IGCSE

ENVIRONMENTA
L MANAGEMENT
(0680)

CHAPTER 9
NATURAL
ECOSYSTEMS
&
HUMAN ACTIVITIES
 Unit 9.1
Ecosystems

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R8q_iRRabT4
SYLLABUS CONTENT
 Definition of keywords
• Ecosystem: An ecosystem includes all of the living things (plants, animals
and organisms) in a given area, interacting with each other, and also with
their non-living environments (weather, earth, sun, soil, climate, and
atmosphere).
• Population: It’s a group of individuals that all belong to the same species.
• Community: Communities are made up of all the populations of different
species in a given area.
• Habitat: a habitat is the type of natural environment in which a particular
species of organism lives.
• Niche: An ecological niche is the role and position a species has in its
environment.
Component of an ecosystem
 The biotic (living) components of an ecosystem.
• Biotic factors are all of the living organisms within an ecosystem. These may be plants,
animals, fungi, and any other living things.
Biotic component of the ecosystem includes:
• Producers: These are organisms called producers can manufacture their own food from
simple organic substances through the process of “photosynthesis”.
• Consumers: This is mostly composed of herbivores (Plant eaters), carnivores (Flesh
eaters) and omnivores(variety eaters).
• Consumers can also be grouped based on their position on a food chain such as
1. Primary consumers feeds on the producers (they are plant eaters)
2. Secondary consumers feeds on the primary consumers (animal and plants
eaters)
3. Tertiary consumers feeds on the secondary consumer (eats all)
• Decomposers: Decomposers refer to small consumers like bacteria, fungi and worms that
cause the decay of dead organism. They consume dead remains of plants and animals
and waste.
Abiotic factors are all of the non-living things in an ecosystem.
Abiotic factors include:
• temperature,
• humidity,
• water,
• oxygen,
• salinity,
• light,
• pH
 Biotic Interactions
• Different species compete to survive and breed. The size of a predator population
depends on the size of the prey population, and the reverse is true as well.
The forms of biotic interaction includes:
• Competition: Habitats have limited amounts of the resources needed by living organisms.
Organisms must compete with others in order to get enough of these resources to
survive. If they are unsuccessful and cannot move to another habitat, they will die.
The two main types of competition are:
• Interspecific competition, which happens between individuals of different species
• Intraspecific competition, which happens between individuals of the same species.
• Predation: Predators are animals that eat other animals. Prey are the animals that get
eaten. The size of the predator population and prey population depend on each other.
• Pollination: the transfer of pollen grain from the anther to the stigma of a flower. Insects,
animals are agents of pollination.
• Mutualism: this interaction involves both individuals benefitting from the activity of another
through a symbiotic relationship
 The process of photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants or plant-like organisms make
glucose in the form of carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water using energy
from sunlight
The steps of photosynthesis
• Step 1: chlorophyll in the chloroplast of leave absorb sunlight which is converted
to chemical energy during photosynthesis.
• Step 2: Carbon dioxide is diffuse through the stomata of the leaves and water is
absorb through osmosis from the root of plants.
• Step 3: the carbon dioxide and water combine in the presence of sunlight and
chlorophyll to produce glucose and waste product oxygen.
 Energy flow using food chains, food webs
and trophic levels
• Food chain: a chart showing the flow of energy (food) from
one organism to the next beginning with a producer, to a
consumer. It is the relationship between a producer and
consumer.
• A food chain is the simplest path that energy takes through an ecosystem. Energy enters from
the sun.
• Each level in the transfer of energy is a trophic level.
• Organisms at each level use energy in cellular respiration and heat loss and store the rest.
The 1st Trophic Level
• Consists of primary producers (autotrophs).
• Primary producers include land plants and phytoplankton in aquatic environments.
2nd Trophic Level
• Consists of primary consumers (heterotrophs)
• Primary consumers that eat green plants are herbivores.
• Examples: grasshoppers, rabbits, zooplankton
The 3rd and Any Higher Trophic Level
• Consists of consumers.
• Carnivores and omnivores
• Examples: Humans, wolves, frogs, and minnows
 Food Web
• A food web represents may interconnected food chains
describing various paths that energy takes through an
ecosystem.
Trophic level:
position of an
organism in a food
chain, food web or
pyramid of biomass,
numbers or energy
Describe and explain ecological pyramids based on
numbers and energy

Ecological Pyramids
• Models that show how energy flows through ecosystems.
• Pyramids can show the relative amounts of energy,
biomass, or numbers of organisms at each trophic level in
an ecosystem.
• The base of the pyramid represents producers.
• Each step up represents a different level of consumer.
• The number of trophic levels in the pyramid is determined
by the number of organisms in the chain or web.
There are three types of
ecological pyramids
a. Pyramid of energy
b. Pyramid of biomass
c. pyramid of numbers
• Energy pyramids compare
energy used by producers
and other organisms on
trophic levels.
• Between each tier of an
energy pyramid, up to 90
percent of the energy is lost
into the atmosphere as heat.
• Only 10 percent of the
energy at each tier is
transferred from one trophic
level to the next.
 Pyramid of biomass

• Even though a biomass pyramid

shows the total mass of
organisms at each level, it doesn’t
necessarily represent the amount
of energy available at each level.
• For example, the skeleton and
beak of a bird will contribute to the
biomass but aren’t available for
energy.
 Pyramid of Numbers

Pyramid of numbers
shows the numbers of
individual organisms at
each trophic level in an
ecosystem.
 The process of
respiration

Respiration is a chemical reaction that happens

in all living cells, including plant cells and
animal cells. It is the way that energy is
released from glucose so that all the other
chemical processes needed for life can happen.
 Forms of respiration
Aerobic respiration: Respiration using oxygen to break down food molecules is
called aerobic respiration.
• Glucose is oxidized to release its energy The word equation for aerobic respiration
is:
• glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + energy released
Anaerobic respiration: Most organisms cannot respire without oxygen but some
organisms and tissues can continue to respire if the oxygen runs out.
• Human muscle can respire anaerobically for short periods of time
• The glucose in muscle is converted to lactic acid:
• glucose → lactic acid + energy released
Some plants, and some fungi such as yeast can respire anaerobically – it's preferable to
release less energy but remain alive.
Glucose in yeast cells is converted to carbon dioxide and ethanol, which we refer to
simply as 'alcohol'
• glucose → ethanol + carbon dioxide + energy released.
 The Carbon Cycle
In carbon cycle, carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere is converted to compounds
such as carbohydrates in ‘producer’
plants during photosynthesis.
• Carbon is added into the atmosphere
by respiration, CO2 is a waste
product
• Through decaying of organic matter
from dead plants and animals,
microorganisms can turn carbon
compounds back to CO2 in the
atmosphere
• Through combustion of fuels
containing carbon
• It is removed from the atmosphere
through photosynthesis
Unit 9.2 & 9.3
Ecosystems
under threat
Habitat Loss
&
Deforestation
SYLLABUS CONTENT
 Habitat Loss

Habitat destruction occurs when

enough change has happened to
an area that it can no longer
support the natural wildlife.
Causes of habitat loss:
a. The drainage of
wetlands,
b. Intensive agricultural
practices,
c. Deforestation
 Wetlands have traditionally been regarded as
wasteland and therefore relatively worthless.
However, it is now discovered that wetlands
are important in the following ways
i. Shoreline protection
ii. Maintenance of water quality
iii. Flood control
iv. Recharging of aquifers
v. Biological productivity
vi. Provision of wildlife habitats
vii. Source of variety of products i.e. fishes,
fuel and fibres
 Impact of wetland drainage on wildlife
i. loss of, biodiversity / diversity of wildlife /
animals / birds / fish / plants;
ii. increase in numbers of, other species /
dry land species;
iii. loss / fragmentation / change, of habitat;
iv. Disruption to food chain / food web;
v. Forced migration of wildlife species
Impacts of habitat loss:
a. Extinction
b. Loss of biodiversity
c. Genetic depletion,
SYLLABUS CONTENT
 Deforestation

▪ Deforestation is the cutting down of trees

to a large extent for logging, making
building, houses and furniture and also for
using as a fuel etc.
▪ Logging is the process by which wood is
extracted from a forest
▪ The most obvious cause of deforestation
is the need for the wood itself.
 Causes of deforestation Impact of deforestation
1. Cultivation/farming 1. Global warming
2. Ranching and logging 2. Decreased precipitation
3. Increased flooding
3. Fuel wood as an energy source
4. Increased soil erosion
4. Furniture 5. Extinction of species
5. Due to urbanization 6. Lack of fuel wood
7. Many people are displaced from their
6. Firewood land and destruction of scenic beauty
7. Paper making 8. habitat loss,
9. soil erosion
8. timber extraction and logging, 10. desertification,
9. subsistence and commercial farming, 11. climate change,
12. loss of biodiversity
10. roads and settlements,
13. genetic depletion
11. rock and mineral extraction
Structure of the forest
Management of deforestation

1) Reforestation
2) Awareness
3) Selective cutting
4) Afforestation
5) Set aside areas of rainforest
6) Ban cutting of endangered trees
 Unit 9.4 & 9.5
Managing Forests
&
Measuring and
Managing
Biodiversity
SYLLABUS CONTENT
 The need for the sustainable management of forests.
Why do we need to conserve a forest
i. Growing forests act as carbon sinks and mature forests act as carbon
stores
ii. The role of forest in water cycle:
❑ forests add water to the atmosphere during respiration, leading to
formation of clouds eventually releasing it by precipitation.
❑ During deforestation, this process is reduced and local droughts are
caused in the area.
iii. Prevention of soil erosion:
❑ By intercepting rain, forest reduce heavy rainfall on the forest floor.
❑ Debris such as tree leaves help slow down run-off.
iv. Biodiversity as a genetic resource
v. Source of food, medicine and industrial raw materials
vi. Ecotourism
SYLLABUS CONTENT
 Measuring and managing
biodiversity
Organisms can be collected using a variety
of methods, including:
1. Nets
2. Pooters
3. Pitfall traps
4. Quadrats
 Method of collecting
biodiversity
2. Pooters: A pooter is a
small jar used for
1. Nets: Nets are collecting
useful for collecting non-sedentary
flying insects such organisms (insects). A
as butterflies and pooter is used to
moths. transport organisms
from the nets or traps
to a laboratory
3. Pitfall Trap: a pitfall trap is 4. Quadrant: a quadrat is a
often used to sample square made of wire usually
small invertebrates living on placed on a part of the site
the ground, such as beetles, to be sampled. It is used to
spiders and slugs. It is used to sample sedentary
sample non-sedentary organisms.
organisms (insects)
Advantages: It is quick,
Advantages: It is quick, easy to inexpensive and portable
setup and use
Disadvantages: Not always very
Disadvantages: Often kill the accurate, can be unintentionally
captured organism, may over biased.
sample or under sample
 Video on Sampling methods
https://youtu.be/9PaR1TsvnJs
 Strategies for Conserving the
Biodiversity and Genetic Resources of
Natural Ecosystems
Conservation of natural ecosystem is very important.
Conservation can include protection, preservation,
management and restoration of wildlife and habitats. Some
of the strategies includes;
a. Sustainable harvesting of wild plant and animal species
b. Sustainable forestry / agroforestry
c. National parks, wildlife / ecological reserves and
corridors
d. World biosphere reserves
e. Seed banks
f. Zoos and captive breeding
g. Sustainable tourism and ecotourism
a. Sustainable harvesting of wild plant and animal species:
Many plants have medicinal properties because of the
secondary metabolites they produce.
Secondary metabolites are organic compounds
produced by bacteria, fungi, or plants which are not
directly involved in the normal growth, development
or reproduction of organisms. They help in specific
functions such as; pollinator attraction, or defence
against herbivores
Wild plants are preferred sources as cultivated varieties
only produce small or none of the chemicals to be used
Wild plants are plants that grow with little or no
human help
b. Sustainable forestry management: this is the practice of
managing forest to meet current needs and desires of
society for forest resources i.e. products, services and
values, without compromising the availability of these for
the future generations. Sustainable forestry management
ii. Selective logging: This is the
removal of only matured trees of
species that are valuable. Other
species and immature trees of
value species are left untouched,
allowing the forest to
repair/replenish over time.
Agroforestry: This is the land
management system in which crops
are grown around trees.
→ Trees enrich the soil when their
leaves fall, provide food for
animals, firewood for people
and sometimes medicine.
→ Tree root bind soil together, and
in some cases, fix nitrogen and
further enriching the soil.
❑ Alley cropping: Also
known as intercropping. It is
the planting of rows of trees
 c. National parks, wildlife & ecological
reserves and corridors
i. National Parks: An area of land protected by the government
to preserve entire ecosystems. E.g. Flora, Fauna &
landscape.
♦ Laws that ban / limit activities such as hunting/ logging and
collection of wild flowers are implemented.
♦ Extensive facilities for tourists are provided such as
roadways, car parks & natural trails
♦ An entry fee charged is used for conservation work.
The largest national park in the world is the Northeast Greenland
National Park covering 972001 squared km.
ii. Wildlife & ecological reserves: the practice of protecting wild
plants and animal species and their habitat which plays an
important role in balancing the ecosystems and different
natural processes. E.g. Rainfall, fertility of the soil, etc. thus
also meeting the needs of people
d. World biosphere reserves: biosphere reserves represent
another way of trying to strike a balance between conservation
while at the same time meeting people’s needs
An ecosystem with plants and animals of unusual scientific and
natural interest. The aim is to promote management, research and
education in ecosystem conservation.
♦ Biosphere also known as ‘Ecosphere’ or the zone of life on
earth is the worldwide sum of all ecosystems
→ Biosphere reserves have a core area, in which ecosystems
are strictly protected to ensure the conservation of
landscapes, biodiversity and genetic variation.
→ Surrounding the core area is a buffer zone, where activities
that support ecological research, monitoring, training and
education are supported.
→ Beyond, is a transition area where environmentally
sustainable activity is encouraged that improves economic
and human wellbeing
e. Seed banks: when habitats become severely
threatened or even destroyed, the last resort for
conserving the species within them probably is to put
them into zoos (in the case of animals) or seed
banks (in the case of plants)
♦ It involves the storing of seeds to preserve generic
diversity when its not possible to protect the area where
the endangered plant lives.
♦ Wild plants may carry genes that could be used in crop
plants to confer resistance to pests and diseases. If its
not possible to protect the area where the plants live,
the plants can be preserved as seeds in seed banks.
♦ Seeds occupy lesser space than plants, thus more
species can be held/stored
♦ Collecting small sample of seeds is unlikely to damage
the wild population as most plants produce large
number of seeds.
♦ Seeds are dormant and need minimal care, thus easier
f. Zoos and captive breeding: zoos have three
main roles in conservation.
i. They provide education about the illegal
trade in animals and products, and the
need to maintain biodiversity
ii. Zoos are involved in scientific research on
the control of diseases, animal behavior
and techniques to improve breeding
success
iii. Zoos have a very important role in the
captive-breeding programmes to increase
species numbers, thus reducing the risk of
extinction, with a view to releasing
captive-bred animals into the wild when
animals have been restored
g. Sustainable Tourism and Ecotourism
Tourism can be a very important source of income for a
country or a region. However, tourism can also be very
damaging. Habitats are destroyed to provide
accommodation, such as hotels for tourists.
→ Management of tourism in a sustainable way to
prevent damage to habitat and provide what people
want.
→ Ecotourism: a tourism in which the participants travel
to see the natural world, ideally in a sustainable way. It
is a form of sustainable tourism that is guided by
environmental principles. Measures are taken to
safeguard the wildlife of the area and the natural
resources are used in a sustainable way.
→ Key to successful ecotourism is realizing that the
growth of the tourist industry depends on maintaining
the environment
 How ecotourism could benefit tropical
rainforests
1. Ecotourism can reduce the need for poaching and
hunting of forest animals for income.
2. Ecotourism can assist in the rehabilitation of
animals who have suffered misfortune
3. Ecotourism protects the tropical rainforest by
increasing awareness of the rainforest
4. Eco-tourists do not interfere with the rainforest
5. Money paid by eco-tourists can be used to protect
the tropical rainforest
The End