Science Form 2

Science (Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Maxwell, Kuala Lumpur)

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Chapter 1: Biodiversity
TOPIC EXPLANATION
1.1 Diversity of What is Biodiversity?
Organism  diversity of organisms, whether microorganisms, animals or plants.
The Importance of Biodiversity
Sources of food
Balanced in nature
Recreational places
Medical
Raw materials for industries
Education
Effective Biodiversity Management
Biodiversity can be maintained and conserved by:
− banning the killing or trade of endemic & endangered species
− create national park, marine park and forest reserves
− undertaking reproductive programmes
1.2 Classification of Invertebrates
Organism

Invertebrates Without Legs

Without segmented body
− snail, planaria, corals, sea anemone and
sponge With segmented body
− tapeworm, earthworm and leech
Invertebrates With Legs
Characteristics:
 have segmented bodies
 have hard outer shells
(exoskeleton) Three pairs of legs
− ant, butterfly and
cockroach More than three
pairs of legs
− spider, prawn, horseshoe crab, centipede and scorpion
Vertebrates

Fish
 poikilothermic
 covered with hard and slimy scales
 have fins and a tail
 breathe through gills
 lay eggs
 undergo external fertilization
Amphibians
 poikilothermic
 live on land and in water
 covered with moist skin
 young amphibians breathe through gills
 adult amphibian breathe through lungs and moist skin
 produce jelly−like eggs (spawn) without a shell
 undergo external fertilisation

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Reptiles
 poikilothermic
 produce eggs with a shell
 breathe through lungs
 have scales and hard skin
 undergo internal fertilisation
Birds
 homeothermic
 covered with feathers to maintain body temperature
 breathe through lungs
 have wings that helps some birds to fly
 have a pair of scaly feet
 undergo internal fertilisation
 produce eggs with hard shell
Mammals
 homeothermic
 covered with fur or hair
 breathe through lungs
 undergo internal fertilisation
 give birth and nurse their young
Classification of Plants

Non-flowering plants
Moss
− reproduce by producing
spores Fern
− reproduce by producing
spores Conifer
− reproduce by bearing cones
Flowering Plants
Monocotyledons Differences Dicotyledons
One No. of cotyledons Two
Fibrous root Root Tap root
Parallel veins Leaf Network−like veins
Non−woody stem Stem Woody stem
Paddy & maize plant Example Tomato, durian
Constructing a Dichotomous Key
Dichotomous Key
− method used by biologists to identify and classify organisms systematically based
on similarities and differences

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Chapter 2: Ecosystem
TOPIC EXPLANATION
2.1 Energy Flow in Producers, Consumers and Decomposers
an Ecosystem Producer
− organism that produces its own food through photosynthesis
Primary consumer
− organism that eats another organism
− herbivores and omnivores
Secondary consumer
− omnivores and carnivores that eats primary consumer
Tertiary consumer
− secondary carnivore that eats secondary consumer
Decomposers
− organism that breaks down dead animals and plants into simpler materials or nutrient
through saprophytism
Food Chain
− can be used to show the feeding relationship between organisms
2.2 Nutrient Cycle in Water Cycle, Carbon Cycle and Oxygen Cycle
an Ecosystem Nutrient Cycle
− nutrients are obtained from a balanced ecosystem and used by living things and then the
nutrients are returned to the environment to be used again
Water Cycle

 water is absorbed by roots of plants

and released to the atmosphere
through transpiration
 animals carry out respiration,
defecation & excretion and increase
the water content
 roots hold soils and slow down
water flow to prevent soil erosion
 fallen leaves reduce rate of
evaporation and prevent soil from
becoming dry

Carbon Cycle and Oxygen Cycle

 plants and animals carry out respiration which uses oxygen and releases carbon dioxide
 decay of dead plants and animals uses oxygen and releases CO2
 green plants maintain the content of oxygen and carbon dioxide

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 Steps to Solve Problems when there is an Interference to the Nutrient Cycle
Human activities that disrupt the nutrient cycle
 unrestricted logging
 burning of fossil fuels
 overconsumption of water resources
Step to solve interference to the nutrient cycle
 create planned agricultural system
 use public transport
 store rain water for daily use
 replant trees
 tighten laws
2.3 Interdependence Definition of Habitat, Species, Population, Community and Ecosystem
and Interaction Habitat
Among Organisms − natural surroundings or home of an organism
and between Species
Organisms and the − group of organisms that have common characteristics and can reproduce to
Environment breed offsprings
Population
− group of organisms of the same species that live in same habitat
Community
− a few populations of different organisms that live together in one habitat and
have mutual interaction with each other
Ecosystem
− a few communities that live together in one habitat and have mutual interaction
with each other, including all non−living things such as water, air and soil
A Balanced Ecosystem
 Organisms that are interdependent on each other to ensure the survival of
the species.
 also interdependent on non−living things such as water and light
Interaction between Organisms

Symbiosis
Mutualism
- benefits both organisms
Commensalism
- only benefits one organism without harming the other
Parasitism
- benefits one organism and harms the other
Prey-predator
− one organism that eats another organism
Competition
− organism compete for limited supply of basic needs
Biological Control
 method that uses organisms that are natural predators, parasites or pathogens
to reduce the number of pests in an area
Example:
 owls are kept in palm oil plantations to control rat population
 Bacillus thuringiensis to control rhinoceros beetle

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 Advantages of biological control:
 more environmental friendly
 cheap and doesn’t affect humans’ health
Weaknesses of biological control:
 takes a long time before any effects is seen
 might disrupt a balanced ecosystem
Factors that Influence Population Size in an Ecosystem
Disease
Presence of predator
Source of food
Change of wheather
Changes in the Ecosytem
 Limited water supply
 Migration
 Change in population size
2.4 Role of Humans Role of Humans in Maintaining a Balance Nature
in Maintaining a Effects of human acticities on the environment:
Balanced Nature
Activity Effects
Forest logging  extinction of flora and fauna
 greenhouse effect
 soil erosion
Industrialistion  pollution of air, water and soil
 greenhouse effect
 acid rain
Agriculture  pollution of water due to pesticides overuse
 soil loses minerals
Waste disposal  pollution of water and ground
 flash floods
 foul odour due to decaying organic waste

Steps to solve the effects of human activities on the environment:

Enforce laws
Increase public awareness
Practise Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, Refuse, Repurpose (5R)
Use biological control

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Chapter 3: Nutrition
TOPIC EXPLANATION
3.1 Classes of Food Classes of Food

Carbohydrate
− contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
− supplies a lot of energy
− e.g. starch, glycogen and cellulose
− starch is food stored in plants
− glycogen is food stored in animals
− cellulose is carbohydrate that form the cell walls of plants
Protein
− contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen
− digested to the basic unit – amino acid
− required for growth, repair damaged tissue and replace dead cells
− synthesise enzymes, hormones and antibodies
Fat
− contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
− formed from fatty acid and glycerol
− high energy source and storage
− protects the organs in the body
− transporter for vitamin A, D, E and K
− stored under the skin as heat insulator
Vitamin
− doesn’t supply energy
− needed to maintain good health
− can be classified into two:

Type, source, importance and effect of vitamin deficiency

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 Fibre
− cannot be broken down by the digestive system
− comprises of cellulose that is found in the cell wall of plants
− stimulate peristalsis and prevent constipation
Mineral
− do not supply energy
− required in small quantities to regulate body processes
− to maintain health
Types, sources, importance and effects of mineral deficiency

Water
− contains elements of hydrogen and oxygen
− act as chemical solvent
− transportation medium for nutrient and oxygen in body
− transports waste materials such as urea and salts out of cells
− regulates body temperature
3.2 Importance of a Balanced Diet
Balanced Diet  diet that contains all the food classes in the right quantities that are required by
the body
Food Pyramid

Factors that Influence Calorific Requirement

 Body size
 Age
 Work
 Gender
 State of health
 Climate

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 Calorific Value of Food
− total amount of energy when 1 g of food is burned completely
− measured in units of calorie (cal) or joule (j)

The Importance of Maintaining Health

 to maintain our health
 to reduce the risk of dangerous disease
3.3 Human Food Digestion
Digestive System  process of breaking down food that is complex and large into molecules that are
small, simple and soluble so that they can be absorbed by the cells of the body
 two types of digestion:

Digestion
Physical Chemical
 process of breaking down  process of breaking down
food into smaller particles in food from complex molecules
mouth with the help of to simpler molecules with the
teeth, tongue and saliva help of enzymes
 involves peristalsis

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The Structure of the Human Digestive System

The Flow of Food in the Digestive Tract

1. Mouth
− food is chewed by the teeth
− food particles are softened by saliva
− salivary amylase in saliva breaks down starch into maltose
2. Oesophagus
− food that enters the oesophagus is called Bolus
− process of peristalsis at the wall of oesophagus pushes the food in to the stomach
3. Stomach
− walls of stomach secrete protease and hydrochloric acid
− hydrochloric acid activates protease and kills bacteria in food
− protease breaks down protein into polypeptides
− food that is semi−liquid is called chyme
4. Duodenum
− the liver produces bile that is stored in the gall bladder
− bile emulsifies fat into small droplets and neutralises the acid in the chyme
− the pancreas produces pancreatic juice which contains:
− pancreatic amylase digests starch into maltose
− protease digests polypeptides into dipeptides
− lipase digests fat into fatty acids and glycerol
5. Small Intestine
− the small intestine secretes enzymes maltase and protease
− maltase digests maltose into glucose
− protease digests dipeptides into amino acids
6. Large Intestine
− undigested food will enter the large intestine
− process of water reabsorption happens in the large intestine
7. Rectum
− undigested food – faeces, enters the rectum and stored here
8. Anus
− faeces are excreted from the body through the anus

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 Action of digestive enzymes:
① Starch Maltose ➃ Polypeptide Dipeptide
Amylase Protease
(Secreted by salivary glands and pancreas) (Secreted by the pancreas)
② Maltose Glucose ⑤ Dipeptide Amino acid
Maltase Protease
(Secreted by the small intestine) (Secreted by the small intestine)
③ ⑥ Fatty acid +
Protein Polypeptide Fat
Glycerol
Protease Lipase
(Secreted by the stomach) (Secreted by the pancreas)

3.4 Process of Walls of The Small Intestine – Villi

Absorption and
Transportation of
Digested Food and
Defacation

Process of Transporting the Products of Digestion

Assimilation
 process of distributing the end products of digestion for the use of the cells in our body
Our body uses the end products of digestion as follows:
 Glucose is used to produce energy
 Amino acid is used to form component of cells
 Fatty acid and glycerol combine to form fat which is used as heat insulator and
to protect internal organs
Processes involved in the assimilation of digested food

Breaks down large and complex food

Digestive system particles into small and simple molecules
so they can be absorbed into the villi.
Blood circulatory Transport small and simple molecules to
system the cells of the body
End products are distributed for:
 formation of new cells
Assimilation
 respiration
 regulation of body temperature

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Defecation
 process of elimination of faeces from the body
 undigested food (fibres, dead cells and water) move into large intestine
 while moving, water and minerals are reabsorbed
 this makes undigested food become solid waste – faeces

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Chapter 4: Human Health
TOPIC EXPLANATION
4.1 Infectious Difference between Infectious and Non-infectious Disease
and
Infectious Disease Non-infectious Disease
Non−infectious
Diseases  caused by infection of  caused by genetic factor
pathogens directly or lifestyle
through mediums and
vectors
 tuberculosis, flu, ringworm,  cancer, hypertension,
tinea, leptospirosis, diabetes, asthma and
dengue fever, malaria cardiovascular disease
fever & Zika
 can be transmitted from  cannot be transmitted
How are Infectious Diseases Spread?
Infectious Disease
− spread by pathogens (the organisms that cause disease)
− pathogens: all virus, some bacteria, protozoa, fungi and worms
Airborne diseases
Airborne diseases
Droplet transmission Dust transmission
Pathogen−containing droplets Bacteria in spit (saliva) of an
sprays from the mouth & nose infected person dry up and
of an infected person through form spores which are spread
sneezing, coughing, talking, together with the dust in the
yawning or breathing. air.
Example of airborne disease:
 tuberculosis
 flu
 Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS)
 Influenza A (H1N1)
 chicken pox
Ways to prevent airborne disease:
 cover the mouth and nose when coughing, sneezing or yawning
 do not spit everywhere
 avoid being in a crowded place
 ensure the living place gets enough light as UV rays can kill certain microorganisms
in the air
Waterborne disease
− happens in areas with inadequate water supply & poor sanitation
− flood can also spread infectious disease
Example of waterborne disease:
 cholera
 typhoid
 amoebic dysentery
Ways to prevent waterborne disease:
 add chlorine into swimming pools and water supply systems
 build toilets with good sanitation
 boil drinking water properly
 wash hands with soap after using the toilet
Infection of diseases through contact
 ringworm and tinea (caused by fungi)
 syphilis and gonorrhoea (spread through sexual intercourse)
 HIV and AIDS (through sexual intercourse and syringe−sharing)

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Infection of diseases through vectors
− transmitted through animals (vectors)

Vector Pathogen
Cockroach Salmonella typhi
Fly Salmonella typhi
Aedes mosquito Dengue virus
Diseases, symptoms,Aedes mosquito
pathogens, Zika virus
vectors and ways of infection
Anopheles mosquito Plasmodium malariae
Rat Leptospira sp. bacteria

How Do Vectors Spread Diseases?

Mosquito
1. a mosquito that already has pathogens in its salivary glands sucks the blood of
an uninfected person
2. the mosquito secretes saliva when sucking the blood to prevent blood clotting.
the infection spreads throughout the person body.
3. another mosquito that bites the infected person transmits the disease to another victim
Fly
1. a fly that lands on dirt has pathogen on its legs and body
2. the fly transmits the pathogens to the food
3. the pathogens enter the body of the person who eats the food
The Mechanism to Prevent the Spread of Infectious Diseases

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4.2 Body Defence Body Defence Mechanism
Non-specific body defence mechanism
First line of defence (prevents pathogens from entering the body)
Skin
− made of a tough layer and is difficult to be penetrated
− microorganisms can only get into the body through wound
− sweat and sebum contain chemicals that kill microorganisms
Mucous membrane
− membrane that lines the digestive tract and respiratory tract
− microorganisms filtered by nasal hairs and mucous lining
− earwax, tears and vaginal secretions also function as antiseptic that kills
microorganisms
Second line of defence (fights pathogens through phagocytosis)
Phagocytosis
− white blood cells engulf and digest the pathogens using enzymes through
phagocytosis
Third line of defence (fights pathogens by producing antibodies)
Body immune system (Immunity)
− the ability of the body to resist pathogens before it is infected
− the production of antibodies when pathogens enter the body
− Antibody is a protein produced by WBC into the bloodstream in response to antigens
− Antigen is a foreign substance that comes from outside the body and induces the
production of antibodies
Importance of Immunisation
Immunisation
− an effort to stimulate the body defence against infections in babies, children and adults
by injecting vaccines
Vaccine
− contains antigens obtained from a part or the whole structure of a weakened of dead
virus or bacterium
Vaccination schedule in Malaysia

 Bacillus Calmette−Guerin (BCG)  protection against Tuberculosis

 DTaP  Diphteria, Tetanus and Pertussis
 Hib  Haemophilus influenza type B
 IPV  Inactivated Polio Vaccine
 MMR  Measles, Mumps and Rubella
 MR  booster dose for Measles and Rubella
 DT  booster dose for Diphteria and Tetanus
 HPV  Human Papilomavirus (13yo♀, 2nd dose given 6 months after 1st dose)
 JE  Japanese Encephalitis (Sarawak only)

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Passive Immunity and Active Immunity
Passive immunity: The body gains antibody from external sources
 obtained when a baby
receives antibody from
breast milk or from the

Natural
mother’s placenta
 temporary and short−lived,
first few mths after birth
child
 obtained when an antiserum
is injected into patient’s
body
 fights against pathogens
Artificial

without interrupting the

patient’s immune system
− antiserum is clear liquid
that contains antibodies
to prevent diseases
 fast and temporary

Active immunity: The body produces its own antibody

 occur when a person
recovers from an infection
Natural

 lasts long after the infection

 occurs when a vaccine

is injected into the body
 the immune system
Artificial

responds by producing
antibodies
 lasts long after the infection

Strong Immune System

Causes that weaken the immune system
 exposure to polluted air
 exposure to pesticides
 stress
 excessive intake of sugar
Practices that strengthen the immune system
 getting enough sleep and rest
 exercising and inhaling fresh air
 not smoking and no exposure to cigarette smoke
 doing periodic health examination

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Chapter 5: Water and Solution
TOPIC EXPLANATION
5.1 Physical Physical Characteristic of Water
Characteristics of  boiling point = 100°C
Water  freezing point = 0°C
 colourless
 density = 1 g cm−3
Water
 has high surface tension
 surface tension is a result of cohesive force between water molecules at the surface
 cohesive force between water molecules and adhesive force between water molecules
and cell walls of xylem allow water to be drawn up from the roots to the leaves of plants
 this phenomenon is called capillary action

Composition of Water
 compound that made up of oxygen and hydrogen
Composition of elements in water
 During electrolysis, oxygen gas is produced at the anode while hydrogen gas is
produced at the cathode
 a water molecule is made of 2 hydrogen atom & 1 oxygen atom
 chemical symbol of water is H2O
Evaporation of Water
− process that happens at the surface of water that changes water to water vapour

Factors that Affect The Rate of Evaporation of Water

Humidity
− dry air contains less water vapour
− so, dry air can hold more water molecules
− thus, the rate of evaporation of water increases
Surrounding temperature
− when surrounding temp. increase, water molecules gain more energy, move faster
and escape into the air easily
− thus, the rate of evaporation of water increases
Exposed surface area of water
− larger surface area allows more water molecules to escape
− thus, the rate of evaporation of water increases
Movement of air
− high speed wind causes the air at surface of water to dry
− thus, the rate of evaporation of water increases

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 Applications of Evaporation of Water in Daily Life
 process of drying clothes on clothes line
 sea salt is obtained from the evaporation of seawater
 dried seafood can be kept longer as microorganisms cannot survive without water
 hair dryer blows hot air, increasing evaporation rate of water
5.2 Solution and Solute, Solvent and Solution
Rate of Solubility Solute
− substance that can dissolve in a liquid
Solvent
− liquid that dissolves a substance
Solution
− mixture formed when a solute dissolves in a solvent
Dilute Solution, Concentrated Solution and Saturated Solution
Dilute solution Concentrated solution Saturated solution
 less solute  more solute  excess solute
 can dissolve  can dissolve  cannot dissolve
more solute less solute any solute and
form precipitate
Solution and Suspension
Solution
− clear mixture formed when a solute dissolves in a solvent
Suspension
− cloudy mixture formed from undissolved solute particles in a solvent
Solubility
− maximum amount of the solute that can dissolve in 100 ml of solvent at a specific
temperature
Rate of Solubility
Factors that Affect the Rate of Solubility
Temperature and Rate of Stirring
− high temperature cause the particles to move rapidly
− cause the particles of solvent and solute to fill up the spaces between them faster
Size of solute
− the smaller the size of solute, the bigger total surface area exposed to the
solvent particles
− this allows the solute to dissolve faster in the solvent
Colloid
− mixture of two or more solutes dispersed evenly in a solvent
Example of colloid:
 foam – shaving cream
 emulsion – milk, mayonnaise
Water as a Universal Solvent
− able to dissolve almost all substances, solids, liquids or gases
Uses of water as a universal solvent:
 fertilisers dissolve in water and are absorbed by roots of plants
 soft drinks are produced using water as a solvent
 water dissolves detergents used in cleaning process

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 Organic Solvents
Organic Solvents (carbon-based)
− can be used to dissolve solutes that are insoluble in water

 organic solvents must me handled carefully as there are certain organic solvents which
can be harmful to health
5.3 Water Water Purification Method
Purification and 1. Boiling
Water Supply − to kill microorganisms
2. Filtration
− to separate suspended particles from liquid
3. Chlorination
− to kill microorganisms
4. Distillation
− to separate suspended particles, dissolved substances and kill microorganism
Solving the Problems of Water Supply
 Singapore has limited water supply
 they uses modern technologies to recycle sewage into drinking water and for
industrial uses
 the project is called NEWater
Water Supply System

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 Process Function
Filtration Removes large suspended particles (leaves etc.)
Oxidation Increase oxygen level, get rid of unpleasant smell
Coagulation  alum is added, mud stick & sink to the bottom
 slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) is added
to reduce acidity
Sedimentation Suspended particles deposit at the tank bottom
Filtration Removes remaining suspended particles through
sand filters
Chlorination &  chlorine is added to kill microorganisms
Fluoridation  sodium fluoride is added to prevent
tooth decay

Water Sustainability
Water pollutants Ways to overcome water pollition
 Domestic waste  upgrade sewerage systems
 educate people – waste management
 improve sanitation facilities(rural area)
 Industrial waste  enforce laws
 Chemicals in  educate farmers to use
agriculture biodegradable fertilisers and
pesticides
 Oil spillage  improved air surveillance with co−op
of Air Poilce Unit

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Chapter 6: Acids and Alkalis
TOPIC EXPLANATION
6.1 Properties of Example and Properties of Acids and Alkalis
Acids and Alkalis Example of acids and alkalis:
Acid Alkali
Hydrochloric acid Sodium hydroxide solution
Vinegar Soap water
Properties of an acid and alkali:
Acid Alkali
pH value less than 7 pH value more than 7
Tastes sour Taste bitter
Corrosive Corrosive
Turns blue litmus paper red Turns red litmus paper blue
Reacts with metals to produce Does not react with metals
hydrogen gas

The Role of Water in Showing the Properties of Acids and Alkali

Acid and alkalis show their properties only in the presence of water

Acidic and Alkaline Substances

Examples of acidic and alkaline substances:
Substances
Acidic Alkaline
Vinegar, lemon juice Soap, toothpaste
How to determine the characteristic of different substances?
− using a suitable indicator
Colour change of various indicators:
Indicator Acid Neutral Alkali
Phenolphtalein Colourless Colourless Pink
Universal indicator Red Green Blue
Methyl orange Red Yellow Yellow
Blue litmus paper Red Blue Blue
Red litmus paper Red Red Blue

Strength of Acids and Alkalis

The pH Scale

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 Uses of Acids and Alkalis in Daily Life
− agricultural, industrial and medical
Acid
Tartaric acid Fizzy drink Car battery Pickle
Tartaric acid Carbonic acid Sulphuric acid Vinegar

Alkali
Soap Fertiliser Antacid pills Detergent
Potassium Magnesium Sodium
Ammonia
hydroxide hydroxide hydroxide
6.2 Neutralisation Neutralisation
− reaction between an acid and an alkali that produces salt & water
− word equation for this neutralisation reaction is:
Acid + Alkali  Salt + Water
− different acids and alkalis produce different salts. e.g.:
Hydrochloric acid + Sodium hydroxide  Sodium chloride + water
Sulphuric acid + Potassium hydroxide  Potassium sulphate + water
Nitric acid + Sodium hydroxide  Sodium nitrate + water
Applications of Neutralisation in Daily Life
 toothpastes contain alkaline substance that can neutralise the acid produced by
the bacteria in mouth
 face cleansers are alkaline and make facial dry. acidic toners are used to neutralise
the skin
 shampoo make hair slightly alkaline. acidic hair conditioner can neutralise the residue
of the shampoo on hair
 acidic soil can be treated by adding slaked lime which is alkaline
 acidic fabric softeners reduce the pH level of fabrics which is alkaline after being
washed with detergents
 acidic factories’ waste substances are treated with alkalis before being discharged into
the river

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Chapter 7: Electricity and Magnetism
TOPIC EXPLANATION
7.1 Electricity Energy
− ability to do work
Forms of Energy
 sound energy
 kinetic energy
 electrical energy
 gravitational potential energy
 elastic potential energy
 light energy
 nuclear energy
 heat energy
 chemical energy
Sources of Energy
The Sun
Geothermal
Water
Biomass
Fossil fuel
Radioactive substance
Wave
Wind
Electrostatic Charge
− static electric charges that transfer to our body from certain object
Electrostatic Forces
− the attraction and repulsion between the electric charges

 when two different types of objects are rubbed together, only the electrons
are transferred from one object to another, whereas the protons do not move.
 the object that gains electrons will negatively charged
 the object that loses electrons will positively charged
 the object that has equal number of protons & electrons – neutral

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Electroscope
− to detect the existence of electric charges on an object

Examples of Electrostatic In Our Daily Life

The Occurrence of Lightning
− friction between clouds and air causes the clouds to be charged with electric charges
− lightning is a result of the force of attraction that exists between the positive charges
on the ground and negative charged clouds

Electrical Current
 the rate of flow of electric charges through a conductor
Measuring the Quantity of Electricity
 using an ammeter, ampere (A)
 using an voltmeter, volt (V)
The Relationship between Current, Voltage and Resistance
Resistance
− ability of a conductor to limit or resist the flow of electric current
− measured by unit ohm (ꭥ)
Ohm’s Law
− the electric current that flows through a conductor is directly proportional to the
voltage across two ends of the conductor, provided the temperature and other

− this relationship can be written as 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅

physical situations remain unchanged

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7.2 Flow of Electric Circuit Components
Electric Current in Electric Circuit Components and their Symbols
a Series Circuit
and Parallel
Circuit

Series Circuit and Parallel Circuit

Series circuit Parallel circuit

 made up of electrical  separated into several

components that are different path of electrical
connected one after circuit and each parallel
another where the current path has electrical
flows through in a single components
path
Current, Voltage and Resistance in a Series Circuit
Current, I = I1 = I2
Voltage, V = V1 = V2
Resistance, R = R1 = R2
Advantages and disadvantages of a series circuit
Advantages Disadvantages
 every component in the  when one of the electrical
circuit receives the appliances is damaged,
same amount of current others cease to function
 every component is  adding more electrical
controlled by the same appliances increase
switch resistance and decrease flow
 increase in voltage of current
supplies more electric  each appliances cannot
current be switched off
Current, Voltage and Resistance in a Parallel Circuit
Current, I = I1 + I2

1 1 1
Resistance, = +
Voltage, V = V1 = V2

𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2
Advantages and disadvantages of a parallel circuit
Advantages Disadvantages
 every electrical appliances  the voltage for every
can be switched on/off electrical appliance cannot be
separately adjusted because the voltage
 the increase in number of is the same as the source of
appliances doesn’t affect the voltage
function of other appliances
in the same circuit

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7.3 Magnetism Properties of a Magnet
attracts magnetic materials
has poles (north pole and south pole)
like poles repel, unlike poles attract
freely suspended magnet shows north−south direction
Magnetic Field
 the area around the magnet with magnetic force
Characteristics of magnetic field lines

Electromagnet
 a type of magnet that has temporary magnetic effect when electric current flows
through it
 the pattern of the magnetic field depends on the shape of the conductor used
 the direction of the magnetic field is determined by the direction of the electric current
 the right-hand grip rule determines the direction of the magnetic field of the
current flow in a straight wire

Application of Magnets and Electromagnets in Daily Life

 the needle of a compass uses a magnet to show the direction
 credit and debit cards have electromagnetic strip that stores informations
 the magnetic lock on doors uses an electromagnet to lock the doors automatically

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Chapter 8: Force and Motion
TOPIC EXPLANATION
8.1 Force Definition of Force
 a pull or a push upon an object

Types of Forces
Gravitational force
force that points towards the centre of the Earth
causes objects that are thrown upwards to fall back down
Normal force
force produced when an object is in contact with a surface
Elastic force
when a material is stretched or compressed
Buoyant force
the thrust force acting on an object that is floating on the surface of a liquid
Frictional force
force that resists movement between two surfaces that are in contact with
each other
Characteristic of Force
 has magnitude
 has direction

Measurement of Force
 using a spring balance
 magnitude of the force is obtained by reading the balance’s scale

Unit of Force
 newton (N)
 1 kg  10 N
Action-Reaction Pair
Newton’s Third Law
 for every action force, there is a reaction force of the same magnitude but in
the opposite direction

8.2 Effects of Force Effects of Force

1. Moves stationary objects
2. Changes the velocity of objects
3. Stops moving object
4. Changes direction of motion of objects
5. Changes shape and size of objects

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Buoyant Force
 an object will float if the buoyant force acting on it is enough to support its weight
 an object will submerged if the buoyant force acting on it is not enough to support
its weight

Buoyant force = Actual weight – apparent weight

Density and Buoyant Effect
 when an object that is less dense than a liquid is pushed into liquid, the buoyant
force (upthrust force, F) is more than weight (W).
 it pushes the object up, the object will float
 when an object is more dense than the liquid, the buoyant force (upthrust force,F) is
less than the weight of the object (W)
 it causes the object to submerge to the bottom of the liquid
Densities of different materials
Density at 0°C and 1 atmospheric pressure
Material
g cm-3 kg m-3
Cork 0.24 240
Water 1.0 1 000
Glycerine 1.26 1 260
Iron 7.9 7 900
Lead 11.3 11 300
Mercury 13.6 13 600
Gold 19.3 19 300
Plimsoll line
 marked on cargo ships
 for safety purposes
 density of seawater is
different in different parts of
the world due to difference
in temp. and salt
concentration
 helps to determine the safe
level for a ship to stay
afloat

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Lever
 a bar that rotates on a fixed point
 a simple machine
Purposes of a lever
1. allows us to do work easily
2. allows us to use minimal force to do work
Classification of Levers

Moment of Force
 the turning effect when a force acting on an object and rotate the object at a
fixed point (pivot/fulcrum)
 allows us to do work easily
 depends on the force applied and the perpendicular distance of the fulcrum to
the force
Calculation of moment of force:

Moment of force = Force (N) x Perpendicular distance from the pivot to the force (m)
Moment of force will increase if the:
 magnitude of force increases, by applying greater force
 perpendicular distance from pivot to effort increase
Principle of Moment of Lever

Pressure
 force per unit area (direction of force is perpendicular to the surface area)
 depend on the surface area on which the force is applied
 force applied on smaller surface area, will result larger pressure

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑁)
 force applied on larger surface area, will result smaller pressure
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑚2)

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Application of Pressure in Daily Life
 skating boots
 tractors wheel
 axe blade
 studs on the sole of football boots
Gas Pressure
The kinetic theory of gas
 air molecules always move about freely and collide with the walls of its container
Air pressure
 the force produced from the frequency of collision between the air molecules and
the walls of the container
Factors that affect air pressure
 Volume
 when a closed container is compressed, the volume in the container is reduced
 this causes the air particles to collide more frequently with the walls of
the container
 thus, the air pressure increases
 Temperature
 when air temperature in a closed container increases, the air particles move faster
 this causes the air particles to collide with the walls of the container
more frequently and with a greater force
 thus, the air pressure increases

Atmospheric Pressure
 the pressure exerted by the atmosphere on the surface of the Earth and all objects
on the Earth
Application of the Concept of Air Pressure in Daily Life
Plunger
1. when the plunger is pressed against the sink, the air inside it will be forced out
and creates a low−pressured area
2. the high pressure in the pipe pushes out the blockage stuck inside the sink when
the plunger is pulled up

Magdeburg Hemisphere
1. when the air in the hemisphere is pumped out so that the space in the
hemisphere becomes a vacuum, the pressure in the hemisphere is zero
2. the two hemisphere cannot be separated because the atmospheric pressure
outside will exert a very strong force on the hemisphere

Straw
1. when air in the straw is sucked, the pressure inside the straw is reduced
2. the higher air pressure outside (atmospheric pressure) will push the drink into

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 straw and finally into the mouth

Syphon
1. the end of tube B is placed lower than the end of tube A, causing water to flow
out from it
2. water in the tube flows out and creates an area of low pressure in the tube
3. atmospheric pressure pushes the water into the tube, so the water flows
out continuously

Syringe
1. when the piston is pulled up, the volume of air in the cylinder increases. this
causes a low air pressure in the cylinder
2. the higher air pressure outside (atmospheric pressure) will push the liquid into
the syringe

Vacuum cleaner
1. when the switch is turned on, the fan in the vacuum cleaner will push air out of
the vacuum cleaner causing the air pressure inside the vacuum cleaner to drop
2. the higher atmospheric pressure outside will push the air and dust into the
vacuum cleaner

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Relationship between Altitude and Atmospheric Pressure
 atmospheric pressure decreases as altitude increases
 due to gravitational attraction
 air molecules closer to the surface of Earth are pulled together by the
gravitational attraction causing a rise in pressure
 at higher altitudes, air molecules are less affected by the gravitational attraction,
air becomes less heavy and expands easily
 causes a low atmospheric pressure at high altitude

Effects of Depth on Liquid Pressure

 the walls of a dam are designed to be thicker at the base in order to withstand high
water pressure at the base of the dam
 divers wear a special suit in order to withstand high water pressure
 the body of a submarine is made of strong material so that it will not be crushed by
high water pressure

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Chapter 9: Heat
TOPIC EXPLANATION
9.1 Relationship Relationship between Temperature and Heat
between Heat is a form of energy.
Temperature and Temperature is a measure of the degree of hot/coldness of an object
Heat Temperature is measured by using an thermometer
Heat Temperature
A form of energy The degree of hotness or
coldness of an object
Measured in joule (J) Measured in degres Celcius
(°C) or kelvin (K)
The amount of heat depends Temperature depends on the
on the type of material, degree of movement of the
quantity of material and particles in a matter
temperature
9.2 Heat Flow and Heat Flow
Thermal  heat flows from hot object to cold object
Equilibrium  happens in three ways: conduction, convection and radiation

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 Heat Flow in Natural Phenomena
 warming of the Earth by the Sun radiation
 sea breeze
− natural convection process
− during the day, the Sun heats up the land faster than the sea
− warm air on land expands, becomes less dense and rises because it is lighter
− the cold air from the sea is more dense is drawn in to replace the warm air on land
 land breeze
− natural convection process
− at night, the land cools faster than the sea
− the air above the sea which is warmer becomes less dense and rises
− the cold, more dense air from land begins to move to the sea

Heat Conductors and Heat Insulators

Heat Conductor
− materials that allow heat flow
− mercury (thermometer), metal (pan), metal (iron base)
Heat Insulator
− materials that prevent heat flow
− wood (cooking utensils), fiberglass/polystyrene (wall of ice box)
Thermal Equilibrium
− a condition where there is no net transfer of heat energy between two or more objects
9.3 Principle Expansion and Contraction of Matter
of Expansion Solid
and − solid’s particles vibrate at a fixed position
Contraction of − when the solid is heated, the particles vibrate faster and move further apart from one
Matter another
− this causes the volume of the solid to increase because it expands
− when the solid is cooled, the particles vibrate slowly and move closer to another
− this cause the volume of the solid to decrease because it contract
Liquid and Gas
− liquid and gas particles move freely
− when they are heated, the particles move faster and randomly
− the distance between particles also increases
− this causes the volume of liquid and gas to increase because the liquid and gas expand
− when they are cooled, the particles move slower and closer to one another
− this causes the volume of liquid and gas to decrease because the liquid and gas
contracts
The Uses of Expansion and Contraction of Matter in Daily Life
(a) thermometer (mercury)
− mercury is a heat conductor that can expand and contract
(b) railway tracks
− railway tracks have small gap between their rails
− this allows them to expand in hot air
− without it, the tracks will buckle and overlap
(c) steels bridges
− steel bridges are built with rollers and a gap on one end
− this allows the bridges to expand in hot weather

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 (d) bimetallic strip
− used in devices that depend on temperature regulation
− made from two different types of metal strips

Uses of the Principle of Expansion and Contraction of Matter to Solve Problems

1. Submerging a tight bottle lid in hot water so it can expand and we can open it easily
2. Put a dented table tennis ball in hot water causes the air inside the table tennis ball
to expand
9.4 Relationship Absorption and Radiation of Heat
between Types of − depends on the type and colour of its surface
Surface of Object,  When an object absorbs heat, its temperature increases
and Heat  When an object radiates heat, its temperature decreases
Absorption and  Dark and dull surfaces are better heat absorbers and radiators compared to white
Emission and shiny surfaces
Heat Concept in Daily Life
Green Building Concept:
 has high energy efficiency through the usage of renewable energy
 has good water flow system, air circulation and lightning
 uses recycled materials

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Chapter 10: Sound Waves
TOPIC EXPLANATION
10.1 Characteristics Characteristics of Sound Waves
of Sound Waves Sound
− a form of energy caused by vibration
Transfer of Sound
 requires a medium to propagate – solid, liquid and gas
 e.g. when a bell is rung, the metal surface of bell will vibrate
 air molecules near it will also vibrate and collide with the air molecules nearby
 vibration of sound is transferred from one molecules to another molecules beside it
in the form of waves
Speed of transfer of sound
 Solids
− sound is transferred very rapidly
− when the particles at one end of the solid start to vibrate, the vibration causes
the nearby particles to also vibrate as the particles of solids are arranged very
closely together
 Liquids
− sound is transferred less rapidly
− due to the loose arrangement of particles in liquid
 Gases
− sound waves propagate very slowly
− due to the arrangement of gas particles which are far apart from each other
Reflection and Absorption of Sound
 hard and smooth surfaces are good sound reflectors
 soft and rough surfaces are good sound absorber
10.2 Loudness and Loudness and Pitch of Sound
Pitch of Sound The strength or loudness of sound
− depends on the amplitude of the sound wave
The pitch of sound
− depends on the frequency of the sound produced
− frequency is measured in the unit of hertz (Hz)

Doppler Effect
− the apparent change in frequency caused by the relative movement of sound source, the
relative movement of the observer or both

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 10.3 Phenomena Phenomenon of Reflection of Sound Waves
and Application of  echo is produced when sound waves are reflected from a hard surface to the listener
Reflection of Sound
Waves

Application of Reflection of Sound Waves

Sound Reflection Technologies
Ultrasound
− type of sound wave with a frequency of more than 20 000 Hz
− cannot be heard by humans but can be heard by animals such as bats that use it for
navigation purpose
Sonar
− used in the shipping industry to detect underwater object
− also used in other fields such as medical and fisheries
Limitations of Hearing
Human’s hearing range : 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz
Devices to overcome human limitations of hearing
stethoscope – help doctors listen to a patient’s heartbeat
megaphone – amplifies voice so it can be heard from a distance
hearing aids – amplify sound entering the ear

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Chapter 11: Stars and Galaxies In The Universe
TOPIC EXPLANATION
11.1 Stars and Galaxies
Galaxies in the  a set of bodies consisting of millions of stars with gas and dust particles
Universe  forms of galaxies: spiral, elliptical and irregular

The Milky Way

 a medium large spiral galaxies
 our solar system is located at
the edge of one of the spiral in
the Milky Way
 consists of ±200 billion stars
and the Sun is one of it

Stars
The Life Cycle of A Star (Nebula Hypothesis)

Birth of Stars
− stars are formed from nebulae
− nebulae are large clouds consisting of dust particles and gases such as hydrogen and
helium
− the gases and particles in a nebula are pulled by a strong gravitational force which
causes it to form a globe
− the strong gravitational force causes the globe of gas to shrink and compress until it
becomes very dense and form a core
− the core shrinks and become dense due to the increasing strength of the gravitational
force
− when the temp. and pressure in the core increase, a nuclear reaction will take place
− hydrogen gas turns into helium , a huge amount of heat energy and light is released
− the core will shine and a star is formed
− the star that is formed is known as a protostar
− the new star continues to expand and becomes either an average star like the Sun or a
massive star

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Death of Stars
 in a star, a lot of heat is generated which will heat up the outer layer of the star
 as a result, hydrogen within this layer starts to burn
 this causes the star to expand
 during this stage, the star appears red in colour & called red giant
 if the red giant is not massive, a white dwarf is formed
 if the red giant is big enough, it contracts so quickly that a big explosion called
supernova occurs
 supernova is extremely bright and can be seen in daylight
 as a result of the explosion, a neutron star is formed if the original star is a large star
 if the original star is a super−large star, a black hole is formed
 it is called black hole because light in it cannot escape
 any matters that enters it cannot escape too

Characteristics of Stars
 Colour
 Size
 Distance
 Brightness
 Temperature
Classification of stars based on colour and temperature

Sizes of stars
− stars have different sizes: supergiant, giant and dwarf
− brightness of star depends on its size, distance and surface temp.
− brightest stars in the sky are Sirius and Rigel

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Chapter 12: Solar System
TOPIC EXPLANATION
12.1 Solar System Solar System

Comparison of Planet Distances in the Solar System from the Sun

 Astronomical Unit (A.U.)
− the average distance between the Earth and the Sun, ± 93 mil. miles or 150 mil. km
1 A.U. = 1.5 x 108 km
 Light Years (ly)
− the distance travelled by light in one year
− light moves at a velocity of 300 000 km every second
− therefore, light can move as far as 9.5 x 1012 km in a year
1 light year = 9.5 x 1012 km

Converting Units between Astronomical Unit, Light Years and Kilometres

To convert units between astronomical To convert units between
light unit (A.U.) and km: years and km:
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑚 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑚
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐴. 𝑈. = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑦 =
1.5 × 10 𝑘𝑚
8
9.5 × 1012 𝑘𝑚
Distance of planets from the Sun in A.U. and ly
Planet Distance from Sun (km) Distance from Sun (AU) Distance from Sun (ly)
Mercury 5.79 x 107 0.39 6.1 x 10−6
Venus 1.08 x 108 0.72 1.14 x 10−5
Earth 1.50 x 108 1.0 1.58 x 10−5
Mars 2.28 x 108 1.52 2.4 x 10−5
Jupiter 7.78 x 108 5.19 8.19 x 10−5
Saturn 1.43 x 109 9.5 1.51 x 10−4
Uranus 2.87 x 109 19.13 3.02 x 10−4
Neptune 4.5 x 109 30 4.74 x 10−4

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Planets in the Solar System
Planet Explanation
Mercury
 the closest planet to the Sun, approx. 57.9 million kilometres
 smallest planetin the solar system. diameter is 40% smaller than
Earth, 40% bigger than the moon. it is smaller than Jupiter’s moon –
Ganymede; and Saturn’s moon – Titan
 surface of mercury is similar to moon, with asteroid craters
and cliffs which are tens of kilometres high
 due to the absence of atmosphere, light cannot be scattered
 as a result, the sky appears dark in outer space
Venus
 the second closest planet to the Sun
 known as ‘greenhouse’ planet due to the high CO2 in its atmosphere
 rotates from east to west, which differs from the Earth and
others, so, the Sun rises from the west on Venus
 the size and age of Venus is the same as Earth, but the climate is
far more challenging, with a temperature of approximately 460°C
Earth
 the third planet from the Sun
 the only place in the universe that is inhabited by living things
 has a layer of atmosphere to protect from UV rays, solar wind etc.
 71% of the Earth is covered with water and 29% land
Mars
 the fourth planet from the Sun a.k.a. the ‘Red Planet’
 has two moons – Phobos and Demos
 surface area is 25% that of Earth & its mass is 10% that of the Earth
 if observed from Earth, the atmosphere of Mars can be divided
into two different areas. the brighter area is covered in dust and
reddish sand, while the poles contain frozen water and carbon
dioxide
Jupiter
 the fifth planet from the Sun, also the largest planet in solar system
 mass is almost 320 times that of the Earth, twice of other planets
 is said to be the protector of the Earth, as it is able to deflect
huge objects from hitting Earth with its strong gravity
Saturn
 the sixth planet from the Sun, also the second largest planet in s.s.
 classified as a ‘giant gas’ planet
 has a ring system which mostly comprises of ice with a
small amount of rocky material and dust
 to date, 62 moons have been found to orbit this planet. the size
of Titan, Saturn’ biggest moon (after Ganymede) is bigger than
Mercury
Uranus
 the seventh planet from the Sun, third biggest planet in s.s.
 the first element in the interior of Uranus are ice and rock
 astronomers often refer to it as a ‘giant gas’ planet
 has a ring system similar to Saturn but thinner and darker
 has many moons
 unique, because its axis of rotation is tilted, almost parallel to
its orbit around the Sun
 takes 84 years (time on Earth) to orbit the Sun

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 Neptune
 the eighth planet from the Sun
 also classified as a ‘giant gas’ planet
 takes almost 165 years (time on Earth) to orbit the Sun

General characteristics of planets in the solar system

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Relationship between Temperature of a Planet and the Sun
Distance of planet from Sun and the surface temperature of each planet

For planets that do not have an atmosphere

Mercury: sunlight that directly reaches its surface will cause the area that faces the Sun to
be extremely hot, >427°C. the darker area is extremely cold, and its temperatures
can drop to -173°C

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For planets that have an atmosphere
(a) Earth : has clouds that reflect sunlight back into outer space but the
atmosphere traps some of the heat, which causes the greenhouse effect
(b) Venus : has thick clouds that can reflect sunlight back into outer space, but the
atmospheric layers consist of mostly carbon dioxide causes greenhouse
effect therefore, more heat is trapped and the surface temp. can reach up to
462°C
(c) Mars : although it has an atmosphere, the surface pressure is extremely low
compared to that of the Earth (less than 1/100 of Earth’s pressure),
causing minimal effect on the surface temperature. temp. between -143°C
to 35°C
For giant planets
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune – the surface of these planets are covered with gas.
these planets receive very little sunlight, therefore
their surface temperature are extremely low.
The Relationship between Density and Gravitational Pull of the Planets
− the gravity on the surface of a planet depends on its mass and density

The gravity of the Earth

− 9.8 m s−2
− this means that if we release an object from a certain height, the object will fall at an
acceleration of 9.8 metres per second
 The gravity of Mercury and Mars is lower than the Earth because their masses are
lower than the Earth
 The gravity of Venus is almost the same as the Earth’s because its mass is almost the same
as the mass of the Earth
 The gravity of Jupiter is much higher than the Earth because its mass is extremely
high although it has a low density
 Although Saturn, Uranus and Neptune have very high mass, their gravity is not as high as the
gravity of the Earth because these ‘giant gas’ planets have low density

The Relationship between Distance, Time and Speed

Distance from the Sun and time taken for each planet to orbit the Sun

 The further a planet is from the Sun, the more time it needs to orbit the Sun.

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Rotational direction of the planets
− all planets rotate from west to east except Venus and Uranus

Hypothetical Situation related to the Solar System

What happens if the Earth rotates slower or stops rotating?
 longer day and night duration in two different parts of the Earth
 more desert areas in parts of the Earth that faces the Sun
 change in high and low tides
 temperature will drop in areas of the Earth that do not receive sunlight
What are natural satellites?
− objects that move around planets on their own orbit
− the moon is the only natural satellite of the Earth
How would the condition and appearance of the Earth be from the Moon?
 just like the Earth, the Moon also rotates on its own axis
 at the same time , the Moon also moves around the Earth on its orbit
 the duration taken for the Moon to rotate on its axis and orbit the Earth is about
same, which is 27 days
 therefore, the same surface of the Moon will be facing the Earth at all times
The Earth as a Planet for Living Things
− the only planet that has life
Characteristics of the Earth:
 has a lot of water for all living processes
 has high oxygen content for respiratory process
 has suitable temperature range, not too hot or too cold
 its atmosphere blocks harmful UV rays from reaching the Earth
 receives sunlight for plants to conduct photosynthesis
 has gravity that keeps objects from floating

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Love Our Earth
Ecological Footprint
− the measure of the ability of water and land to provide the basic needs of humans as
well as the ability of the Earth to absorb all human wastes and reproduce resources
after they have been used by humans
− the ration measurement for six areas, which are carbon dioxide waste treatment
areas, construction areas, forests, agricultural areas, farming areas and fishing areas
using the shape of human a human foot
− if ecological footprint exceeds the ability of the Earth to renew its resources, the Earth
will be depleted of all its resources
− ecological footprint is different between countries

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Chapter 13: Meteoroid, Asteroid, Comet
TOPIC EXPLANATION
13.1 Other Objects Characteristics of meteoroids, asteroids and comets
in the Solar System;
Objects Characteristics
such as Meteoroids,
Asteroids o a floating piece of stone and metal that moves in space
and  appears various sizes (10𝜇m – 1m)
Comets  made of stones and metals such as iron and nickel
 originates from fragments of asteroids and comets
 surface temperature 0°C
 travels at various speed fastest meteoroid travels@42 km s−1
o a large metal and rocky body that travels around the Sun in
its own orbit
 size starts from 1 m – 1 000 km
 made of stone and metals
 cold surface temperature approx. -73°C
 travels around the Sun at an average speed of 25 km s-1
 form an asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter
 large asteroids such as Ceres, Pallas, Juno and Vesta
have diameter of a few km – 1 000 km
 also known as small planets
o a small body made up of a mixture of ice, gas & frozen dust
o it travels around the Sun in its own orbit
 consist of 2 main part which is head and tail
 length of tail can reach up to 150 000 000 km
 size of head can reach up to 250 000 km
 comprises gas & water that freeze into ice, dust and
rocky particles
 elliptical orbit
 avg. speed 10 km s−1 – 70 km s−1

Movement of Meteoroids, Asteroids and Comet

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