correction (b=L.C*H.S.C) (mm)
1
2
3

Mass of the disc (M) =

Radius of the disc (R) =
Radius if the wire (a) =
Time Period of the Pendulum:

Length Time taken for 20 Time for one

S.No of the oscillations Oscillation T2
wire’l’ Trail1 Trail2 Average(t) (Timeperiod)
(cm) T=
1
2
3
4
5

Viva vioce:

1 Distiguigh bet ween Elastic meterials and plastic meterials.

2 . State Hook’s law?
3. What is Elestic limit?
4. Define Young’s modulus.
5. Explain Rigidity modulus
6. What is the S.I. Unit of Rigidity modulus?
7. On what factors Rigidity modulus depends?
8. The shape of l - T2 graph in this experiment is ______________
9. Define the terms time period (T), Moment of inertia, torque and frequency.
10.What is the difference bet ween a Simple pendulum and torsional pedulum?

Result : The rigidity modulus of the material of the given steel wire is ________________.

42
 12.Wavelength of light, resolving power and dispersive
power of a diffraction grating using laser

AIM:- To determine the Resolving power and dispersive power of a diffraction grating using
laser light .
APPARATUS:-Grating ,Grating stand , laser source ,screen.
THEORY:- when collimated laser light is incident on a grating , diffraction takes place and
result in a pattern consisting of bright and dark intensities. wave length of the sources is then
related to the minimum of this diffraction pattern according to the following equation.
d sinθ=m 
 =yd/mD
where m is the order of diffraction
D= Distance from screen to slit
d=slit width
 =wave length of the source.
PROCEDURE:-
1. Set up the laser at one end of the optical bench and place the single slit disk in its holder
in front of the laser. Orient the optical bench so the laser points towards the wall.
2. Set up the white screen at the other end of the bench. cover the screen with a sheet of
white paper.
3. Set up the white screen at the other end of the bench. Cover the screen with a sheet of
white paper.
4. Place the grating in grating stand
5. Adjust the position of the laser from the slit to the screen (D).Note that the slit is not
aligned with the center of the holder.
6. With the room lights off,mark the positions of the minima in the diffraction pattern on the
screen.Label the orders of the minima where m-1,2,3……
7. Sketch the diffraction pattern in the lab notebook.
8. Measure the distance between the first order (m=1) Record these values for four minima
pairs. Take half of this value to be y the distance from centre of the pattern to one of the
minima and tabulate the data.
9. Use the single slit diffraction pattern equation to calculate the slit width.
10. Calculate the percentage of error,comparing your calculated value of slit width with the
standard value.
11. Change the slit widths and repeat the above steps.
12. Using optical power meters we can determine the intensity of fringes and can be plot
intensity versus angle .This graph gives distribution of intensity of single slit.

43
 m=2

d(width m=1
m=0
LASER m=1
m=2
Distance (D)

Table:- Slit width(d)

S.N0 Order(m) Left side right side Mean
D1 cm D2 cm D=D1+D2/2

Slitwidth1 m=1 Y1=

m=2 Y2=

m=3
Y3=


Precautions:-1. The laser beam should not be looked at either directly as this may penetrate in to
the eyes and damages the eyes permanently.
2. The photodiode should be as away from the slit as possible.
3.The laser should be operated at a constant voltage 220v obtained from a stabilizer.This
avoids the flickering of the laser beam.

44
VIVA VOICE
1. What is interference.
2. What do you understand by diffraction of light.
3. How does diffraction differ from interference.
4. How many classes of diffraction are there.
5. What is the difference between a single slit diffraction and double slit diffraction.
6. Distinguish between Fresnel and fraunhofer diffraction.
7. What is the source you are using in your experiment? how does it work.
8. What is laser.

45
 13.V-I characteristics of a solar cell
AIM : To study the V-I characteristics of solar cell.

APPARATUS REQURIED: Solar cell trainer kit, Solar cell, Variable light source, variable
load resistance & multimeter.

OVERVIEW:
Incident sunlight can be converted into electricity by photovoltaic conversion
using a solar panel.A solar panel consists of individual cells that are large-area semiconductor
diodes, constructed sothat light can penetrate into the region of the p-n junction. The junction
formed between the n-type silicon wafer and the p-type surface layer governs the diode
characteristics as well as the photovoltaic effect. Light is absorbed in the silicon, generating both
excess holes and electrons.These excess charges can flow through an external circuit to produce
power.

PROCEDURE: -

1. Switch on the trainer kit.

2. Place the Solar cell in front of the light source & connect the out put of solar cell to the
front panel of trainer kit ( connect +ve & -ve polarity accordingly ).

3. Switch on the light source, keep the intensity high and note the voltage. This is the
maximum voltage ‘Voc’ produced by the solar cell. ( vary with intensity )

4. Now short the out put terminals of the solar cell through the ammeter & note the current.
This is the short circuit current ‘Isc’. In this case the current will be maximun and voltage
will be minimum. Record both of them in table.

5. Now connect the variable resistance as per the diagram given below, starting from lower
to higher so that the voltage increases from zero toward open circuit voltage. Measure the
voltage & current for different resistance and tabulte them. ( resistance can be measured
using a multimeter keeping one end open )

6. Use the data from the table to plot a graph I versus V manually.

7. Repeat the steps 3 to 5 in different intensities, tabulate them & plot the graphs.

8. Repeat the steps 2 to 5 at different tilting angles of the solar panel & observe the best
angle to track the maximun power.
9. Using the table plot graphs V vesus I & P versus V ( P = V. I ) of the solar cell.

46
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :

230V LOAD
AC

Table:

Load resistance " Voltage ( V ) Current ( A ) Power ( W )

( Ohms )
o ( s.C )

Sample graph:

47
Viva questions:

1.What is solar cell ?

2.What is the other name of solar cell ?
3. What is the principle of solar cell?
4. Draw the schematic symbol of solar cell ?
5. Define semiconductor?
6.What are the types of semiconductors ?
7. Explain extrinsic semiconductor ?
8. What are the types of semiconductors ?

RESULT: The V-I characteristics of solar cell are studied .

48