Matrices

Electronic lecture

Hoang Hai Ha
HCMUT-OISP
Email: hoanghaiha@hcmut.edu.vn

January 4, 2025

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Outline

1 Some basic denitions

2 Elementary Row Operations

3 Operations on Matrices

4 Inverse of a Matrix

5 Some applications

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Denition 1.1
A matrix A with size m × n is a rectangular table of numbers, which
contains m rows and n columns.
 
a11 ... a 1j ... a 1n
 .. ... .. ... .. 
 . . . 

 ai 1
A= ... aij ... ain 
 .. ... .. ... .. 

 . . .
am1 . . . amj ... amn

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Denition 1.1
A matrix A with size m × n is a rectangular table of numbers, which
contains m rows and n columns.
 
a11 ... a 1j ... a 1n
 .. ... .. ... .. 
 . . . 

 ai 1
A= ... aij ... ain 
 .. ... .. ... .. 

 . . .
am1 . . . amj ... amn

The numbers aij are called the entries.

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Rows and columns of matrix

Ai ∗ = ( ai 1 ai 2 . . . ain ) is the i −th row of matrix A, 1 É i É m,

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Rows and columns of matrix

Ai ∗ = ( ai 1 ai 2 . . . ain ) is the i −th row of matrix A, 1 É i É m, and

 
a 1j
 a 2j 
A∗j =  ..
 
is the j −th column. If matrix A, 1 É j É n then
.

 
amj

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Rows and columns of matrix

Ai ∗ = ( ai 1 ai 2 . . . ain ) is the i −th row of matrix A, 1 É i É m, and

 
a 1j
 a 2j 
A∗j =  ..
 
is the j −th column. If matrix A, 1 É j É n then
.

 
amj

A=

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Rows and columns of matrix

Ai ∗ = ( ai 1 ai 2 . . . ain ) is the i −th row of matrix A, 1 É i É m, and

 
a 1j
 a 2j 
A∗j =  ..
 
is the j −th column. If matrix A, 1 É j É n then
.

 
amj
 
A1∗
 A2∗ 
A=  .. =
 
 . 
Am∗

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Rows and columns of matrix

Ai ∗ = ( ai 1 ai 2 . . . ain ) is the i −th row of matrix A, 1 É i É m, and

 
a 1j
 a 2j 
A∗j =  ..
 
is the j −th column. If matrix A, 1 É j É n then
.

 
amj
 
A1∗
 A2∗ 
A=  ..  = ( A∗1 A∗2 . . . A∗n )
 
 . 
Am∗

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Example 1.1
1 −4 5
µ ¶
Matrix A = 0 3 −2 .
2×3

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Zero Matrices

Denition 1.2
A matrix whose entries are all zero is called a zero matrix, that is
aij = 0, ∀i , j .

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Zero Matrices

Denition 1.2
A matrix whose entries are all zero is called a zero matrix, that is
aij = 0, ∀i , j .

Example 1.2
0 0 0
µ ¶
A=
0 0 0 is the zero matrix of order 2 × 3.

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Square matrices
Denition 1.3
A matrix A with n rows and n columns is called a square matrix of
order n  
a11 . . . a1i ... a 1n
 .. ... .. ... .. 
 . . . 

 ai 1
A= ... aii ... ain 
.
 .. ... .. ... .. 
 . . .
an1 . . . ani ... ann

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Square matrices
Denition 1.3
A matrix A with n rows and n columns is called a square matrix of
order n  
a11 . . . a1i ... a 1n
 .. ... .. ... .. 
 . . . 

 ai 1
A= ... aii ... ain 
.
 .. ... .. ... .. 
 . . .
an1 . . . ani ... ann
The entries a11 , a22 , . . . , ann are said to be on the main diagonal of A.

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Square matrices
Denition 1.3
A matrix A with n rows and n columns is called a square matrix of
order n  
a11 . . . a1i ... a 1n
 .. ... .. ... .. 
 . . . 

 ai 1
A= ... aii ... ain 
.
 .. ... .. ... .. 
 . . .
an1 . . . ani ... ann
The entries a11 , a22 , . . . , ann are said to be on the main diagonal of A.
Example 1.3
1 2 3
 

A =  0 −3 −2  is the square matrix of order 3.

5 4 −5
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Square matrices
Denition 1.3
A matrix A with n rows and n columns is called a square matrix of
order n  
a11 . . . a1i ... a 1n
 .. ... .. ... .. 
 . . . 

 ai 1
A= ... aii ... ain 
.
 .. ... .. ... .. 
 . . .
an1 . . . ani ... ann
The entries a11 , a22 , . . . , ann are said to be on the main diagonal of A.
Example 1.3
1 2 3
 

A =  0 −3 −2  is the square matrix of order 3. The entries on

5 4 −5
the main diagonal of A are 1, −3,Matrices
Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT)
−5.
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Diagonal matrices

Denition 1.4
A square matrix is called diagonal if all the entries outside the main
diagonal are zeros.

Example 1.4
2 0 0
 

A = 0 3 0.
0 0 9

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Triangular matrices

Example 1.5
2 8 9
 

A = 0 1 9 .

0 0 5
⇒ an upper triangular matrix

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Triangular matrices

Example 1.5
2 8 9
 

A = 0 1 9 .

0 0 5
⇒ an upper triangular matrix

Example 1.6
2 0 0
 

A = 1 1 0
1 3 5
⇒ a lower triangular matrix.

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Identity Matrices

Denition 1.5
1 0 ... 0
 
 0 1 ... 0 
A square matrix I =  .. .. . . ..  , with 1′ s on the main
 . . . . 
0 0 ... 1
diagonal and zeros elsewhere, i.e. (aii = 1, i = 1, ..n;aij = 0, ∀i ̸= j) is
called an identity matrix of order n and is denoted by I or In .

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Identity Matrices

Denition 1.5
1 0 ... 0
 
 0 1 ... 0 
A square matrix I =  .. .. . . ..  , with 1′ s on the main
 . . . . 
0 0 ... 1
diagonal and zeros elsewhere, i.e. (aii = 1, i = 1, ..n;aij = 0, ∀i ̸= j) is
called an identity matrix of order n and is denoted by I or In .

Example 1.7
1 0 0
 

I =  0 1 0  is the identity matrix of order 3.

0 0 1

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Where matrix is used?

Solve the following system

 x − 2y + 3z = 9 (1)


−x + 3y = −4 (2)
2x − 5y + 5z = 17 (3)


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Where matrix is used?

Solve the following system

 x − 2y + 3z = 9 (1)


−x + 3y = −4 (2)
2x − 5y + 5z = 17 (3)


Eq (2) is replaced by taking (1)+(2), eq (3) is replaced by taking

(3)-2*(1) side by side, we get equivalent system
 x − 2y + 3z = 9 (1)


y + 3z = 5 (2) .
−y − z = −1 (3)


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Next, similarly, eq (3) is replaced by taking (3) + (2)
 x − 2y + 3z 9 (1)

=
y + 3z = 5 (2)
2z = 4 (3)


From (3), we have z = 2, replacing in (2), we get y = −1, and lastly,

replacing in (1), we get x = 1.
Instead of doing as above, we can rewrite system in matrix form
1 −2 3 9
 
 −1 3 0 −4 
2 −5 5 17

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Operations on rows

We
 apply some operations on rows
 of this matrix: 
1 −2 3 9 1 −2 3 9

r2 =r2 +r1
 −1 3 0 −4  −−−−−−→  0 1 3 5 
r3 =r3 −2×r1
2 −5 5 17 −
− − −− − −−→ 0 −1 −1 −1
1 −2 3 9

r3 =r3 +r2
−−−−−−→  0 1 3 5 .
0 0 2 4
We get the last matrix the same with the last system above. Matrix
form is convenient for linear systems with large number of equations
and variables.

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Denition 2.1
Elementary Row Operations on matrix A are the following operations:

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Denition 2.1
Elementary Row Operations on matrix A are the following operations:

1 Interchange 2 rows ri ↔ rj

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Denition 2.1
Elementary Row Operations on matrix A are the following operations:

1 Interchange 2 rows ri ↔ rj
2 Multiply a row through by a nonzero constant: ri → λri ,
(λ ̸= 0).

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Denition 2.1
Elementary Row Operations on matrix A are the following operations:

1 Interchange 2 rows ri ↔ rj
2 Multiply a row through by a nonzero constant: ri → λri ,
(λ ̸= 0).
3 Add a constant times one row to another: ri → ri + λ.rj , ∀λ

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Denition 2.1
Elementary Row Operations on matrix A are the following operations:

1 Interchange 2 rows ri ↔ rj
2 Multiply a row through by a nonzero constant: ri → λri ,
(λ ̸= 0).
3 Add a constant times one row to another: ri → ri + λ.rj , ∀λ

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Echelon matrix

Denition 2.2
The rst non-zero element of each row is called the leading entry of
this row.

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Echelon matrix

Denition 2.2
The rst non-zero element of each row is called the leading entry of
this row.
Denition 2.3
A matrix is said to be in row echelon form if it has the following
conditions
1 Each leading entry is in the column to the right of the leading
entry in the previous row.
2 Rows with all zero elements, if any, are below rows having
non-zero element.

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Examples of echelon matrices

Example 2.1
1 4 −3 7
 

This is not an echelon matrix  1 1 6 2  ;

0 0 1 5

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Examples of echelon matrices

Example 2.1
1 4 −3 7
 

This is not an echelon matrix  1 1 6 2  ; the following

0 0 1 5
matrices are in echelon form:
1 1 0
 
 0 1 0 ;
0 0 0

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Examples of echelon matrices

Example 2.1
1 4 −3 7
 

This is not an echelon matrix  1 1 6 2  ; the following

0 0 1 5
matrices are in echelon form:
1 1 0 0 1 2 6 0
   
 0 1 0  ;  0 0 1 −1 0  .
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

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Example 2.2
Transform the following matrix to row-echelon form
0 0 −2 0
 
 2 4 −10 6  .
2 4 −5 6

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Example 2.2
Transform the following matrix to row-echelon form
0 0 −2 0
 
 2 4 −10 6  .
2 4 −5 6
0 0 −2 0 2 4 −10 6
   
r1 ↔r2 r =r −r1
 2 4 −10 6 −−−−→ 0 0
  −2 0  −−3−−3−−→
2 4 −5 6 2 4 −5 6
2 4 −10 6 2 4 −10 6
  
r3 =r3 + 5 ×r2 
 0 0 −2 0  −−−−−−2−−→  0 0 -2 0 .

0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0

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Rank of a matrix

Denition 2.4
We denote A −→ B to show that B is the matrix that results from A
by performing some of the Elementary Row Operations.

Denition 2.5
If Am×n −→ Bm×n , where B is in row-echelon form, then rank of the
matrix A is the number of non-zero rows of matrix B and is denoted
by r (A).

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Properties of Rank of a matrix

1 r (A) = 0 ⇔ A = 0.

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Properties of Rank of a matrix

1 r (A) = 0 ⇔ A = 0.
2 0 É r (Am×n ) É min{m, n}.

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Properties of Rank of a matrix

1 r (A) = 0 ⇔ A = 0.
2 0 É r (Am×n ) É min{m, n}.

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Properties of Rank of a matrix

1 r (A) = 0 ⇔ A = 0.
2 0 É r (Am×n ) É min{m, n}.

Example 2.3
0 0 2 −4
 

Given the matrix A =  0 −1 −4 5  . Determine the rank of A.

0 3 1 7

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Properties of Rank of a matrix

1 r (A) = 0 ⇔ A = 0.
2 0 É r (Am×n ) É min{m, n}.

Example 2.3
0 0 2 −4
 

Given the matrix A =  0 −1 −4 5  . Determine the rank of A.

0 3 1 7
Solution.
0 −1 −4 5 0 −1 −4 5
   
rearrange rows r →r2 +3r1
1 A −−−−−−−−−−→ 0 3 1 7  −−2 −−−−−→ 0 0 −11 22 
0 0 2 −4 0 0 2 −4
0 −1 −4 5
 
2 Thus A → −  0 0 −11 22, then rank(A) = 2.
0 0 0 0
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Transpose of a matrix

Denition 3.1
If A = (aij )m×n is any m × n matrix, then the transpose of A,
denoted by AT = (aji )n×m is dened to be the n × m matrix that
results by interchanging the rows and columns of A; that is,
   
a11 a12 ... a 1n a11 a21 . . . am1
 a21 a22 ... a 2n   a12 a22 . . . am2 
A= .. .. ... ..  , AT =  .. .. ... .. 
   
 . . . . . .
am1 am2 . . . amn a1n a2n . . . amn

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Transpose of a matrix

Denition 3.1
If A = (aij )m×n is any m × n matrix, then the transpose of A,
denoted by AT = (aji )n×m is dened to be the n × m matrix that
results by interchanging the rows and columns of A; that is,
   
a11 a12 ... a 1n a11 a21 . . . am1
 a21 a22 ... a 2n   a12 a22 . . . am2 
A= .. .. ... ..  , AT =  .. .. ... .. 
   
 . . . . . .
am1 am2 . . . amn a1n a2n . . . amn

Remark
rank(A) = rank(AT ).

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Example 3.1
If
1 3 5
µ ¶
A=
2 4 6
then
1 2
 

⇒ A = 3 4 .
T 
5 6

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Example 3.2
1 4 −1
 
2 −7 2
Given the matrix A = 1 2 m . Find all values of m such that
3 −11 3
rank(A) = 3.

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Example 3.2
1 4 −1
 
2 −7 2
Given the matrix A = 1 2 m . Find all values of m such that
3 −11 3
rank(A) = 3.

Solution.
1 2 1 3
 

It is faster to nd rank(AT ). We have AT =  4 −7 2 −11.

−1 2 m 3

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Example 3.2
1 4 −1
 
2 −7 2
Given the matrix A = 1 2 m . Find all values of m such that
3 −11 3
rank(A) = 3.

Solution.
1 2 1 3
 

It is faster to nd rank(AT ). We have AT =  4 −7 2 −11.

−1 2 m 3
Answer: ∀m.

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Equality of Matrices

Denition 3.2
Two matrices A and B are dened to be equal if they have the same
size and their corresponding entries are equal, i.e.

A = (aij )m×n = B = (bij )m×n ⇔ aij = bij , ∀i , j (1)

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Equality of Matrices

Denition 3.2
Two matrices A and B are dened to be equal if they have the same
size and their corresponding entries are equal, i.e.

A = (aij )m×n = B = (bij )m×n ⇔ aij = bij , ∀i , j (1)

Example 3.3
Find real numbers x , y , z , t such that the following 2 matrices are
equal
x + y 2z + t 3 7
µ ¶ µ ¶

x −y z −t
=
1 5 .

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Solution of Example (3.3)

3 = 2
 
x +y = x
1 = 1

 


x −y =

y
.
 2z + t = 7 ⇔
 z = 4
5 = −1

z −t = t
 

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Scalar Multiples

Denition 3.3
If A = (aij )m×n is any matrix and α is any scalar, then the product αA
obtained by the multiplying each entry of the matrix A by α. The
matrix αA is said to be a scalar multiple of A, i.e.

αA = (α.aij )m×n (2)

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The addition of Matrices

Denition 3.4
If A and B are matrices of the same size, then the sum A + B is the
matrix obtained by adding the entries of B to the corresponding
entries of A.

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Properties of the addition

If A, B , C are matrices with the same size, then

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Properties of the addition

If A, B , C are matrices with the same size, then

1 A + B = B + A (commutative)

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Properties of the addition

If A, B , C are matrices with the same size, then

1 A + B = B + A (commutative)
2 A + (B + C ) = (A + B) + C (distributive)

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Properties of the addition

If A, B , C are matrices with the same size, then

1 A + B = B + A (commutative)
2 A + (B + C ) = (A + B) + C (distributive)
3 α.(A + B) = α.A + α.B , ∀α ∈ R.

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Properties of the addition

If A, B , C are matrices with the same size, then

1 A + B = B + A (commutative)
2 A + (B + C ) = (A + B) + C (distributive)
3 α.(A + B) = α.A + α.B , ∀α ∈ R.
4 (α + β).A = α.A + β.A, ∀α, β ∈ R.

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Properties of the addition

If A, B , C are matrices with the same size, then

1 A + B = B + A (commutative)
2 A + (B + C ) = (A + B) + C (distributive)
3 α.(A + B) = α.A + α.B , ∀α ∈ R.
4 (α + β).A = α.A + β.A, ∀α, β ∈ R.
5 A + 0 = 0 + A = A.

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Properties of the addition

If A, B , C are matrices with the same size, then

1 A + B = B + A (commutative)
2 A + (B + C ) = (A + B) + C (distributive)
3 α.(A + B) = α.A + α.B , ∀α ∈ R.
4 (α + β).A = α.A + β.A, ∀α, β ∈ R.
5 A + 0 = 0 + A = A.

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Example 3.4
1 4 3 3 1 1
µ ¶ µ ¶

8 −3 2 + 4 −1 0 =

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Example 3.4
1 4 3 3 1 1
µ ¶ µ ¶

8 −3 2 + 4 −1 0 =
4 5 4
µ ¶
=
12 −4 2

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Example 3.5
A corporation has three factories, each of which manufactures
acoustic guitars and electric guitars. The number of guitars of type i
produced at factory j in one day is represented by aij in the matrix
70 50 25
µ ¶
A=
35 100 70
Find the production levels if production increased by 20%.

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 29 / 70

Example 3.5
A corporation has three factories, each of which manufactures
acoustic guitars and electric guitars. The number of guitars of type i
produced at factory j in one day is represented by aij in the matrix
70 50 25
µ ¶
A=
35 100 70
Find the production levels if production increased by 20%.
Solution.

The new production levels are: 1.2A.

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 29 / 70

Multiplication of two matrices

Denition 3.5
If A = (aij )m×n ∈ Mm×n (K ), B = (bij )n×p ∈ Mn×p (K ).
a11 a12 ... a1n
 
 . .. .. ..
 ..
 
. . . b11 b12 ... b1j ... b1p


.. .. .. .. .. ..
   
 ai 1 ai 2 ... ain  . . . . . . . =
  
 .. .. .. .. 
  
 . . . .  bn1 bn2 ... bnj ... bnp n×p
a am 2 ... amn m×n
 m1 
c11 c12 ... c1j . . . c1p
 . .. .. .. .. ..
 .

 . . . . . .


 
 c ci 2 ... cij ... cip 
 i1
 . .. .. .. .. .. 

 .
 . . . . . . 
cm1 cm 2 ... cmj ... cmp m×p

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 30 / 70

Multiplication of two matrices

Denition 3.5
If A = (aij )m×n ∈ Mm×n (K ), B = (bij )n×p ∈ Mn×p (K ).
a11 a12 ... a1n
 
 . .. .. ..
 ..
 
. . . b11 b12 ... b1j ... b1p


.. .. .. .. .. ..
   
 ai 1 ai 2 ... ain  . . . . . . . =
  
 .. .. .. .. 
  
 . . . .  bn1 bn2 ... bnj ... bnp n×p
a am 2 ... amn m×n
 m1 
c11 c12 ... c1j . . . c1p
 . .. .. .. .. ..
 .

 . . . . . .


then the product AB is the matrix
 
 c ci 2 ... cij ... cip 
 i1
 . .. .. .. .. .. 

 .
 . . . . . . 
cm1 cm 2 ... cmj ... cmp m×p
n
C = A.B = (cij )m×p whose entries are dened by cij = aik .bkj , i = 1..m;j = 1..p
P
k =1

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 30 / 70

Multiplication of two matrices

Denition 3.5
If A = (aij )m×n ∈ Mm×n (K ), B = (bij )n×p ∈ Mn×p (K ).
a11 a12 ... a1n
 
 . .. .. ..
 ..
 
. . . b11 b12 ... b1j ... b1p


.. .. .. .. .. ..
   
 ai 1 ai 2 ... ain  . . . . . . . =
  
 .. .. .. .. 
  
 . . . .  bn1 bn2 ... bnj ... bnp n×p
a am 2 ... amn m×n
 m1 
c11 c12 ... c1j . . . c1p
 . .. .. .. .. ..
 .

 . . . . . .


then the product AB is the matrix
 
 c ci 2 ... cij ... cip 
 i1
 . .. .. .. .. .. 

 .
 . . . . . . 
cm1 cm 2 ... cmj ... cmp m×p
n
C = A.B = (cij )m×p whose entries are dened by cij = aik .bkj , i = 1..m;j = 1..p
P
k =1

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 30 / 70

Remark

In order to form the product AB

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 31 / 70

Example 3.6
Find product A.B where
1
 
2 
A = ( 2 −1 4 5 )1×4 ,

B =
 0 
−1 4×1

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 32 / 70

Example 3.6
Find product A.B where
1
 
2 
A = ( 2 −1 4 5 )1×4 ,

B =
 0 
−1 4×1

1
 
2
A.B = ( 2 −1 4 5 ) . 
 
=
 0 
−1

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 32 / 70

Example 3.6
Find product A.B where
1
 
2 
A = ( 2 −1 4 5 )1×4 ,

B =
 0 
−1 4×1

1
 
2
A.B = ( 2 −1 4 5 ) . 
 
=
 0 
−1
³ ´ ³ ´
2 × 1 + (−1) × 2 + 4 × 0 + 5 × (−1) = − 5
1×1

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 32 / 70

Example 3.7
Find product C = A.B where
2 1 −1

2 3 1
µ ¶
A= , B =  1 3 −2  .
−1 0 1 2×3
0 2 1 3×3

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 33 / 70

Example 3.7
Find product C = A.B where
2 1 −1

2 3 1
µ ¶
A= , B =  1 3 −2  .
−1 0 1 2×3
0 2 1 3×3

2 1 −1
 
2 3 1 
µ ¶
. 1 3 −2  =
−1 0 1
0 2 1
2
 

c11 = ( 2 3 1 ) .  1  = 2 × 2 + 3 × 1 + 1 × 0 = 7
0

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 33 / 70

 1
 

c12 = ( 2 3 1 ) . 3  = 2 × 1 + 3 × 3 + 1 × 2 = 13

2 
−1


c13 = ( 2 3 1 ) .  −2  = 2 × (−1) + 3 × (−2) + 1 × 1 = −7

1
2
 

c21 = ( −1 0 1 ) .  1  = (−1) × 2 + 0 × 1 + 1 × 0 = −2
0
1
 

c22 = ( −1 0 1 ) . 3  = (−1) × 1 + 0 × 3 + 1 × 2 = 1

2 
−1


c23 = ( −1 0 1 ) . −2  = (−1) × (−1) + 0 × (−2) + 1 × 1 = 2.


1

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 34 / 70

 1
 

c12 = ( 2 3 1 ) . 3  = 2 × 1 + 3 × 3 + 1 × 2 = 13

2 
−1


c13 = ( 2 3 1 ) .  −2  = 2 × (−1) + 3 × (−2) + 1 × 1 = −7

1
2
 

c21 = ( −1 0 1 ) .  1  = (−1) × 2 + 0 × 1 + 1 × 0 = −2
0
1
 

c22 = ( −1 0 1 ) . 3  = (−1) × 1 + 0 × 3 + 1 × 2 = 1

2 
−1


c23 = ( −1 0 1 ) . −2  = (−1) × (−1) + 0 × (−2) + 1 × 1 = 2.


1
Therefore,
7 13 −7
µ ¶
C = A.B =
−2 1 2 .
Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 34 / 70
Example 3.8
2 −1 1
µ ¶ µ ¶
A= 4 1 , B= 3 . Find matrix X , such that AX = B .

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 35 / 70

Example 3.8
2 −1 1
µ ¶ µ ¶
A= 4 1 , B= 3 . Find matrix X , such that AX = B .
µ ¶
x
Solution Let X = x1 . Then we have the system
2

2x1 − x2 = 1
(
.
4x1 + x2 = 3

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 35 / 70

Properties
1 (A.B).C = A.(B .C )

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 36 / 70

Properties
1 (A.B).C = A.(B .C )
2 A.(B + C ) = A.B + A.C .

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 36 / 70

Properties
1 (A.B).C = A.(B .C )
2 A.(B + C ) = A.B + A.C .
3 (B + C ).A = B .A + C .A

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 36 / 70

Properties
1 (A.B).C = A.(B .C )
2 A.(B + C ) = A.B + A.C .
3 (B + C ).A = B .A + C .A
4 λ(AB) = (λA).B = A.(λB), λ ∈ R.
5 AI = A, ∀A.
6 (AB)T = B T AT .

Remark
AB#BA .

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 36 / 70

Prove (AB)T = B T AT

Let Am×n , Bn×p and Cp×n = (AB)T = {cij }.

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 37 / 70

Prove (AB)T = B T AT

Let Am×n , Bn×p and Cp×n = (AB)T = {cij }.

n
ajk bki ,( the entry at position (j , i) of AB )
P
cij =
k =1

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 37 / 70

Prove (AB)T = B T AT

Let Am×n , Bn×p and Cp×n = (AB)T = {cij }.

n
ajk bki ,( the entry at position (j , i) of AB )
P
cij =
k =1
Let Dp×n = B T AT = {dij }

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 37 / 70

Prove (AB)T = B T AT

Let Am×n , Bn×p and Cp×n = (AB)T = {cij }.

n
ajk bki ,( the entry at position (j , i) of AB )
P
cij =
k =1
Let Dp×n = B T AT = {dij }
n
bki ajk .
P
dij =
k =1

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 37 / 70

Matrix Polynomials

Denition 3.6
If A is a square matrix and
p(x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + . . . + am x m

is any polynomial, then we dene the matrix p(A) to be

p(A) = a0 I + a1 A + a2 A2 + . . . + am Am . (3)

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 38 / 70

Example 3.9
−1 2
· ¸
Find p(A) for p(x) = x − 2x − 3 and A =
2
0 3 .

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Example 3.9
−1 2
· ¸
Find p(A) for p(x) = x − 2x − 3 and A =
2
0 3 .

p(A) = A2 − 2A − 3I =
¸2
−1 2 −1 2 1 0 0 0
· · ¸ · ¸ · ¸
−2 −3
=
0 3 0 3 0 1 =
0 0 .

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 39 / 70

Elementary Matrix

Denition 3.7
A matrix E is called an elementary matrix if it can be obtained
from an identity matrix I by performing a single elementary row
operation.

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Elementary Matrix

Denition 3.7
A matrix E is called an elementary matrix if it can be obtained
from an identity matrix I by performing a single elementary row
operation.

Example 3.10
1 0 0 1 0 3
   
r1 →r1 +r3 ×3
 0 1 0 − −−−−−−−→  0 1 0  .
0 0 1 0 0 1
| {z }
elementary matrix

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 40 / 70

Theorem 3.1 (Row Operations by Matrix Multiplication)
If the elementary matrix E results from performing a certain row
operation on Im and if A is an m × n matrix, then the product EA is
the matrix that results when this same row operation is performed
on A.

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Theorem 3.1 (Row Operations by Matrix Multiplication)
If the elementary matrix E results from performing a certain row
operation on Im and if A is an m × n matrix, then the product EA is
the matrix that results when this same row operation is performed
on A.
Similarly, we have
Theorem 3.2
If we perform on I a certain column operation to get the elementary
matrix E , then the matrix results from applying this operation on A
is AE .

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Inverse of a Matrix

Denition 4.1
If A is a square matrix, and if a matrix B of the same size can be
found such that
BA = AB = I , (4)

then A is said to be invertible (or non-singular) and B is called an

inverse of A and is denoted by A−1 .

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Inverse of a Matrix

Denition 4.1
If A is a square matrix, and if a matrix B of the same size can be
found such that
BA = AB = I , (4)

then A is said to be invertible (or non-singular) and B is called an

inverse of A and is denoted by A−1 . If no such matrix B can be found,
then A is said to be singular.

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Equivalent Statements

Theorem 4.1
If A is an n × n matrix, then the following statements are equivalent
1 A is invertible;

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Equivalent Statements

Theorem 4.1
If A is an n × n matrix, then the following statements are equivalent
1 A is invertible;
Elementary Row Operations
2 A −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ In ;

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 43 / 70

Equivalent Statements

Theorem 4.1
If A is an n × n matrix, then the following statements are equivalent
1 A is invertible;
Elementary Row Operations
2 A −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ In ;
3 r (A) = n.

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 43 / 70

Using Elementary Row Operations to nd inverse of an
invertible matrix

Inversion Algorithm
Elementary Row Operations ¡
(A|I ) −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ I |A−1 .
¢

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 44 / 70

Using Elementary Row Operations to nd inverse of an
invertible matrix

Inversion Algorithm
Elementary Row Operations ¡
(A|I ) −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ I |A−1 .
¢

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 44 / 70

Example 4.1
1 2 3
 

Find the inverse A−1 of A =  2 5 4 .

3 7 8

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Example 4.1
1 2 3
 

Find the inverse A−1 of A =  2 5 4 .

3 7 8
Solution
1 2 3 ¯¯ 1 0 0 r2 →r2 −2r1
 ¯ 
r →r3 −3r1
(A|I3 ) =  2 5 4 ¯¯ 0 1 0  −−3 −−− −−→
3 7 8 ¯ 0 0 1
1 2 3 ¯ 1 0 0 1 2 3 ¯ 1 0 0
 ¯   ¯ 
r3 →r3 −r2
 0 1 −2 ¯ −2 1 0  − −−−−−→  0 1 −2 ¯¯ −2 1 0 
¯ ¯

0 1 −1 ¯ −3 0 1 0 0 1 ¯ −1 −1 1
¯

1 2 0 ¯¯ 4 3 −3
¯ 
r1 →r1 −3r3
r2 →r2 +2r3 r1 →r1 −2r2
−−−−−−−→  0 1 0 ¯¯ −4 −1 2  −−−−−−−→
0 0 1 ¯ −1  −1 1
1 0 0 ¯¯ 12 5 −7 12 5 −7
 ¯  
 0 1 0 ¯ −4 −1 2  . Thus, A−1 =  −4 −1 2 .
0 0 1 ¯ −1 −1 1 −1 −1 1
¯

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 45 / 70

Example 4.2
Find matrix X that satises following equations
XA − 4B T = 5X + A
1 1 1 1 2 2
   

where A = 3 5 4, B =  3 7 9 .
3 6 5 −1 −4 −7

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 46 / 70

Example 4.2
Find matrix X that satises following equations
XA − 4B T = 5X + A
1 1 1 1 2 2
   

where A = 3 5 4, B =  3 7 9 .
3 6 5 −1 −4 −7

Solution. X = (A + 4B T )(A − 5I )−1 .

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 46 / 70

Example 4.2
Find matrix X that satises following equations
XA − 4B T = 5X + A
1 1 1 1 2 2
   

where A = 3 5 4, B =  3 7 9 .
3 6 5 −1 −4 −7

Solution. X = (A + 4B T )(A − 5I )−1 .

 −1 −5 46 
7 7 21
X =  −32 −17
6
101 
18
.
−29 −227 911
21 42 126

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 46 / 70

Example 4.3
Find all values of m ∈ R such that the following matrix is invertible
1 3 3
 
 1 m 3 
1 3 m

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Markov model

Denition 5.1
Markov Model is a problem in which there is a transition from one
state to another state.

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Markov model

Denition 5.1
Markov Model is a problem in which there is a transition from one
state to another state.
Example 5.1
The market research department at a manufacturing plant determines
that 20% of the people who purchase the plant's product during any
month will not purchase it the next month. On the other hand, 30%
of the people who do not purchase the product during any month will
purchase it the next month. In a population of 1000 people, 100
people purchased the product this month. How many will purchase
the product next month? In 2 months?

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 48 / 70

Solution

Let x1 be the number of people in State 1 while x2 be the number of

people in State 2, where State 1: people who purchase the product
this month, State 2: people who do not purchase the product this
month.
The number of people in State 1 next month : 0.8x1 + 0.3x2 .
The µnumber of
¶ people in State 2 next month: 0.2x1 + 0.7x2 .
0.8 0.3
P=
0.2 0.7 is called the transition matrix.
100
µ ¶
The vector state at present is X (0) =
900 , so the vector state next
month is X (1) = PX (0) .

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 49 / 70

Solution

Let x1 be the number of people in State 1 while x2 be the number of

people in State 2, where State 1: people who purchase the product
this month, State 2: people who do not purchase the product this
month.
The number of people in State 1 next month : 0.8x1 + 0.3x2 .
The µnumber of
¶ people in State 2 next month: 0.2x1 + 0.7x2 .
0.8 0.3
P=
0.2 0.7 is called the transition matrix.
100
µ ¶
The vector state at present is X (0) =
900 , so the vector state next
month is X (1) = PX (0) .
The vector state after 2 months : X (2) = PX (1) = P 2 X (0) .

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 49 / 70

The transition matrix of a Markov model
Let a Markov model have the vector state X = (S1 , S2 , ..., Sn ), then the
matrix transition is

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 50 / 70

Properties of transition matrix P

1 Sum all entries in each column of P is 1.

2 Vector state after k (period of time) is dened by X (k) = P k X (0) ,
where X (0) is the vector state at present.

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Example 5.2 (A Consumer Preference Model)
Two competing companies oer cable television service to a city of
100,000 households. The changes in cable subscriptions each year
shown in Figure. Company A now has 15,000 subscribers and
Company B has 20,000 subscribers. How many subscribers will each
company have after 1 year? 3 years?

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Cryptography

Denition 5.2
Cryptogram is a message written according to a secret code. We can
use matrix multiplication to encode and decode messages.

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Let assign a number to each letter in the alphabet

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 54 / 70

Encoding

To encode a message, we have following steps:

1 Convert all letters in message to numbers(including space,
ignoring punctuation) to get uncoded row matrices.
2 Choose an n × n invertible matrix A.
3 Multiply the uncoded row matrices by A( A is on the right) to
obtain secret message.

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 55 / 70

Example 5.3
1 −2 2
 

Use the matrix A = −1 1 3  to encode the message MEET ME


1 −1 −4
MONDAY.
SOLUTION :
1 Convert the message to number:
13 5 5 20 0 13 15 14 4 1 25 0 → uncoded row matrices
2 We arrange uncoded row in matrix with 3 columns and multiply
with A
13 5 5  13 −26 21
   
1 2 2

20 −
0 13   33 −53 −12
15 −1 1 3  = 
14 4 5 −20 56 
 
1 −1 −4
1 25 0 | {z } −24 23 77
| {z } A | {z }
uncoded row coded row

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 56 / 70

How to encode?
Example 5.4
1 −2 2
 

Use the matrix A = −1 1 3  to decode the message


1 −1 −4
13 − 26 21 33 − 53 − 12 18 − 23 − 42 5 − 20
56 − 24 23 77

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 57 / 70

How to encode?
Example 5.4
1 −2 2
 

Use the matrix A = −1 1 3  to decode the message


1 −1 −4
13 − 26 21 33 − 53 − 12 18 − 23 − 42 5 − 20
56 − 24 23 77
Solution. To crack the code, we write numbers in the message in a
matrix with 3 columns, that is

Hoang Hai Ha (HCMUT) Matrices January 4, 2025 57 / 70

How to encode?
Example 5.4
1 −2 2
 

Use the matrix A = −1 1 3  to decode the message


1 −1 −4
13 − 26 21 33 − 53 − 12 18 − 23 − 42 5 − 20
56 − 24 23 77
Solution. To crack the code, we write numbers in the message in a
matrix with 3 columns, that is
13 −26 21
 
 33 −53 −12
 18 −23 −42 , then nd the uncoded row by evaluating BA .
−1
 
B = 
 5 −20 56 
−24 23 77
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Input-Output model (Open Leontief model)

An economic system has n dierent industries I1 , I2 , ...In each of

which has input needs (raw materials, utilities,...) and an output
(nished output).

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Input-Output model (Open Leontief model)

An economic system has n dierent industries I1 , I2 , ...In each of

which has input needs (raw materials, utilities,...) and an output
(nished output).
In producing each unit of output, an industry may use the
outputs from other industries, including itself.
For instance, an electricity utility uses outputs from the other
industries such as coal and water and even uses its own electricity.

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Example 5.5
An industrial system has two industries, coal and steel with the
following input requirements. To produce $1 worth of output, the
coal industry requires 0.1$ of its own product and 0.8$ of steel.
To produce 1$ worth of output, the steel industry requires 0.1$ of its
own product and 0.2$ of coal.
Each month, the external demand for coal industry and steel industry
are 10, 000$ and 20, 000$ respectively. Find the total value of the
output required from each industry of coal and steel to meet all the
demands.

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Example 5.5
An industrial system has two industries, coal and steel with the
following input requirements. To produce $1 worth of output, the
coal industry requires 0.1$ of its own product and 0.8$ of steel.
To produce 1$ worth of output, the steel industry requires 0.1$ of its
own product and 0.2$ of coal.
Each month, the external demand for coal industry and steel industry
are 10, 000$ and 20, 000$ respectively. Find the total value of the
output required from each industry of coal and steel to meet all the
demands.
Solution

Let x1 , x2 be the output values of coal and steel, respectively.

To produce x1 $ of coal, we need 0.8x1 $ of steel and 0.1x1 $ of
coal.
To produce x2 $ of steel, we need 0.1x2 $ of steel and 0.2x2 $ of
coal.
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Solution of example (5.5)
The demand for coal is 0.1x1 + 0.2x2 + 10000, the demand for
steel is 0.8x1 + 0.1x2 + 20000.

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Solution of example (5.5)
The demand for coal is 0.1x1 + 0.2x2 + 10000, the demand for
steel is 0.8x1 + 0.1x2 + 20000.
x = 0.1x1 + 0.2x2 + 10000
(
System is balance when: 1
x2 = 0.8x1 + 0.1x2 + 20000

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Solution of example (5.5)
The demand for coal is 0.1x1 + 0.2x2 + 10000, the demand for
steel is 0.8x1 + 0.1x2 + 20000.
x = 0.1x1 + 0.2x2 + 10000
(
System is balance when: 1
x2 = 0.8x1 + 0.1x2 + 20000
Rewrite in matrix form, we have
X = PX + D
0.1 0.2
µ ¶¾ µ ¶
x
Where X = x1 -output value vector, P = 0.8 0.1 and
2
| {z }
Input-Output matrix
10000
µ ¶
D=
20000 - external demand vector.

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Solution of example (5.5)
The demand for coal is 0.1x1 + 0.2x2 + 10000, the demand for
steel is 0.8x1 + 0.1x2 + 20000.
x = 0.1x1 + 0.2x2 + 10000
(
System is balance when: 1
x2 = 0.8x1 + 0.1x2 + 20000
Rewrite in matrix form, we have
X = PX + D
0.1 0.2
µ ¶¾ µ ¶
x
Where X = x1 -output value vector, P = 0.8 0.1 and
2
| {z }
Input-Output matrix
10000
µ ¶
D=
20000 - external demand vector.
X is found by the formula
X = (I − P)−1 D .
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Input-Output matrix

Matrix P is constructed by

 Users(Output)
 z }|

  {



 p11 p12 · · · p1n
p21 p22 ... p2n 

Supplier(Input)  .. .. .. 



 . . · · · .
pn1 pn2 · · · pnn








Following the order: I1 , I2 , . . . , In , then pij means

supplies to
Ii −−−−−−−→ Ij (to produce 1 unit value of Ij ).

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Example 5.6
An input-output analysis system of a national economy has the
following input-output matrix:
Agriculture Manufacturing Households
Agriculture 0.091 0.041 0.231
Manufacturing 0.251 0.131 0.301
Households 0.381 0.201 0.071
1 Find the amount of units that Agriculture requires from
Manufacturing to produce 1 unit value.

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Example 5.6
An input-output analysis system of a national economy has the
following input-output matrix:
Agriculture Manufacturing Households
Agriculture 0.091 0.041 0.231
Manufacturing 0.251 0.131 0.301
Households 0.381 0.201 0.071
1 Find the amount of units that Agriculture requires from
Manufacturing to produce 1 unit value. (0.251)
2 Given Demand (in billions of dollars) for the three sectors are as
the following: 2.4 = Agriculture, 31.5 = Manufacturing, 29.6 =
Households. Find the values of each commodity that should be
produced.
3 Find the TOTAL amount of units that Agriculture requires from
Manufacturing.

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Solution.

Denote I1 , I2 , I3 (A, M, H) respectively. Then we need to nd

supplies to
I2 −−−−−−−→ I1 = p21 (to produce 1 unit of I1 ) → 0.251.

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Solution.

Denote I1 , I2 , I3 (A, M, H) respectively. Then we need to nd

supplies to
I2 −−−−−−−→ I1 = p21 (to produce 1 unit of I1 ) → 0.251.
The vector demand is:
D = (2.4 31.5 29.6) .
T

We need to nd the vector output:

X = (I − P)−1 D = (41.99; 70.67; 64.38)T .
supplies to
We need to nd I2 −−−−−−−→ I1 (to produce 41.99 unit of I1 ), that
is 0.251 × 41.99.

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Example 5.7
Consider a simple economic system consisting of three industries:
electricity, water, and coal. Production, or output, of one unit of
electricity requires 0.5 unit of itself, 0.25 unit of water, and 0.25 unit
of coal. Production, or output, of one unit of water requires 0.1 unit
of electricity, 0.6 unit of itself, and 0 units of coal. Production, or
output, of one unit of coal requires 0.2 unit of electricity, 0.15 unit of
water, and 0.5 unit of itself. External demand vector is 20000$ for
electricity, 25000$ for water and 30000$ for coal. Determine output
value in $ for each industry to meet inside and outside demands.

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Leslei model

Consider a population of some species.

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Leslei model

Consider a population of some species.

Group the population into age classes of equal duration, if the
maximum life span of a member is· L years,
¶ · the age
¶ classes are
L L 2L
represented by the n intervals are 0, , , ....
n n n
The number of population members in each age class
 in year k is
x1
 x2 
presented by the age distribution vector X =  .. ,
(k)  
where xi is
.
xn
the number of individuals in i th age class.

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 Let pi (i = 1, 2, ..n − 1): the probability that a member of the i th
age class will survive to become a member of the (i + 1)th age
class
bi (i = 1, 2, .., n) the average number of ospring produced by a
member of the i th age class
These numbers can be written in matrix form ( which called age
transition

matrix ) 
b1 b2 b3 . . . bn−1 bn
p1 0 0 ... 0 0
A =  0 p2 0 ... 0 0
 

 .. .. .. .. .. 

. . . . .
0 0 0 . . . pn−1 0
The age distribution vector in year (k + 1)th :
X (k +1) = AX (k) .

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Example 5.8
A population of rabbits raised in a research laboratory has the
characteristics listed below.
(a) Half of the rabbits survive their rst year. Of those, half survive
their second year. The maximum life span is 3 years.
(b) During the rst year, the rabbits produce no ospring. The
average number of ospring is 6 during the second year and 8
during the third year.
The laboratory population now consists of 24 rabbits in the rst age
class, 24 in the second, and 20 in the third. How many rabbits whose
age from 1 to 2 after 3 years.

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Solution

24
 

The current age distribution vector is: X (0) = 24.

20
0 6 8
 

The age transition matrix is : A = 0.5 0 0.

0 0. 5 0
The age distribution vector after k years is : X (k) = Ak X (0) .

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Example 5.9
A population of species is divided into 3 age classes: "age < 1",
"1 ≤ age ≤ 2", "age > 2". Given that
The average numbers of ospring produced by each class are:
0, 6, 4, respectively;
The probabilities of survival for each class are: 70%, 50%, 60%.
1 Write the age distribution matrix.
100
 
2 Given that the current age vector is  50 , nd the sum of all
70
individuals after 3 years.

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Example 5.9
A population of species is divided into 3 age classes: "age < 1",
"1 ≤ age ≤ 2", "age > 2". Given that
The average numbers of ospring produced by each class are:
0, 6, 4, respectively;
The probabilities of survival for each class are: 70%, 50%, 60%.
1 Write the age distribution matrix.
100
 
2 Given that the current age vector is  50 , nd the sum of all
70
individuals after 3 years.
Solution.
0 6 4
 

The age distribution matrix: P = 0.7 0 0.


0.5 0.6 0
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 THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION

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